Curriculum Design and Peer-Assisted Learning on Literacy Achievement in Kindergarten Classrooms: A Path Analysis Approach

ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 Curriculum Design and Peer-Assisted Learning on Literacy Achievement in Kindergarten Classrooms: A Path Analysis Approach Marivic T. Caliao Abstract. This study aimed to examine the mediating effect of peer-assisted learning on the relationship between curriculum design and literacy achievement of kindergarten pupils in Piedad District, Davao City, using path analysis. A non-experimental quantitative design employing descriptive-correlation technique was utilized, with 127 kindergarten teachers selected through simple random sampling. Modified and pilot-tested survey questionnaires served as the primary data collection instrument. Findings revealed that curriculum design implementation was moderately extensive, with play-based learning most frequently applied and alignment with child development needs as the least evident. Literacy achievement was also rated as moderately extensive, with strengths in reading comprehension but weaker outcomes in writing and fine motor development. Peer-assisted learning was moderately extensive, with active group participation evident, but collaborative problem-solving less practiced. Correlation analysis confirmed strong and significant relationships between curriculum design and both literacy achievement and peer-assisted learning, while the relationship between peer-assisted learning and literacy achievement was weak but significant. Mediation analysis revealed a suppressor effect, where peer-assisted learning reduced the direct influence of curriculum design on literacy, though the overall effect remained positive. Model fit indices indicated excellent alignment with the data, validating the theoretical robustness of the proposed model. KEY WORDS 1. Curriculum design 2. literacy achievement 3. peer-assisted learning 4. path analysis Date Received: August 15, 2025 — Date Reviewed: September 20, 2025 — Date Published: October 10, 2025 1. Introduction Literacy achievement among kindergarten pupils, faces several challenges that impede the development of foundational reading and writing skills crucial for subsequent educational success. One prevalent issue is the lack of a standardized and cohesive curriculum that effectively addresses the diverse needs of young learners. This inconsistency in curriculum design often results in gaps in literacy instruction, where essential phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension skills are either inadequately covered or misaligned with developmental stages. Furthermore, many classrooms may not have access to sufficient resources or trained personnel to implement robust literacy programs, exacerbating disparities in student achievement. NIJSE (2025) - As literacy forms the cornerstone of all future learning, these shortcomings in the early education system can have long-lasting effects on students’ academic trajectories and overall confidence in learning. Low literacy achievement among pupils remains a pressing concern in the United States, as evidenced by the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which reports that around 34In several Arabian countries, low literacy achievement is also a notable challenge, with reports from UNESCO highlighting that a significant portion of elementary students struggles to meet minimum reading proficiency levels. Socioeconomic disparities contribute substantially to this issue by limiting access to early childhood education and essential reading resources (Al Jefri Areepattamannil, 2019). Also, Ihmeideh and Al-Maadadi (2020) asserted that limited teacher training and professional development opportunities can impede the effective implementation of literacy programs. As a result, many schools grapple with insufficient guidance on teaching strategies and classroom interventions that directly address literacy deficiencies. These challenges call for comprehensive policies that bolster teacher training and expand access to instructional materials, thereby improving literacy outcomes for young learners. Across Asia, literacy levels vary considerably, but many developing regions within the continent struggle with low reading achievement among primary school students. According to a regional study conducted by the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, a sizeable percentage of pupils fail to reach expected benchmarks in reading comprehension (Cheung et al., 2021). Rapid population growth and uneven resource distribution further complicate efforts to provide equitable access to quality education. In addition, cultural and linguistic diversity within classrooms can present challenges in implementing a standardized literacy curriculum. Nevertheless, educators and policymakers in Asia increasingly recognize the importance of robust reading initiatives, teacher training, and culturally responsive pedagogies to raise literacy rates (Mann et al., 2021). In the Philippines, concerns regarding low literacy achievement have been underscored by the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which ranks the country near the bottom in reading proficiency (Bernardo, 2023). A follow-up study by Alinsunurin (2021) attributes these poor results partly to a lack of reading materials and inadequate teacher preparation in both urban and rural areas. Moreover, socioeconomic challenges within many Filipino communities limit children’s access to preschool programs, hindering early literacy skill development. Despite government efforts, such as the K to 12 reform, significant gaps remain in bridging educational disparities that impact pupils’ reading abilities. Continuous improvement in teacher training, resource allocation, and early intervention strategies is deemed crucial to reversing this trend. Meanwhile, the Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines places a significant emphasis on curriculum design through various orders, with DepEd Order No. 42, s. 2016, standing out