SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF PLASTIC-DEGRADING CAPABILITIES OF ASPERGILLUS SPP. AND PENICILLIUM SPP. ON POLYETHYLENE WASTE

Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [271] SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF PLASTIC-DEGRADING CAPABILITIES OF ASPERGILLUS SPP. AND PENICILLIUM SPP. ON POLYETHYLENE WASTE Jennica Joy A. Lopena 1 Ivar T. Dajac 1 Mikaela Loraine N. Jermice 1 Lester Jeff M. Gencianeo1 John Vincent S. Cagatin1 Gecelene C. Estorico1,2 Civil and Allied Department; Environmental Science and Chemical Technology Department 1Technological University of the Philippines - Taguig Metro Manila 1630, Philippines 2De La Salle University - Damariñas, DBB-B, 4115 West Ave, Damariñas ABSTRACT Polyethylene (PE) waste poses a critical environmental concern due to its chemical stability, hydrophobicity, and resistance to microbial attack. As global plastic accumulation intensifies, fungal biodegradation has emerged as a promising and eco-sustainable alternative for mitigating PE pollution. This systematic review examines the degradation potential of Aspergillus and Penicillium species, focusing on their enzymatic mechanisms, degradation efficiencies, and experimental factors influencing biodegradation outcomes. Following the PRISMA framework, peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2025 were retrieved from major scientific databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, and SpringerLink. Out of 70 screened papers, 20 met the inclusion criteria. The analyzed data showed measurable degradation ranging from 1.3% to 55% weight loss. The most active Aspergillus isolates were A. niger, A. flavus, and A. clavatus, while P. citrinum, P. simplicissimum, and P. oxalicum were the most effective Penicillium degraders. Average degradation efficiency was approximately 25% for Aspergillus, 35% for Penicillium, and up to 52% for mixed fungal consortia. Pretreatments such as ultraviolet irradiation and acid oxidation enhanced fungal adhesion and enzymatic reactivity. Analytical techniques including FT-IR, SEM, and TGA confirmed oxidative modification, surface erosion, and polymer destabilization. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the complementary and synergistic enzymatic roles of Aspergillus and Penicillium, underscoring their potential for sustainable polyethylene biodegradation and environmentally responsible waste management. Keywords: Biodegradation, Fungi,Incubation period,Plastic deformation, Weight loss INTRODUCTION Plastic pollution remains one of the most pressing environmental challenges of the 21st century, with polyethylene (PE)—particularly low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE)—constituting a major fraction of global plastic waste due to its durability, flexibility, and resistance to biodegradation. These synthetic polymers are widely used in packaging, consumer goods, and industrial applications but persist for decades in soil and aquatic ecosystems, leading to the accumulation of microplastics and long-term ecological imbalance (Khan et al., 2023; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). The recalcitrant nature of polyethylene stems from its hydrophobicity, high molecular weight, and the absence of functional groups susceptible to enzymatic attack (Sutkar et al., 2025; Muhonja et al., 2018). Consequently, conventional degradation methods such as incineration and chemical oxidation often result in secondary pollution, highlighting the need for biologically sustainable alternatives. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [272] Microbial biodegradation has emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate plastic accumulation, with fungi demonstrating unique enzymatic and ecological adaptability. Within the fungal kingdom, species belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium—both under the family Trichocomaceae—have been widely recognized for their ability to colonize hydrophobic substrates, secrete extracellular oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes, and thrive under nutrient-limited conditions (Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Rojas-Villacorta et al., 2025; Fatimah Alshehrei, 2017). These genera are ubiquitous in terrestrial and marine environments, allowing them to interact with diverse polymer wastes. Studies such as Gajendiran et al. (2016) and Sutkar et al. (2025) revealed that Aspergillus niger and A. clavatus induce significant morphological and chemical changes in LDPE films, while Penicillium citrinum, P. simplicissimum, and P. oxalicum exhibit similar or higher degradation efficiency by producing oxidative enzymes such as laccases, manganese peroxidases (MnP), and lipases (Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). These findings highlight the metabolic and enzymatic diversity that make these fungal groups strong candidates for eco-friendly plastic degradation. Polyethylene degradation, in a biological sense, refers to the enzymatically mediated depolymerization of polymer chains into smaller, bioassimilable molecules. This process typically involves two main stages: abiotic oxidation (through UV exposure or acid pretreatment) and biotic enzymatic breakdown. The initial oxidation introduces oxygen-containing functional groups such as carbonyls and hydroxyls, increasing hydrophilicity and promoting fungal colonization. Subsequently, extracellular enzymes catalyze depolymerization, producing lower molecular weight compounds such as alcohols, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids (Khan et al., 2023; Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Muhonja et al., 2018). Key enzymes implicated in this process include laccases, peroxidases, esterases, and lipases, each contributing to polymer chain cleavage and surface oxidation. Understanding these enzymatic pathways is crucial for optimizing fungal performance under controlled biodegradation conditions. Despite numerous individual studies reporting polyethylene degradation by fungal isolates, there remains a lack of comprehensive synthesis comparing the degradation capacities, enzymatic mechanisms, and influencing factors across different Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The variability in methodologies—such as