UNDERSTANDING THE SECOND-LEVEL DIGITAL DIVIDE IN NIGERIA: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ENGAGEMENT

76 International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation Vol. 12, Issue 24, 2025 ISSN (print): 2392 – 6252 eISSN (online): 2393 – 0373 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17286888 UNDERSTANDING THE SECOND-LEVEL DIGITAL DIVIDE IN NIGERIA: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ENGAGEMENT Adedeji Daniel GBADEBO Department of Accounting Science Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa [email protected] Abstract This study examines the second-level digital divide in Nigeria by exploring how socioeconomic, demographic, and personality factors influence patterns of social media engagement beyond mere access. Using regression analysis and descriptive statistics, the research uncovers complex relationships between age, gender, education, income, and personality traits with distinct types of social media use, including entertainment, social connection, informational, political, and utilitarian purposes. Notably, a “reverse divide” emerges where lower-income Nigerians engage more intensively in informational use than their higher-income counterparts, highlighting adaptive compensatory behaviors amid resource constraints. Findings reveal that digital inequality is a dynamic interplay of economic necessity, individual agency, and contextual factors, calling for nuanced digital inclusion policies that emphasize tailored literacy programs, gender-sensitive approaches, affordable access, and relevant content to foster inclusive economic empowerment in Nigeria. Keywords: Second-level digital divide, Social media engagement, Digital inclusion policy, Socioeconomic factors, Digital literacy JEL Codes: O33, D83, L86, J16, C21 1. Introduction The concept of the digital divide has evolved significantly from a simple dichotomy of internet access versus non-access to a more complex framework that highlights disparities in digital skills, engagement patterns, and outcomes. With increasing global connectivity, particularly International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 77 through mobile technologies and expanding ICT infrastructure, the scholarly focus has shifted from mere access to how people utilize digital tools once connected (van Deursen & Helsper, 2020; Robinson et al., 2020). This shift, often referred to as the “second-level digital divide,” emphasizes that access alone does not guarantee meaningful or equitable digital participation. Variations in frequency, purpose, and sophistication of online engagement are now central to understanding how digital inequalities are reproduced across social contexts (Scheerder, Van Deursen, & Van Dijk, 2021). In the Nigerian context, where internet penetration has grown rapidly in recent years questions of digital inequality have become increasingly salient. Nigeria’s digital landscape reflects deep structural disparities rooted in socioeconomic status, education, gender, and urban–rural divides. These disparities are often mirrored in the ways Nigerians engage with digital platforms, particularly social media. As access broadens, the challenge is no longer only about getting people online but ensuring that their digital engagement translates into informational empowerment, economic opportunity, and civic participation. Social media, in particular, has become a vital arena for communication, identity construction, and access to information in Nigeria. Unlike traditional media channels, which are often statedominated and one-directional, social media platforms are dynamic, participatory, and userdriven. They allow individuals to express opinions, form communities, and mobilize around issues ranging from politics to pop culture. Yet, social media engagement in Nigeria is far from uniform. Users vary widely in how and why they engage - some using it primarily for entertainment or personal communication, others for political activism, business, or information-seeking. These usage patterns often reflect users’ social positioning, motivations, and levels of digital literacy (Blank, Graham, & Calvino, 2021; Papacharissi, 2022). Understanding these differences is particularly important in a country like Nigeria, which combines democratic features with persistent institutional weaknesses, uneven media freedoms, and stark economic inequalities. In such settings, digital participation is not merely a function of individual preference or technological availability, but is shaped by broader sociopolitical and psychological dynamics. Contemporary research increasingly acknowledges the role of both structural variables (e.g., age, education, income) and individual psychological traits in explaining variations in online behavior. Traits like openness and extraversion are often linked to exploratory and expressive social media use, while conscientiousness and neuroticism may predict more cautious or regulated digital activity (Marino et al., 2021; Sindermann, Elhai, & Montag, 2022). These frameworks offer a richer understanding of digital inequality, highlighting that behavior is co-constructed by social context and personality. International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 78 However, most empirical evidence on digital usage divides is derived from Western liberal democracies with relatively open media ecosystems. Far less is known about how these divides manifest in hybrid regimes like Nigeria, where infrastructural limitations, political risk, and regional conflict may significantly influence digital engagement. Nigerian internet users often navigate a fraught digital terrain - marked by surveillance concerns, disinformation, content moderation challenges, and uneven digital literacy. These constraints can shape not just who engages with digital platforms, but how and why they do so. This study addresses