prominently. This order establishes the policy guidelines for the Daily Lesson Preparation of Teachers and highlights the importance of a well-structured curriculum design in fostering effective teaching and learning processes. It supports the development and utilization of the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum by mandating comprehensive lesson plans that align with the curriculum’s standards and competencies. This structured approach ensures that the educational strategies employed across different levels are consistent and that they effectively address the learning needs of students. The order not only emphasizes the critical role of curriculum design in achieving educational objectives but also aims to enhance pedagogical approaches that support teachers in delivering quality education more efficiently. Given this backdrop, the urgency 2ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - to conduct a focused study in Piedad District, Davao City, becomes evident. This region, like many others, faces unique challenges that stem from a varied demographic profile, including issues related to language diversity, access to educational resources, and disparities in teacher training and pedagogical consistency. A study exploring the specific impacts of curriculum design and peer-assisted learning on literacy achievement in this locale could provide critical insights and actionable data to tailor educational strategies effectively. The use of a path analysis approach in this study is particularly pertinent as it allows for a detailed understanding of the direct and indirect influences of various educational strategies on literacy outcomes. Such localized research is not only crucial for filling the highlighted research gaps but also for crafting policies and educational practices that are grounded in empirical evidence, ensuring that interventions are both effective and contextually appropriate for enhancing literacy development among kindergarten pupils in Piedad District. 1.1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework of the Study —This study is anchored on the Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1978); Bruner’s Constructivist Theory (1966); and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977). Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory posits that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. According to Vygotsky, learning is inherently a social process, whereby children develop skills and knowledge through collaborative dialogue and interaction with more knowledgeable others. This theory is particularly appropriate for a study examining the impact of peer-assisted learning (PAL) on literacy achievement in kindergarten classrooms. Vygotsky emphasizes the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance from peers or adults. In the context of PAL, this framework suggests that peers can act as the more knowledgeable others, facilitating learning within the ZPD. This can provide a robust theoretical foundation for investigating how interactions among peers during curriculum activities influence literacy outcomes. Leveraging this theory could highlight the mechanisms through which PAL enhances literacy skills, affirming the social nature of learning as central to educational practice. Also, Bruner’s Constructivist Theory emphasizes that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current and past knowledge. The theory suggests that learning is facilitated by a ”spiral curriculum” in which information is structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first and then revisited at more complex levels later on. Bruner’s approach is suitable for analyzing how curriculum design influences literacy achievement through scaffolded learning experiences. The spiral nature of the curriculum aligns with kindergarten settings where foundational literacy skills are progressively built upon with increasing complexity. By utilizing a constructivist lens, this study can explore how kindergarten teachers design their literacy curriculum to progressively deepen children’s understanding and abilities in reading and writing. Furthermore, the constructivist perspective supports the integration of peer-assisted learning as a means of enabling learners to construct knowledge collaboratively. The theoretical framework can therefore elucidate how structured peer interactions contribute to the effective acquisition and reinforcement of literacy skills in young learners. In support, Bandura’s Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory highlights the importance of observational learning, imitation, and reinforcement in the learning process, suggesting that much of learning is social and contextual. Social Learning Theory is applicable to studies on peer-assisted learning as it underscores the role of observation and im3ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - itation in acquiring new knowledge and skills. In the context of kindergarten literacy, children may observe and emulate the literacy behaviors of their peers, thereby enhancing their own skills through modeled behavior. The theory supports the use of PAL by suggesting that children not only learn from direct instruction but also from the behavior and feedback of their peers within a structured curriculum. Moreover, this framework could provide insights into how peer dynamics and interactions foster an environment where children actively engage in literacy activities, potentially leading to improved literacy outcomes. Using this theory could help explain the processes through which peer influences affect individual literacy development, making it a solid theoretical foundation for the study. Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework of the study which helped the researcher summarize and briefly state the concept of the study. The independent variable is the curriculum design or the views and attitudes on the structure, content, and delivery of educational programs aimed at young learners. The measures of curriculum design are alignment with child development needs which refers to designing curricula that are tailored to the various stages of children’s cognitive, emotional, and social development; flexibility for differentiated instruction which refers to creating curricula that can be adapted to meet the diverse learning styles, abilities, and interests of individual students; integration of play-based learning which refers to incorporating playful activities and experiences into the curriculum to enhance learning through exploration and experimentation; and emphasis on holistic development which refers to focusing on the comprehensive growth of children, including their intellectual, emotional, physical, and social aspects. 2. Methodology This section contained the research design, research respondents, research ethics, research instrument, research procedure, data collection, and data analysis. 2.1. Research Design—In this study, the researcher employed a quantitative research approach, specifically the descriptive-correlational technique through path analysis, to collect data, ideas, facts, and information relevant to the study. According to Lazaraton (2005), a quantitative research design was characterized by the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, or differences among variables. This approach typically involved the use of structured instruments, such as surveys or tests, to ensure objectivity and replicability of findings, facilitating the generalization of results to larger populations. A quantitative research design was highly appropriate for conducting this study since it allowed for the precise measurement of variables such as literacy achievement levels, the extent of peerassisted learning activities, and the specifics of curriculum design, facilitating the use of statistical methods to quantify relationships and effects among these variables. Employing a quantitative approach enabled researchers to generalize findings across a broader population of kindergarten classrooms, providing robust, data-driven insights that could inform educational policies and practices effectively. As noted by Loeb et al. (2017), the descriptive method of research involved systematically collecting, analyzing, and presenting data to provide a clear picture of the current state of a phenomenon without manipulating the environment in which it occurred. This method aimed to accurately and systematically describe the characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories within educational data to inform policy, practice, and further 4ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - Fig. 1. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 5ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - research. The descriptive method of research was highly useful as it allowed for a detailed observation and description of the current state of educational practices and outcomes. This method helped in systematically documenting various aspects of the curriculum design and peer-assisted learning processes, providing a clear picture of how these factors were implemented in real-world classroom settings. By collecting data on the characteristics, behaviors, and outcomes associated with different teaching strategies, researchers established a solid foundation of factual information, which was then analyzed through path analysis to understand the relationships and causal mechanisms influencing literacy achievement. As defined by Seeram (2019), a correlational approach was a research methodology used to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship existed between two or more quantifiable variables. This type of research did not involve manipulation of variables but instead involved the observation and measurement of variables as they naturally occurred, aiming to identify patterns of association that could inform hypotheses about causal relationships. This method allowed researchers to examine and quantify the strength and direction of relationships between variables such as curriculum design, peerassisted learning, and literacy outcomes without manipulating the study environment. By identifying these correlations, the approach provided valuable insights into how these variables interacted, potentially influencing educational practices and policy decisions without asserting causal inferences, which were critical for understanding complex educational phenomena in natural settings. Moreover, Thakkar (2020) described path analysis as a specialized subset of structural equation modeling (SEM) that was used to describe the directed dependencies among a set of variables. It allowed researchers to assess the strength and direction of relationships between variables in a model, using standardized regression coefficients to quantify these influences and thereby help in understanding the structural relationships within the data. Path analysis was highly appropriate for this study due to its ability to model complex relationships between multiple variables simultaneously. This method enabled researchers to delineate the direct and indirect influences of curriculum design and peer-assisted learning on literacy achievement, providing a clear picture of how these factors interacted within the educational setting. Moreover, path analysis helped in identifying potential mediating variables that might affect the relationship between teaching strategies and student outcomes, offering valuable insights for developing more effective literacy programs in kindergarten classrooms. 