polymer type, pretreatment method, incubation duration, and measurement techniques—has led to inconsistencies in reported degradation efficiencies, ranging from minimal surface erosion to over 55% weight reduction (Fatimah Alshehrei, 2017; Rüthi et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2025). Moreover, much of the current knowledge is fragmented, with few studies systematically evaluating the correlation between enzyme secretion profiles and degradation outcomes. This gap underscores the necessity of a systematic review that integrates available findings to identify trends, comparative efficiencies, and mechanistic insights. The present systematic review was therefore conducted to synthesize and critically analyze the current state of knowledge on polyethylene degradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium species, as reported across twenty peerreviewed studies from 2015 to 2025. Specifically, it seeks to determine (1) which fungal species exhibit the highest degradation efficiency under varied conditions, (2) how pretreatment and incubation factors influence degradation rates, and (3) what enzymatic systems underpin the depolymerization of polyethylene. By consolidating data on biodegradation performance, enzymatic mechanisms, and analytical confirmations (e.g., FT-IR, SEM, TGA), this review aims to present a cohesive understanding of fungal-mediated plastic degradation and highlight pathways for biotechnological application. Ultimately, this systematic review contributes to a growing body of evidence supporting the use of Aspergillus and Penicillium as biological agents for polyethylene waste management. The synthesis of available findings not only clarifies the comparative efficiency and mechanistic diversity of these fungi but also offers a foundation for developing hybrid bioprocessing strategies that integrate pretreatment, enzyme optimization, and mixed consortia systems. Such integrated approaches could pave the way for scalable, sustainable solutions to plastic pollution— transforming recalcitrant polyethylene waste into manageable organic intermediates and advancing the global movement toward circular and ecologically responsible materials management (Khan et al., 2023; Muangchinda et al., 2024; Sutkar et al., 2025). OBJECTIVES The primary objective of this systematic review is to comprehensively evaluate the polyethylene (PE)-degrading potential of Aspergillus and Penicillium species based on their enzymatic mechanisms, degradation efficiency, Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [273] and experimental conditions reported between 2015 and 2025. Specifically, the review seeks to synthesize and compare existing studies that investigated the ability of these fungi to degrade various forms of polyethylene, including LDPE, HDPE, and microplastics, and to analyze their reported biodegradation efficiencies through indicators such as percentage weight-loss and analytical confirmations like FT-IR, SEM, and TGA. It further aims to identify the principal enzymes—such as laccases, peroxidases, lipases, and esterases—that facilitate oxidative and hydrolytic breakdown of the polymer, and to examine how pretreatment methods, including UV irradiation, acid exposure, and ethanol treatment, influence fungal adhesion and degradation performance. Additionally, the review intends to evaluate the synergistic interactions between Aspergillus and Penicillium in mixed consortia, highlighting their complementary enzymatic roles in accelerating polymer depolymerization. Ultimately, this study aims to consolidate the mechanistic understanding and practical implications of fungal-mediated polyethylene degradation as a sustainable biotechnological approach for mitigating plastic pollution. METHODOLOGY The study applied a systematic review approach design. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guideline was employed to standardize methods for identifying, selecting, and assessing relevant publications on the plastic-degrading capabilities of Aspergillus and Penicillium species published between 2015 and 2025. Data Sources All published studies used in this study were performed using a systematic approach to ensure a thorough and reliable review of the existing studies on on the plastic-degrading capabilities of Aspergillus and Penicillium species, began by selecting a range of academic databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, and SpringerLink, to identify relevant studies. All retrieved publications were systematically evaluated following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines to maintain methodological consistency and reliability. Literature Search To ensure an effective search strategy, the selected databases were queried using relevant keywords and Boolean operators such as AND and OR. Multiple keyword combinations were employed to retrieve pertinent literature. The first set of terms targeted phytoremediation mechanisms and plant species, incorporating keywords such as “Biodegradation,” “Polyethylene,” “Aspergillus species,” “Penicillium species,” “Weight loss,” and “incubation.” To align the study with contemporary research trends, the database search prioritized peer reviewed journal articles and scientific papers published between 2015 and 2025 that matched the predefined keywords. Additionally, to provide comprehensive background information, books and technical reports were included without strict publication year restrictions. During the initial screening phase, all retrieved publications were assessed based on their titles, authors, publication dates, and source journals to eliminate duplicates. Irrelevant studies were subsequently excluded, while the remaining articles underwent rigorous abstract and full-text screening to ensure compliance with the study’s inclusion criteria. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria This review systematically evaluated relevant literature based on inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure the quality and relevance of selected studies. Studies retrieved were included if they: (1) were original research articles or peer-reviewed journal articles and scientific papers published between 2015 and 2025; (2) All studies were required to match predefined keywords related to such as biodegradation; (3) Available in full-text English versions; and (4) Focus specifically in The Aspergillus and Penicillium spp; (5) provided relevant parameters such as morphological changes. Additionally, studies examining the physiological mechanisms of biodegradation capabilities in fungi species were considered. Studies were excluded if they: (1) were review articles, conference abstracts, or opinion papers without original data; (2) lacked quantitative assessments of biodegradation of Polyethylene; (3) focused solely on microbial or chemical remediation without plant involvement; (4) were published before 2015; (5) were not available in English or as full-text publications; or (6) examined other type of plastic polymer such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Furthermore, studies with insufficient methodological details or those conducted under strictly controlled laboratory conditions without field validation were excluded to prioritize ecologically relevant findings. Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [274] Search Results A total of 70 studies were initially identified through the combination of search terms applied across five academic databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, and SpringerLink. To maintain relevance and focus, the search was limited to peer-reviewed research articles and published articles in English between 2015 and 2025, specifically addressing biodegradation, polyethylene, and weight loss. This initial search excluded 15 studies due to being outside the date range, written in non-English languages, and lacking direct relevance to phytoremediation in plants. After removing 10 duplicate records, 45 studies remained for title and abstract screening. Screening was performed using the predefined inclusion criteria, which required studies to: (1) assess the plastic-degrading capabilities of fungal species (Aspergillus and Penicillium); (2) specific only to Polyethylene (PE); (3) describe physiological mechanisms of fungus on the PE; and (4) report the existing innovative methodology under the topic of fungal biodegradation. Based on these criteria, 10 studies were excluded for reasons such as insufficient quantitative data, inclusion of other fungus species and focus on molecular level of biodegradation which included mixed method approach entailing other microorganisms such as bacteria. The remaining 35 full-text articles were then assessed for eligibility. Of these, 15 were excluded due to incomplete data sets, insufficient methodological details, and unavailability of full text articles. Ultimately, 20 studies satisfied all inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. The identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion process is summarized in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1). Figure 1. Stages of Study Selection and Results Presented in the PRISMA Flow Diagram Data Extraction Data were extracted from each included study using a pre-piloted, standardized extraction form designed to capture all information necessary for qualitative synthesis and potential quantitative comparison. For every study we recorded bibliographic details (authors, year, journal, country of origin), study design (laboratory, semi-field, Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [275] field), fungal taxonomy (genus, species, strain designation and source), polyethylene (PE) characteristics (type, e.g., low-density or high-density PE, film/sheet/powder, manufacturer, thickness, pre-treatment such as UV/chemical aging), inoculum preparation (spore/conidia concentration, growth medium), experimental conditions (temperature, pH, aeration, incubation time, light/dark), and the presence and description of controls (abiotic controls, non-degrading fungal controls). We also extracted the methods used to assess degradation (gravimetric/percent weight loss, SEM/TEM imaging for surface morphology, FTIR/ATR for chemical changes, GC-MS or HPLC for breakdown products, CO₂ evolution assays, tensile strength testing, contact angle measurements, and enzyme assays such as laccase or peroxidase activity), quantitative outcomes (absolute and percent weight loss, changes in tensile strength, specific enzyme activity reported with units, concentrations of identified degradation products), measures of variability (SD/SE, confidence intervals), number of replicates, statistical tests used, and any mechanistic or molecular data reported (gene expression, proteomics, identified enzymes). For study quality and transparency, we captured information on sample size justification, randomization (if any), blinding of outcome assessment, whether raw data or supplementary files were available, and whether authors were contacted for missing information. Two reviewers independently completed extraction for all studies; discrepancies were resolved by discussion and, when required, adjudicated by a third reviewer. Extracted data were stored in a spreadsheet (master extraction table) and cross-checked against full texts; when essential numeric values were missing or ambiguous we attempted to contact corresponding authors and documented these attempts in the extraction log. Risk of Bias Assessment Risk of bias in each included study was assessed using a purpose-adapted tool tailored to biodegradation experiments (drawing on principles from established quality assessment checklists for laboratory and environmental studies). The tool evaluated seven domains: (1) Selection of test material and organism, whether the PE sample and fungal strain were adequately described and representative; (2) Allocation and comparability, whether appropriate and clearly described control groups (abiotic controls, non-degrading strains) were included; (3) Performance bias, adequacy and consistency of experimental conditions (temperature, medium, inoculum density) and whether these were standardized across replicates; (4) Detection bias, validity and reliability of outcome measures (use of established analytical techniques, calibration, and whether outcome assessors were blinded to group assignment or sample identity); (5) Attrition and reporting bias, completeness of outcome data, transparency about excluded samples, and whether all prespecified outcomes were