these gaps by offering an empirical analysis of social media usage divides in Nigeria - a populous, digitally expanding, but socioeconomically stratified country. Drawing on survey data from a nationally diverse sample of 50 respondents, the study classifies and explains six major types of social media use: informational, entertainment, social connection, political, self-presentation, and utilitarian. By integrating both demographic indicators and personality traits into the analysis, the research offers a multidimensional account of what drives differentiated patterns of social media engagement in Nigeria. As expected, the findings reaffirm some global patterns: younger Nigerians tend to be more active and diversified in their social media use, while men and more educated individuals often engage more instrumentally or expressively. However, the study also reveals “reverse divides” - instances where older or lower-income users are more likely to engage with mainstream informational content, particularly in regions where traditional media are inaccessible or distrusted. These findings challenge linear narratives of digital disadvantage and suggest that under specific contextual pressures, marginalized users can exhibit adaptive and strategic digital behaviors. 2. Empirical Literature Demographic Inequalities in Social Media Usage Empirical studies have consistently shown that age, gender, education, and income significantly shape how individuals use social media. Age, in particular, is a robust predictor: younger users are more likely to engage in entertainment, self-expression, and networking, while older users tend toward informational and utilitarian uses (Friemel, 2016; Blank et al., 2021; Marler, 2022). For example, Blank et al. (2021), using UK survey data, found that individuals aged 18–29 were significantly more likely to post original content and engage in interactive communication compared to those over 60, who mainly consumed news passively. However, recent studies show that older populations are increasingly active in informational International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 79 consumption, particularly during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, revealing a “reverse divide” in specific usage domains (Marler, 2022). Gender-based differences have also been widely observed. Women are more likely to use social media for relational and expressive purposes - such as photo sharing, relationship maintenance, and group affiliation - while men often prefer platforms for instrumental tasks, informationseeking, and political engagement (Correa, 2016; Jackson et al., 2020; Yu, 2023). A large-scale cross-national survey by Han et al. (2021) revealed that men are more represented on platforms like Twitter and Reddit, whereas women dominate on Instagram and Pinterest. These differences persist even when controlling for education, income, and digital literacy, suggesting the role of gendered social norms and motivations. Socioeconomic status, particularly education and income, correlates with both access and depth of engagement. Individuals with higher education levels are more likely to diversify their social media activities, including using platforms for job searches, civic engagement, and learning (Hargittai & Shaw, 2021; Scheerder et al., 2021). In contrast, low-income and low-education users are often constrained to entertainment and passive consumption. Robinson et al. (2020), drawing on data from the Pew Research Center, argued that socioeconomic divides are now more visible in “outcome gaps” - differences in how social media use translates into tangible benefits. Still, some studies document “functional reversals”: lower-income users may rely more heavily on mobile-only platforms for news and religious or community content, particularly in under-resourced areas (Kim & Cho, 2021). Personality Traits and Individual-Level Variability The Big Five personality framework - comprising openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism - has become a dominant lens in explaining individual differences in social media use. Multiple studies show that openness to experience is positively associated with exploratory and information-seeking behaviors online. Marino et al. (2021), analyzing survey data from Italy, found that individuals high in openness were significantly more likely to engage in creative content production and political participation online. Similarly, extraversion predicts frequent use of social media for communication, networking, and group activities (Sindermann et al., 2022). Conversely, conscientiousness tends to be negatively related to time spent on social media but positively related to goal-oriented use, such as professional networking (Przybylski et al., 2020). Those high in conscientiousness demonstrate better regulation of digital habits and less susceptibility to distraction. Neuroticism is often linked with maladaptive patterns, such as International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 80 excessive checking, fear of missing out (FoMO), and reliance on social validation. Elhai et al. (2021), in a study of young adults in the U.S., showed that neuroticism predicted higher problematic use and anxiety related to online interactions. Meanwhile, agreeableness has mixed associations: some studies connect it with empathetic and supportive behaviors on social platforms, while others find no significant effect (Montag et al., 2020). Meta-analytic reviews confirm that personality traits not only predict the type of engagement but also platform preference. Kircaburun et al. (2021) found that openness and extraversion are stronger predictors of Instagram and TikTok use, while conscientiousness was a significant predictor of professional use on LinkedIn. These findings suggest that personality-based usage divides operate in tandem with demographic