2.2. Ethical Consideration—The researcher promptly observed the necessary protocols as outlined in the standard guidelines for carrying out the research study, particularly focusing on the study protocol assessment criteria for managing the population and data. The survey questionnaires, along with supporting references, were submitted for further evaluation. After receiving approval from the Ethics Committee, the researcher proceeded to the next phase of the study. Social Value This study was designed to produce valuable insights that could enhance educational practices and outcomes in early childhood education. By investigating how different curriculum designs and peer-assisted learning techniques impacted literacy development, the research aimed to contribute to the broader academic community and directly inform educational policies and teacher practices. This addressed the social value of the research, ensuring that the findings had practical implications for improving teaching strategies and literacy instruction, thus benefiting students, teachers, and the educational system at large. Informed Consent Before initiating the study, the researcher obtained informed consent from all 6ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - teacher-respondents to ensure they understood the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the research. Consent forms clearly outlined the study’s objectives, the expected duration of involvement, and the types of data to be collected. Respondents were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences. This process was conducted in a manner that respected the autonomy of the respondents and acknowledged their voluntary participation in the study. Additionally, to uphold the integrity of the informed consent process, the researcher provided additional explanations verbally to ensure that all information was understood clearly by the respondents. This step was crucial in ensuring that consent was truly informed and not merely a formality. The researcher was also available to answer any questions or concerns the respondents had about their participation, thereby reinforcing the transparency and ethical nature of the research process. 2.3. Research Respondents—The respondents of the study were 127 kindergarten teachers from Piedad District, Davao City. To obtain a sample of 127 kindergarten teachers from a total population of 189, the Finite Population Correction (FPC) formula was applied. The Finite Population Correction (FPC) formula tailored the sample size for studies involving smaller, finite populations, enhancing representativeness and minimizing error margins. This approach effectively reduced the necessary sample size compared to what was needed for larger populations, optimizing practicality for studies with limited groups. It guaranteed precision in the research while conserving both time and resources. Given the modest population size of 189, this method was particularly suitable, providing precise and trustworthy outcomes without the risk of oversampling. In this study, 127 respondents were selected through a simple random sampling technique. Simple random sampling was a probability sampling method where each member of a population had an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This technique ensured that every subset of the population had an equal probability of being chosen, eliminating selection bias. In the current study, the simple random sampling technique was highly useful because it ensured that every teacher had an equal chance of being selected, which helped in achieving a representative sample of the population. This method minimized selection bias and enhanced the generalizability of the findings, allowing for more accurate and reliable conclusions about the effects of curriculum design and peer-assisted learning across different classroom settings. Further, certain inclusion criteria were implemented in determining the respondents of this study. In selecting respondents, the researcher established specific inclusion criteria to ensure that participants were well-suited to provide relevant and informative data. Firstly, respondents needed to be currently employed as kindergarten teachers within the Piedad District, actively engaging in curriculum design and implementation. Additionally, the teachers selected had to have at least one year of experience in teaching kindergarten to ensure they possessed sufficient practical insight and familiarity with the developmental stages of their students. This experience criterion was vital for assessing the nuanced impact of peerassisted learning strategies and curriculum design on literacy outcomes. Furthermore, the inclusion criteria also required that the teachers must have directly participated in or observed peer-assisted learning activities in their classrooms. This requirement was crucial for gathering firsthand observations and reflections on the efficacy and challenges of these strategies within their specific educational contexts. These carefully considered criteria helped in recruiting a representative sample of knowledgeable individuals whose experiences and perspectives genuinely illuminated the dynamics explored in the study. 7ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - 2.4. Research Instrument—The study made use of enhanced survey questionnaires to suit the current investigation. The questionnaire was composed of three parts. The first part focused on the curriculum design. This section of the questionnaire was distributed among four indicators: alignment with child development needs, flexibility for differentiated instruction, integration of play-based learning, and emphasis on holistic development. The Cronbach alpha value for this instrument is 0.790, described as acceptable and interpreted as reliable. The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale, and the determination was based on the following ranges of means: Mean Range, Description, and Interpretation of Curriculum Design Application in Teaching Practices Range of Mean Description Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive Curriculum design principles are consistently applied in teaching practices. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive Curriculum design is frequently applied in teaching practices. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive Curriculum design is occasionally applied in teaching practices. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive Curriculum design is rarely applied in teaching practices. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive Curriculum design is almost never applied in teaching practices. The second part of the instrument focused on the literacy achievement of the kindergarten pupils. This questionnaire was designed to evaluate the domains, namely letter recognition and phonics awareness, vocabulary development and word usage, reading comprehension and story retelling, and writing and fine motor skills development. The Cronbach alpha value for this instrument is 0.938, described as excellent and interpreted as highly reliable. The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale and was evaluated based on predefined mean ranges. Mean Range, Description, and Interpretation of Literacy Achievement of Pupils Range of Mean Description Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive Literacy achievement of pupils is consistently observed. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive Literacy achievement of pupils is frequently observed. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive Literacy achievement of pupils is occasionally observed. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive Literacy achievement of pupils is rarely observed. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive Literacy achievement of pupils is almost never observed. 8ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - The third section concentrated on peerassisted learning. The Cronbach alpha value for this instrument is 0.767, described as acceptable and interpreted as highly reliable. The questionnaire employed a 5-point Likert scale to measure responses, with the interpretation of results defined by the specified mean ranges. This approach ensured precise and structured feedback from respondents. Mean Range, Description, and Interpretation of Peer-Assisted Learning Range of Mean Description Interpretation 4.20 – 5.00 Very Extensive Peer-assisted learning is always evident. 3.40 – 4.19 Extensive Peer-assisted learning is oftentimes evident. 2.60 – 3.39 Moderately Extensive Peer-assisted learning is occasionally evident. 1.80 – 2.59 Less Extensive Peer-assisted learning is rarely evident. 1.00 – 1.79 Not Extensive Peer-assisted learning is never evident. 2.5. Data Gathering Procedure—The data gathering procedure served as a crucial phase in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the research findings. It involved a systematic approach to collecting relevant information aligned with the study’s objectives. Permission to Conduct the Study The data gathering procedure commenced with securing ethical clearance from the Graduate School RMC-Research Ethics Committee (GSRMC-REC), which ensured that the study complied with ethical standards in conducting research involving human participants. Upon approval, the researcher proceeded to request an official endorsement from the Dean of the Graduate School at The Rizal Memorial Colleges, Inc., Davao City. This endorsement served as a formal academic backing, validating the study’s purpose, methodology, and alignment with institutional research standards. Subsequently, the researcher sought permission from the Schools Division Superintendent of Davao City to conduct the study among the public secondary schools in Piedad District. As part of this request, both the ethical clearance from the GSRMC-REC and the endorsement letter from the Dean of the Graduate School were attached to establish the study’s legitimacy and adherence to research protocols. Through this systematic approach, the researcher demonstrated respect for institutional hierarchy and ensured compliance with administrative and ethical requirements prior to data collection. Distribution and Retrieval of the Questionnaire The first step in the distribution and retrieval of the questionnaire involved identifying the target respondents, who were kindergarten teachers from public schools in Piedad District, Davao City. Prior to the actual distribution, a pilot test was conducted among a small group of teachers, not exceeding thirty participants, to assess the reliability and clarity of the research instrument. This preliminary testing ensured that the questionnaire was understandable, contextually appropriate, and capable of generating valid and consistent responses aligned with the research objectives. Following the refinement of the questionnaire based on the pilot test results, the researcher proceeded with the formal distribution of the survey instrument. During this stage, all selected respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, assured of confidentiality, and briefed on their rights as participants. They were also told that they would be given ample time to complete the questionnaire, allowing them to reflect carefully on each item and provide thoughtful, accurate responses 9ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - and peer collaboration, the simultaneous operation of peer interactions may dilute the instructional focus, especially if peer-assisted strategies are not systematically guided. As YeomansMaldonado et al. (2019) explain, suppressor effects in educational mediation models often emerge when well-intended social processes unintentionally complicate targeted learning outcomes, particularly in early childhood settings where autonomy and focus are still developing. These findings offer partial support to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1978), which underscores the value of social interaction in learning. While peer-assisted learning is positively linked to curriculum design, its suppressive effect on literacy suggests that unstructured peer interaction may not always facilitate cognitive gains without scaffolding. The results also align with Bruner’s Constructivist Theory (1966) in that curriculum design fosters active learning environments, though the necessity of guided discovery becomes evident when peer engagement becomes a mediating factor. Similarly, while Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977) supports observational and collaborative learning, these findings caution that observational learning in peer contexts must