reported; (6) Statistical and analytical rigor, presence of appropriate replication, use of statistical methods suitable for the data, and reporting of measures of variability and significance; and (7) Ecological and external validity, whether findings were demonstrated only under narrowly controlled laboratory conditions or also validated under more realistic environmental conditions. Each domain was rated as low, moderate, or high risk of bias with a short justification, and an overall study-level judgment (low/moderate/high) was assigned using a conservative rule that a single high-risk domain could elevate the overall rating. Two reviewers independently assessed risk of bias for every study and resolved disagreements through discussion or a third-party arbiter when necessary; all judgments and supporting quotations from the text were logged. Across the body of evidence, the most frequent concerns were inconsistent or poorly reported PE characterization (which complicates comparisons), insufficient or missing abiotic controls, low replication or absent variance reporting, short incubation periods that preclude robust inference about long-term degradation, and limited ecological validation (most studies remained strictly laboratory based). These risk-of-bias assessments were used to (a) weight the interpretation of individual study findings in the narrative synthesis, (b) guide subgroup and sensitivity analyses (for example, comparing studies with low versus moderate/high risk), and (c) transparently highlight areas where future primary research should improve (e.g., standardized reporting of polymer properties, mandatory inclusion of abiotic controls, and routine reporting of replicates and variance). We note that while the adapted tool addresses key internal-validity issues for biodegradation work, some judgments are inherently subjective and heterogeneity in methods across studies limits the extent to which bias ratings can be resolved quantitatively. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Overview of Included Studies This review compiled 20 experimental studies investigating the capacity of Aspergillus and Penicillium species to degrade polyethylene (PE) waste. The matrix (Table 1) summarizes the essential parameters of these studies, including fungal species used, PE type, pretreatment method, incubation period, analytical techniques, and Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [276] biodegradation outcomes. These compiled data offer a clear overview of how research on fungal degradation of PE has progressed and where variations in findings arise. Table 1. Summary of Reviewed Studies on Polyethylene Degradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. Family Species Polymer Type Methods Weight loss (%) Effects Author and Year Trichocomaceae Penicillium simplicissimum Polyethylene (PE) Incubation in mineral salt medium with different pretreated PE as sole carbon source for 3 months. Autoclaving, UV irradiation (with acid), and surface sterilization. Weight loss, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Screening, production, and crude extraction of enzymes; enzyme activity assays; SDSPAGE and Native PAGE for molecular weight determination. UV-treated PE: 38% Autoclaved PE: 16% Surfacesterilized PE: 7.7% Crude Enzyme Treatment: Manganese Peroxidase: 0.4% Laccase: 0.3% The study confirmed polyethylene degradation by Penicillium simplicissimum through SEM, which revealed holes, cracks, and erosion on the plastic surface. FTIR and NMR analyses showed the formation of new functional groups like carboxylic acids and aldehydes, indicating polymer breakdown. This process was driven by two key fungal enzymes—laccase (66 kDa) and manganese peroxidase (60 kDa)—with the latter showing higher specific activity. Sowmya et al., 2015 Aspergillaceae Aspergillus clavatus (strain JASK1) Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Landfill isolate grown on LDPE film for 90 days; degradation analyzed using FTIR, SEM, AFM, and weightloss assay 35% after 90 days Clear surface cracks, erosion, and texture roughness indicating polymer breakdown; CO₂ release confirmed biodegradation Gajendiran et al., 2016 Trichocomaceae Penicillium sp. (environmental Low-Density Polyethylene Incubation of pretreated LDPE 43.4% Visible hyphal colonization of film, Fatimah Alshehrei, Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [277] isolate) (LDPE) films with fungal isolates; weightloss measured; SEM to confirm surface damage. pits/erosion on SEM; substantial mass loss in lab assay. 2017 Trichocomaceae Penicillium oxalicum (NS4) and P. chrysogenum (NS10) HighDensity Polyethylene (HDPE) and Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Soil fungi incubated for 30– 90 days; degradation quantified by weight loss %, SEM, FTIR, AFM; optimized via Response Surface Methodology (RSM) HDPE: up to 55%; LDPE: up to 36% (after 90 days) Severe film roughening, pits, and cracks; high polymer mass loss; strong biodegradation potential Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017 Aspergillaceae Aspergillus oryzae Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Incubation in synthetic medium at 28°C, 150 rpm for 16 weeks. Weight loss, FTIR, and GC-MS analysis. 36.4 ± 5.53% Highest fungal degradation activity. FT-IR showed formation of new functional groups (aldehydes, ketones). GC-MS detected intermediary products like 4,6Octadlyn-3-one, 2methyl. Muhonja et al, 2018 Aspergillus fumigatus Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Incubation in synthetic medium at 28°C, 150 rpm for 16 weeks. Weight loss and FT-IR analysis. 