predictors, reinforcing patterns of digital inequality. Typologies of Social Media Usage Divides The emergence of usage typologies represents an important advancement in digital divide research. Scholars have moved beyond simple frequency metrics to classify users by the nature and intent of their engagement. Van Deursen and Helsper (2020) proposed a multidimensional typology consisting of communicative, informational, entertainment, and creative users, revealing distinct clusters with differing social and economic returns from their online activities. For example, those in the “informational-creative” cluster tend to have higher educational attainment and report greater digital benefits (e.g., civic participation, skill acquisition). Whiting and Williams (2013) offered a motivation-based classification drawing from Uses and Gratifications Theory, identifying informational, entertainment, social interaction, selfexpression, and escapism as core drivers. More recent studies have developed predictive models to map user typologies across platforms. For instance, a machine learning study by Van Deursen (2023) segmented users based on time use and behavioral data, showing that platformspecific affordances (e.g., TikTok’s algorithmic content vs. Twitter’s feed chronology) mediate how demographic and personality variables translate into user behavior. Interestingly, the typologies vary across cultural and political contexts. In authoritarian regimes or post-conflict societies, usage patterns are often influenced by censorship, surveillance, and fear of reprisal. Rydzak (2022) found that in authoritarian states, users tend to favor encrypted messaging and passive consumption, while in open democracies, expressive and participatory uses are more common. Similarly, Zeng (2024) documented how users in China tactically adapt their social media behavior to bypass censorship, using code words or satire to express dissent. International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 81 Cross-Cultural and Contextual Variability Empirical research confirms that social media usage divides are not uniform across contexts. Most digital divide studies originate from the Global North, yet emerging work from the Global South and authoritarian countries reveals distinct patterns. For example, in contexts like Nigeria, Libya, and Myanmar, digital literacy may coexist with infrastructural constraints and political repression (Wyche et al., 2013; Howard et al., 2020). These environments yield hybrid usage practices where social media serves both as a tool for survival (e.g., crisis information) and expression under constraint. Kim and Papacharissi (2020) explored how cultural norms moderate platform engagement, showing that collectivist societies emphasize group cohesion and privacy, shaping cautious digital expression. In Libya, where internet penetration is expanding post-conflict, demographic divides are evident but overlaid by concerns about surveillance and cultural norms on gendered behavior. Studies in such regions underscore the need to examine contextsensitive divides, which may not fit traditional Western assumptions about digital inclusion (Chen, 2020; Zeng, 2024). 3. Methodology This study adopts a quantitative cross-sectional survey design to investigate the relationship between demographic variables, personality traits, and patterns of social media usage among Nigerian adults. This design is appropriate for identifying statistical associations and classifying user types at a single point in time. The study is explanatory in nature, as it seeks to understand not just whether, but how, specific predictors influence distinct social media behaviors. The target population comprises adults (aged 18 and above) residing in Nigeria who use at least one social media platform. To ensure national representativeness across key demographic variables - age, gender, education, income, and geopolitical zones - a multistage stratified random sampling technique was employed. The first stage involved selecting six states, one from each geopolitical zone (Lagos, Enugu, Kano, Rivers, Benue, and Borno). Within each state, urban and rural local government areas (LGAs) were randomly selected to capture spatial diversity. The final sample consisted of 300 respondents, with efforts made to balance gender and age representation. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire composed of four sections: • Section A captured socio-demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, income level, and urban-rural residency. International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 82 • Section B assessed social media usage patterns across six domains: informational, entertainment, social connection, political, self-presentation, and utilitarian purposes. Items were adapted from validated scales in prior studies (e.g., Whiting & Williams, 2013; Van Deursen, 2023). • Section C measured the Big Five personality traits using the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI), a validated short-form measure suitable for large-scale surveys (Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003). • Section D included questions on digital access and perceived online skills to control for first-level digital divide effects. The questionnaire was pretested with 50 participants from a non-sampled state (Oyo) to ensure reliability and clarity. Cronbach's alpha values for the multi-item scales ranged from 0.71 to 0.84, indicating acceptable internal consistency. Data were collected through both online surveys and face-to-face interviews, depending on respondents' internet access. In urban and peri-urban areas, Google Forms and WhatsApp distribution were employed. In rural communities and regions with limited connectivity, trained research assistants administered printed versions of the questionnaire in English and major local languages (Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, and Pidgin). Data collection occurred over a six-week period between August and September 2024. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of respondents. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the study’s sample population (N = 300), offering a foundational understanding of the social structure underlying social media usage in Nigeria. The gender distribution is relatively balanced, with males comprising 54.000% and females 46.000% of the respondents, facilitating comparative gender-based analysis. Age-wise, younger adults dominate the sample: 36.000% are aged 18–29, followed by 31.333% aged 30– 44, while respondents aged 45–59 and 60+ account for 21.000% and 11.667%, respectively. This age composition aligns with global trends in digital engagement and supports an examination of age-related usage divides. Educational attainment is notably high among participants, with 51.333% having tertiary education and 11.333% holding postgraduate degrees. Secondary education holders make up 32.333%, while 5.000% of the sample reported no formal education. These figures indicate a relatively literate sample conducive to investigating the influence of education on digital behavior. In terms of income, the majority of respondents fall into lower-income brackets: 33.667% earn less than ₦50,000 per month, and 28.667% earn between ₦50,000 and ₦100,000. Middleand upper-income earners - those earning ₦101,000–₦200,000 (23.000%) and above ₦200,000 International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 83 (14.667%) - are also represented, allowing for analysis of economic stratification in digital engagement. Regionally, the sample spans Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones, with the South West being the most represented (30.000%), followed by South South (18.333%) and South East (15.333%). Northern zones - North Central (13.667%), North West (12.667%), and North East (10.000%) - collectively represent 36.334% of the sample. This geographic spread ensures contextual inclusivity and supports a nuanced understanding of how regional disparities in infrastructure and sociopolitical climate shape social media use. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Demographic Variable Category Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Gender Male 162 54.000 Female 138 46.000 Age Group 18–29 108 36.000 30–44 94 31.333 45–59 63 21.000 60+ 35 11.667 Education Level No formal education 15 5.000 Secondary education 97 32.333 Tertiary education 154 51.333 Postgraduate 34 11.333 Monthly Income Less than ₦50,000 101 33.667 ₦50,000 – ₦100,000 86 28.667 ₦101,000 – ₦200,000 69 23.000 Above ₦200,000 44 14.667 Region North Central 41 13.667 North East 30 10.000 North West 38 12.667 South East 46 15.333 South South 55 18.333 South West 90 30.000 Data were analyzed using SPSS (v.27) and Stata (v.17). Descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and standard deviations) were used to summarize demographic characteristics and general usage patterns. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to validate the six usage domains. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine how demographic and personality variables predict different types of social media use. To identify clusters of users based on their usage patterns, a K-means cluster analysis was conducted, generating typologies such as "informational users", "entertainment-oriented International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 12/ Issue 24/ 2025 84 users", and "multi-purpose users". Cross-tabulations and chi-square tests were also employed to examine significant differences across demographic categories. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Informed consent was secured from all participants, and respondents were assured of anonymity, data confidentiality, and the voluntary nature of their participation. No personally identifiable information was collected. Field assistants received training in ethical research practices, including how to administer surveys respectfully in diverse communities. 4. Results and Implications 4.1. Results The regression analysis and descriptive statistics reveal nuanced insights into the multidimensional digital divide beyond mere access, emphasizing how socioeconomic, demographic, and personality factors shape social media engagement types in Nigeria. Age negatively correlates with most forms of social media use except utilitarian purposes, where older users engage more (β = 0.110, not significant). Younger Nigerians (18–29) are more engaged in entertainment (72.5%) and social connection (65.1%), consistent with global trends of younger cohorts’ greater affinity for diverse online interactions (van Deursen & Helsper, 2020). However, the older cohorts show increased informational and utilitarian usage—e.g., 60+ age group has the highest informational (57.9%) and utilitarian use (62.7%). This “reverse divide” challenges the linear assumption that digital skill and usage sophistication decline uniformly with age. This suggests that older Nigerians may leverage social media primarily for practical information and service access, perhaps compensating for the lack of traditional media reliability or accessibility, particularly in rural or underserved regions (Scheerder et al., 2021). From a human capital perspective (Becker, 1993), older users might invest digital engagement toward consumption of informational content essential for economic decision-making, health, or governance participation, thus exhibiting adaptive behavior to maximize economic utility in constrained contexts. Male users engage more in political (β = 0.330***) and self-presentation activities (β = 0.210**), while females show less political and social connection engagement (negative β for social connection). 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