be intentionally supported to yield academic benefits. Overall, the study affirms the significance of social learning theories while emphasizing the importance of structure and teacher facilitation in early childhood education. The model fit indices indicate an excellent fit for the proposed mediation model examining the relationships among curriculum design, peer-assisted learning, and literacy achievement. The Chi-Square (² = 0.000) and ² = 0.000 reveal no discrepancy between the observed and expected covariance matrices, confirming that the data perfectly align with the hypothesized model. The negative values of AIC (-23.483) and BIC (-3.574) reflect strong model parsimony, highlighting that the model is both efficient and well-structured without overfitting (Burnham Anderson, 2004). Furthermore, the RMSEA of 0.000 signifies no approximation error in the population, indicating a highly accurate model estimation. The CFI and TLI values of 1.000 each far exceed the 0.95 threshold, confirming exceptional incremental and comparative model fit (Hu Bentler, 1999). These indices collectively affirm that the proposed structural model is theoretically sound, statistically robust, and well-supported by the empirical data. Table 7. Model Fit Indices Index/Metric Value Chi-Square 0.000 ∆χ20.000 AIC -23.483 BIC -3.574 RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) 0.000 CFI (Comparative Fit Index) 1.000 TLI (Tucker-Lewis Index) 1.000 4. Conclusions and Recommendations This part of the paper presents the conclusion and recommendation of the researcher. The discussion is supported by the literature presented in the first chapters and the conclusion is in accordance with statements of the problem presented in this study. 16 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - 4.1. Findings—The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the mediating effect of peer-assisted learning on the relationship between curriculum design and literacy achievement of kindergarten pupils within Piedad District in Davao City through path analysis utilizing non-experimental quantitative design using descriptive-correlation technique. The researcher selected the 127 kindergarten teachers from Piedad District, Davao City within the district as the respondents through simple random sampling method. The researcher made use of modified and enhanced adapted survey questionnaires which was pilot tested in a nearby school to ensure high reliability and internal consistency of the items in the instrument. The result of the study are summarize as follows: The extent of curriculum design implementation in Piedad District, Davao City, is generally rated as moderately extensive, suggesting that early learning strategies are occasionally evident across classrooms. Among the indicators, the integration of play-based learning is the most frequently practiced, indicating that teachers regularly use games, role-play, and exploratory activities to reinforce concepts. However, awareness of alignment with child development needs remains the least evident, highlighting the need for improved responsiveness to learners’ developmental stages and individual differences. The literacy achievement of kindergarten pupils in the district is also assessed as moderately extensive, reflecting that children sometimes demonstrate foundational literacy skills across various domains. The most evident area is reading comprehension and story retelling, suggesting pupils are able to understand, recall, and discuss texts with growing competence. Conversely, writing and fine motor skills development scored the lowest, indicating that activities promoting independent writing and motor coordination need more emphasis to fully support early literacy. Peer-assisted learning is likewise found to be moderately extensive, with students occasionally engaging in collaborative and supportive behaviors during classroom activities. The most evident behavior is active participation in group discussions and projects, while the least evident is collaborative problem-solving, suggesting that while pupils are socially engaged, structured peer learning strategies may not be fully maximized. These results indicate potential for enhancing peer-led tasks to strengthen cooperative and communication skills among young learners. The findings of the correlation analysis reveal a strong and significant positive relationship between curriculum design and both literacy achievement and peer-assisted learning, resulting in the rejection of the null hypothesis. Meanwhile, a weak but significant positive relationship exists between peer-assisted learning and literacy achievement, implying that peer collaboration contributes modestly to literacy gains. These relationships affirm that well-structured curriculum design not only strengthens academic outcomes but also enhances students’ interpersonal learning dynamics. The mediation analysis shows that curriculum design significantly predicts literacy achievement both directly and indirectly through peer-assisted learning, indicating a suppression effect where peer interactions reduce the direct impact. Nevertheless, the total effect remains significantly positive, confirming that curriculum design still exerts a favorable influence on literacy outcomes. Model fit indices support the robustness of this relationship, with perfect fit values on Chi-Square, RMSEA, and both CFI and TLI, affirming that the mediation model accurately reflects the data and interrelationships among curriculum design, peer learning, and literacy development. 