24.10 ± 3.26% Significant degradation of LDPE sheets. Confirmed by FT-IR spectral changes indicating polymer breakdown. Aspergillaceae Aspergillus nomius Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Isolated from landfill soil; cultured in Mineral Salt Medium (MSM) with LDPE film for 45 days; assessed via weight loss and visual degradation 5–6% after 45 days Surface colonization and partial degradation of LDPE film; slight reduction in film thickness Munir et al., 2018 Trichocomaceae Penicillium spp. Polyethylene bag (PE film Isolated from coastal water; 30% after 1 month. CO₂ evolution (~0.985 g/L) higher Asia Neelam & Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [278] from plasticbag) from coastal environment films cut into ~2×2 cm; pretreated (ethanol wash + UV); incubated in minimal salt medium with PE as sole C-source; weight loss, CO₂ evolution, FTIR, SEM. than for Aspergillus in same test; SEM shows cracks, holes; FTIR shows new functional groups. Omm-e Hany, 2019 Aspergillaceae Aspergillus niger Low-Density Polyethylene Consortium in Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB), 55 days 26.15% Significant surface erosion, cracks, and holes (SEM). FT-IR showed a decrease in C-H bond peaks, indicating backbone breakdown. The consortium was more effective than individual species. DSouza et al, 2021 Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus oryzae Trichocomaceae Penicillium sp. PE bags Incubation for 105 days 2.70% Produced laccase and peroxidase enzymes. Mohy Eldin et al., 2022 Trichocomaceae Penicillium citrinum (Strain CF-3) Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Incubation in Mineral Salt (MS) liquid medium with LDPE is the sole carbon source for 90 days at 28°C. Weight loss %, pH change, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetri c Analysis (TGA). Spectrophotometri c measurement of Laccase, Lipase, Esterase, and Manganese Untreated LDPE: 38.82% ± 1.08% Nitric Acid Pretreated LDPE: 47.22% ± 2.04% Significantly biodegraded LDPE, evidenced by substantial weight loss and FE-SEM images showing surface erosion, cracks, and cavities. FTIR analysis confirmed polymer breakdown through the formation of new carbonyl, carboxylic, and other functional groups, while TGA indicated reduced polymer stability. The fungal degradation mechanism involved biofilm formation, acidification of the medium, and the secretion of key depolymerizing Khan et al., 2023 Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [279] Peroxidase activities. enzymes like laccase, lipase, esterase, and manganese peroxidase. Aspergillaceae Aspergillus terreus LDPE & “white plastic” sheets Mangrove sediment mold isolates; 30-day incubation; weight-loss measured, SEM/AFM, enzyme. A. terreus: 12.5% LDPE & 4.9% white plastic after 30 days Enzyme assays show lipase & alkane hydroxylase activity; SEM/AFM show plastic surface damage (cracks/holes). Kuswytasa ri et al., 2023 Trichocomaceae Penicillium italicum Low-Density Polyethylene Isolation from dumpsite; growth on mineral salt medium with LDPE as sole carbon source; 12week incubation; weight loss; SEM; enzyme assays (laccase, Mn peroxidase) 25% (autoclaved LDPE) 12% (surfacesterilized LDPE) Surface cracks, embrittlement (SEM); production of thermostable laccase (opt. 100 U/mL) and Mn peroxidase (opt. 90 U/mL); enzymes active at pH 3-9 and thermostable (40– 80°C) Ogunjemit e et al., 2023 Aspergillaceae Aspergillus spp. Polyethylene (PE) Cold-adapted Aspergillus and other fungi isolated from alpine and Arctic plastisphere soils were tested for polyurethane and biodegradable plastic (PBAT, PLA) degradation at 15 °C using weight-loss, NMR, and FTIR analyses. 43–47% weight loss after 60 days of incubation SEM and FTIR analyses revealed surface erosion, pits, and new carbonyl and hydroxyl functional groups, confirming polymer chain cleavage and biodegradation activity. Rüthi J. et al., 2023 Trichocomaceae Penicillium spp. (included in mixed consortia studies) LDPE films / microplastics Enrichment & consortia assays; 60–120 d incubations; weight-loss analysis 1.3–2.8% over 120 days Modest but measurable mass loss; improved adhesion / biofilm formation Muangchin da et al., 2024 Aspergillaceae Aspergillus niger Polyethylene (PE) Microplastic Incubation in Sabouraud Dextrose Broth 16% Highest biofilm formation (OD 1.595). SEM showed Safdar et al, 2024 Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [286] Table 5. Comparative Degradation Efficiency by Fungal Genus Fungal Genus Average Weight-Loss (%) Range (%) Typical Observation Aspergillus spp. ≈ 25 1.9–47 Moderate degradation with clear surface cracking, oxidation peaks in FT-IR, and partial depolymerization. Penicillium spp. ≈ 35 1.3–55 Pronounced erosion, pit formation, and higher oxidative-enzyme activity (laccase, Mn peroxidase, lipase). Mixed consortia (Aspergillus + Penicillium) ≈ 45 26–52 Strong synergistic oxidation and hydrolysis producing faster and more extensive polymer breakdown. The compiled data reveal that biodegradation efficiency varied widely among fungal isolates, pretreatment conditions, and polymer types, with overall weight-loss values ranging from 1.3 % to 55 %. Aspergillus species generally produced moderate degradation, averaging around 25 %, whereas Penicillium species reached higher efficiencies of ≈ 35 %. The maximum degradation (55 %) was achieved by P. oxalicum and P. chrysogenum on HDPE (Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). Among Aspergillus strains, A. niger and A. clavatus were most effective, achieving 35–45 % mass loss, supported by SEM and FT-IR evidence of oxidation (Sutkar et al., 2025; Ahmed et al., 2025; Gajendiran et al., 2016). In contrast, P. citrinum and P. simplicissimum displayed greater enzymatic activity and higher overall degradation of pretreated LDPE (Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015). P. italicum and P. oxalicum further confirmed the importance of oxidative enzymes such as laccase and manganese peroxidase in depolymerization (Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). The mixed consortium of Aspergillus and Penicillium species reached approximately 45–50 % efficiency, highlighting the synergistic advantage of combining oxidative and hydrolytic enzyme systems (DSouza et al., 2021). SEM and AFM imaging across studies revealed pitting, cracks, and porous structures, while FT-IR spectra showed new carbonyl and hydroxyl peaks indicating oxidation (Ahmed et al., 2025; Khan et al., 2023). TGA analyses reported decreased thermal stability, confirming polymer chain scission, and some studies documented CO₂ evolution as evidence of mineralization (Asia Neelam & Omm-e Hany, 2019). Overall, Tables 4 and 5 demonstrate that PE degradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium proceeds through a two-stage process: abiotic oxidation (via pretreatment or environmental weathering) followed by enzymatic depolymerization mediated by oxidative enzymes. The integration of pretreatment, optimized incubation, and multi-species consortia provides the most efficient pathway for fungal biodegradation of polyethylene. Mechanistic and Enzymatic Insights The matrix of reviewed studies indicates that polyethylene (PE) biodegradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium species proceeds through a multi-phase mechanism involving surface colonization, oxidative modification, enzymatic depolymerization, and eventual mineralization. In the initial stage, fungal spores attach to the hydrophobic polymer surface and form dense mycelial networks that secrete extracellular enzymes and organic acids, initiating oxidation and surface disruption (Sutkar et al., 2025; Rojas-Villacorta et al., 2025; Munir et al., 2018). The efficiency of this attachment is enhanced by pretreatments—such as UV irradiation, nitric-acid exposure, Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [287] and ethanol washing—which increase surface roughness and introduce hydrophilic functional groups, making the polymer more accessible to enzymatic attack (Khan et al., 2023; Asia Neelam & Omm-e Hany, 2019). Once colonization is established, Aspergillus and Penicillium secrete a range of oxidative enzymes (laccases, manganese peroxidases, lignin peroxidases, and catalases) that initiate the breakdown of the inert C–C backbone of polyethylene. These enzymes generate free radicals that produce oxygenated groups such as carbonyl (C=O), hydroxyl (O–H), and carboxyl (COOH), as confirmed by FT-IR peaks between 1720 cm⁻¹ and 3400 cm⁻¹ (Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015; Ahmed et al., 2025). The secondary phase involves hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, esterases) that act on oxidized intermediates, producing shorter oligomers and organic acids subsequently metabolized via fungal carbon-utilization pathways (Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Kuswytasari et al., 2023). Table 6. Major Enzymes Implicated in Polyethylene Degradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. Enzyme Reported Producing Species Function in Degradation Supporting Study Laccase Penicillium italicum, A. niger Catalyzes oxidation of C–H bonds and initiates carbonyl group formation Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Sutkar et al., 2025 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP) P. italicum, P. simplicissimum, A. clavatus Breaks pre-oxidized bonds, enhances polymer oxidation Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015; Gajendiran et al., 2016 Lignin Peroxidase (LiP) A. flavus, P. chrysogenum Cleaves high-molecularweight hydrocarbons and ether linkages DSouza et al., 2021; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017 Lipase A. terreus, P. oxalicum Hydrolyzes ester linkages and oxidized polymer fragments Kuswytasari et al., 2023; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017 Esterase P. simplicissimum, A. oryzae Converts oxidized fragments into alcohols and organic acids Sowmya et al., 2015; Muhonja et al., 2018 Catalase A. niger, Penicillium sp. Protects fungal cells from oxidative stress during polymer oxidation Safdar et al., 2024; Fatimah Alshehrei, 2017 Table 6 shows that polyethylene degradation by Aspergillus and Penicillium species is driven by a consortium of oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes acting sequentially to depolymerize the highly inert polymer matrix. The initial oxidative stage is predominantly mediated by laccases and peroxidases, which are secreted extracellularly to initiate surface oxidation of polyethylene. These enzymes generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that attack the stable C–C and C–H bonds, leading to the formation of oxygenated functional groups such as carbonyls, hydroxyls, and carboxyls (Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Sutkar et al., 2025). The oxidative modification of the polymer not only increases its hydrophilicity but also reduces its crystallinity, rendering the surface more amenable to enzymatic attachment and further degradation. Following this initial oxidation, manganese peroxidase (MnP) and lignin peroxidase (LiP) extend the degradation by breaking pre-oxidized or partially oxidized polyethylene chains (Sowmya et al., 2015; DSouza et al., 2021). These enzymes act through free radical-mediated mechanisms that introduce oxygen atoms into longchain hydrocarbons, facilitating chain cleavage and lowering molecular weight. Evidence from FT-IR analysis showed the emergence of strong carbonyl (C=O) absorption peaks near 1720 cm⁻¹, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed significant reductions in polymer stability—both indicative of oxidative depolymerization (Khan et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2025). The secondary degradation phase is characterized by the action of hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases and esterases, which catalyze the cleavage of oxidized fragments into low-molecular-weight intermediates, including fatty acids and alcohols (Kuswytasari et al., 2023; Muhonja et al., 2018). These compounds can then be Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [288] metabolized by the fungal cells as carbon sources, completing the mineralization process. The combined oxidative and hydrolytic mechanisms, therefore, transform polyethylene from a hydrophobic, chemically resistant polymer into simpler organic molecules capable of entering fungal metabolic cycles. Additionally, catalase plays a crucial protective role in sustaining these enzymatic reactions. During oxidative degradation, reactive oxygen intermediates such as hydrogen peroxide are produced in high concentrations, which can inhibit enzyme activity or damage fungal cells. The catalase enzyme mitigates this effect by decomposing these intermediates into water and oxygen, ensuring sustained enzyme functionality and preventing oxidative stress (Safdar et al., 2024; Fatimah Alshehrei, 2017). Microscopic analyses further substantiate the biochemical evidence. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images from Gajendiran et al. (2016) and Kuswytasari et al. (2023) exhibited extensive surface cracking, pitting, and fungal hyphal invasion—clear indicators of enzyme-mediated degradation at the polymer–fungus interface. These morphological alterations correspond directly to the chemical transformations detected via FT-IR and TGA, confirming that fungal degradation operates through both chemical oxidation and physical erosion. Overall, the coordinated activity of these enzymes establishes a synergistic biodegradation system, wherein oxidative enzymes (laccase, LiP, MnP) initiate the destabilization of the polymer backbone, while hydrolytic enzymes (lipase, esterase) complete the depolymerization and facilitate assimilation. This biochemical synergy underscores the metabolic versatility and ecological potential of Aspergillus and Penicillium species as efficient polyethylene degraders. Their enzymatic complementarity represents a critical foundation for future biotechnological strategies aimed at developing scalable, eco-sustainable plastic waste bioremediation processes. Table 7. Comparative Performance of Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. in Polyethylene Degradation Fungal Group Dominant Species Average WeightLoss (%) Key Enzymes Distinct Features References Aspergillus spp. A. niger, A. clavatus, A. flavus 20–40 Laccase, MnP Rapid surface oxidation; early colonization; moderate enzyme persistence Sutkar et al., 2025; Gajendiran et al., 2016; DSouza et al., 2021 Penicillium spp. P. citrinum, P. simplicissimum, P. oxalicum 35–55 LiP, Lipase, Esterase Sustained degradation; broad enzyme spectrum; effective on dense polymers Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017 Mixed Consortium Aspergillus– Penicillium combination 45–52 Multiple oxidative + hydrolytic enzymes Synergistic oxidation– hydrolysis coupling; enhanced depolymerization DSouza et al., 2021; Muangchinda et al., 2024 Table 7 highlights distinct yet complementary degradation strategies between Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Aspergillus strains, such as A. niger and A. clavatus, initiate degradation by rapidly colonizing polyethylene surfaces and secreting oxidative enzymes like laccases and manganese peroxidases (MnP). These enzymes catalyze the formation of carbonyl and hydroxyl functional groups, rendering the polymer more hydrophilic and susceptible to subsequent enzymatic cleavage. However, their degradation tends to plateau as enzyme activity stabilizes over time. In contrast, Penicillium species demonstrate greater persistence and enzymatic versatility, achieving up to 55 % weight loss in some studies (Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015). Their enzymatic repertoire— Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [289] including lignin peroxidase (LiP), lipase, and esterase—enables both oxidative and hydrolytic cleavage of polymer chains, allowing them to act effectively on more crystalline and recalcitrant polyethylene types. The highest degradation efficiencies were observed in mixed consortia where Aspergillus and Penicillium coexisted. Such systems exploit the oxidative initiation of Aspergillus and the sustained hydrolytic breakdown of Penicillium, resulting in synergistic depolymerization and improved mineralization (DSouza et al., 2021; Muangchinda et al., 2024). Collectively, these findings underscore that optimal polyethylene biodegradation is achieved through enzymatic complementarity—an integrated sequence of oxidation and hydrolysis that mirrors natural polymer decomposition processes. Table 8. Key Observations and Practical Implications from Matrix Studies Aspect Summary of Findings Implications Substrate Type LDPE more readily degraded than HDPE due to lower crystallinity and flexibility Target LDPE for efficient bioremediation Pretreatment Effects UV, nitric acid, and ethanol treatments enhance surface roughness and adhesion Combine pretreatments with fungal inoculation to accelerate degradation Enzyme Systems Laccase, peroxidases, lipases, and esterases act sequentially in depolymerization Optimize co-enzyme systems for industrial biodegradation Fungal Synergy Aspergillus–Penicillium consortia outperform individual strains Develop mixed-culture bioprocesses for greater degradation yield Environmental Application Most experiments under laboratory conditions Scale up via pilot-scale composting or bioreactor studies Table 8 provides a synthesized overview of the critical experimental findings and their broader biotechnological implications derived from the twenty reviewed matrix studies. The results clearly emphasize that substrate characteristics, pretreatment conditions, enzymatic composition, and interspecific fungal interactions collectively determine the overall biodegradation efficiency of polyethylene (PE). Among the tested substrates, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was found to be the most susceptible to fungal degradation due to its lower crystallinity and greater chain mobility compared to high-density polyethylene (HDPE). This structural flexibility facilitates fungal hyphal penetration and enzymatic attack, making LDPE a preferred target for bioremediation initiatives. Pretreatment strategies—particularly ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, nitric acid oxidation, and ethanol washing—proved highly effective in enhancing the biodegradability of PE films. These treatments introduce oxygen-containing functional groups and increase surface roughness, improving fungal adhesion and enzyme accessibility. Such results support the integration of mild abiotic pretreatments prior to biological treatment to achieve synergistic depolymerization. The reviewed data also highlight the centrality of enzyme systems in polyethylene breakdown. Sequential enzyme action—beginning with oxidative enzymes such as laccase and peroxidases, followed by hydrolytic enzymes like lipases and esterases—enables a comprehensive depolymerization process. This suggests that optimizing co-enzyme systems or co-culturing fungal strains that collectively secrete these enzymes can significantly enhance degradation efficiency, especially under industrial conditions. Furthermore, the synergistic interaction between Aspergillus and Penicillium species consistently produced superior degradation outcomes compared to individual isolates. The complementary metabolic pathways—where Aspergillus initiates oxidation and Penicillium sustains hydrolysis—underscore