4.2. Conclusions—Based on the findings of this study several conclusions were generated: The findings conclude that curriculum design in Piedad District is moderately extensive, reflecting that while early education strategies are occasionally utilized, they are not yet 17 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - consistently embedded in classroom practice. Among the domains, the integration of playbased learning is the most practiced, suggesting that teachers recognize the value of active, student-centered methods in early childhood. However, lower ratings in aligning lessons with child development needs imply that curriculum planners and educators should enhance developmental responsiveness through targeted training and structured frameworks. The literacy achievement of kindergarten pupils is also rated as moderately extensive, with the strongest performance in reading comprehension and story retelling. This suggests that storytelling and verbal engagement are effective tools in developing comprehension, though writing and fine motor skill development remains the least evident. Schools are therefore encouraged to reinforce writing readiness and motor coordination activities by integrating more practice-based and hands-on literacy tasks. Peer-assisted learning is likewise moderately extensive, with students sometimes engaging in collaborative problemsolving and support. Group discussions and sharing behaviors are frequently observed, but leadership and peer tutoring remain underdeveloped, implying the need to create structured opportunities for children to lead and guide one another. To optimize peer learning, early education programs should promote cooperative tasks that foster empathy, leadership, and teamwork at a developmentally appropriate level. Correlation results confirm significant positive relationships between curriculum design and both literacy achievement and peer-assisted learning, reinforcing the importance of well-structured instructional frameworks in enhancing both academic and social learning outcomes. Meanwhile, peer-assisted learning shows only a weak but significant relationship with literacy achievement, suggesting that while collaboration contributes, it is not the primary driver of literacy success. These findings imply that curriculum strength is foundational, while peer dynamics offer complementary benefits in shaping holistic development. The mediation model affirms that curriculum design has a strong direct effect on literacy achievement and a significant but negative indirect effect through peer-assisted learning, indicating a suppressor effect. Despite this, the total effect remains favorable, affirming that structured curriculum planning remains the core contributor to literacy success. Model fit indices confirm that the relationships among the variables are statistically sound, and the findings are aligned with Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1978), Bruner’s Constructivist Theory (1966), and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977), all of which emphasize the importance of scaffolding, active learning, and social interaction in child development—though the suppressive mediation suggests that peer-assisted learning must be strategically guided to be fully beneficial. 4.3. Recommendations—In light of the study’s findings, the following recommendations are offered to inform policy, school leadership, teaching practice, and future research: To address the lowest mean indicator in curriculum design—awareness of alignment with child development needs—DepEd officials are encouraged to enhance in-service training focused on developmental psychology and ageappropriate instructional planning. Emphasis should be placed on ensuring that teachers understand how to tailor content based on physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional stages of early learners. Structured curriculum guides and regular developmental monitoring tools may help strengthen alignment between teaching strategies and learner readiness. With writing and fine motor skills development emerging as the least evident in literacy achievement, teachers should integrate more guided writing, tracing, and manipulative-based activities into daily routines. Emphasis must be placed on name-writing, letter formation, and hand-eye coordination through creative and structured 18 ISSN 3028-1261 10.5281/zenodo.17340055/NIJSE.2025 NIJSE (2025) - exercises. By reinforcing foundational motor and pre-writing skills, teachers can ensure a smoother transition from early literacy to more advanced reading and writing stages. Since peer-assisted learning indicators related to student leadership and mutual academic support are among the lowest rated, school heads are advised to promote structured collaborative learning frameworks within classrooms. These may include peer tutoring, turn-taking roles during group work, and age-appropriate leadership opportunities to cultivate responsibility and mutual assistance. Encouraging teachers to model and scaffold peer collaboration can gradually build a classroom culture that values teamwork and empathy. Given the weak yet significant relationship between peer-assisted learning and literacy achievement, future researchers should explore contextual factors—such as classroom management, learner diversity, and instructional modeling—that may moderate this relationship. Investigating how teacher facilitation impacts peer learning effectiveness could provide insights for improving the quality of student interactions. Mixed-method studies can also offer deeper perspectives on the qualitative dimensions of peer engagement and its influence on early literacy. The suppressor effect found in the mediation model, where peer-assisted learning negatively mediates the relationship between curriculum design and literacy achievement, suggests that DepEd officials must ensure that peer learning is implemented with intentional structure and developmental appropriateness. While promoting collaboration remains valuable, guidance and supervision must be embedded to avoid misalignment between peer tasks and learning objectives. Curriculum policies should provide clear strategies for integrating peer-based activities that support, rather than inadvertently hinder, literacy development. 5. References Akin, S. (2019). Fine motor skills, writing skills and physical education based assistive intervention program in children at grade 1. Asian Journal of Education and Training,5(4), 518–525. Al Jefri, H. 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