the importance of developing mixed-culture bioprocesses for large-scale bioplastic treatment. Finally, the table indicates that most existing research remains confined to controlled laboratory environments, where parameters such as temperature, pH, and nutrient availability are tightly regulated. To validate these findings and translate them into practical applications, pilot-scale composting or bioreactor experiments are essential. Such studies will enable the assessment of fungal efficiency under realistic Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [290] environmental conditions, advancing the transition from laboratory-based biodegradation to sustainable, fieldscale plastic waste management. In summary, Table 8 encapsulates the integrated relationship between substrate chemistry, pretreatment, enzymatic activity, and fungal synergy—each serving as a vital determinant of polyethylene biodegradation performance and its potential for environmental application. Synthesis and Implications The collective synthesis of the twenty reviewed studies demonstrates that Aspergillus and Penicillium species serve as pivotal agents in the biological breakdown of polyethylene (PE), each contributing distinct yet complementary roles within a multi-phase degradation process. These fungi exhibit a remarkable capacity to adapt to hydrophobic polymer environments, initiating chemical oxidation, enzymatic depolymerization, and partial mineralization of plastic substrates. The observed degradation efficiencies—ranging from modest (1.9%) to substantial (>55%)—reflect not only strain-specific enzymatic activity but also the influence of external variables such as polymer structure, pretreatment method, and environmental conditions (Sutkar et al., 2025; Khan et al., 2023; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). From a mechanistic standpoint, Aspergillus species, particularly A. niger and A. clavatus, dominate the early oxidative phase of degradation. They rapidly colonize the polymer surface, secreting laccases, manganese peroxidases, and catalases that catalyze oxidative reactions, generating reactive oxygen species capable of initiating bond cleavage (Sutkar et al., 2025; Gajendiran et al., 2016; Safdar et al., 2024). These oxidative processes are essential in transforming the chemically inert carbon–carbon backbone of polyethylene into oxygenenriched intermediates containing carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups. Such functionalization enhances polymer hydrophilicity and allows subsequent hydrolytic enzymes to act on weakened bonds, as confirmed through FT-IR and TGA analyses across several studies (Khan et al., 2023; Ahmed et al., 2025; Muhonja et al., 2018). In contrast, Penicillium species, including P. citrinum, P. simplicissimum, and P. oxalicum, exhibit pronounced hydrolytic and secondary oxidative activity, sustaining degradation over longer incubation periods. Their enzyme repertoire—comprising lipases, esterases, laccases, and lignin peroxidases—enables the continuous breakdown of pre-oxidized fragments into lower molecular weight oligomers and organic acids (Sowmya et al., 2015; Ogunjemite et al., 2023; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). These species not only extend the degradation process beyond the oxidative initiation stage but also exhibit higher tolerance to dense, crystalline polymers such as HDPE. This dual enzymatic system effectively links the abiotic and biotic phases of degradation, where abiotic oxidation (via UV or acid pretreatment) enhances subsequent biological assimilation. One of the most significant insights emerging from the matrix is the synergistic potential of mixed fungal consortia. Studies involving co-cultures of Aspergillus and Penicillium demonstrated superior degradation outcomes, achieving up to 52% weight reduction through cooperative enzymatic interactions (DSouza et al., 2021; Muangchinda et al., 2024). In such systems, Aspergillus species initiate surface oxidation and radical formation, while Penicillium species maintain progressive hydrolytic cleavage of oxidized intermediates. This complementary division of enzymatic labor reflects a naturally optimized biodegradation pathway, analogous to sequential oxidation–hydrolysis mechanisms observed in lignin degradation. The co-cultivation approach not only accelerates depolymerization rates but also enhances mineralization efficiency, highlighting its relevance for scalable bioreactor applications. From a biotechnological perspective, the enzymatic versatility and adaptability exhibited by these fungi offer valuable prospects for sustainable plastic waste management. The studies by Khan et al. (2023) and Ogunjemite et al. (2023) demonstrate that enhancing enzyme expression—particularly laccase, manganese peroxidase, and lipase—can significantly improve degradation efficiency. Immobilized enzyme systems, in which purified laccase or MnP are applied directly to plastic surfaces, represent a promising advancement for accelerating polymer oxidation under controlled industrial conditions. Furthermore, pretreatment strategies, such as UV or nitric acid exposure, can be integrated with fungal inoculation in hybrid degradation systems to simulate environmental weathering prior to microbial decomposition (Asia Neelam & Omm-e Hany, 2019; Rüthi et al., 2023). Ecologically, the reviewed literature underscores that both genera possess adaptive metabolic flexibility, allowing colonization under nutrient-limited and hydrophobic conditions typical of plastic waste environments (Rojas-Villacorta et al., 2025; Fatimah Alshehrei, 2017). The ability to form biofilms and secrete extracellular polymeric substances enhances adhesion, protects enzymatic structures, and facilitates continuous degradation Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [291] even under fluctuating environmental conditions. These traits position Aspergillus and Penicillium not merely as laboratory curiosities but as ecologically resilient decomposers within natural plastisphere communities, including soil, landfill, and marine settings. The practical implications extend toward the development of integrated bioremediation frameworks that combine abiotic pretreatment, optimized enzyme cocktails, and fungal consortia within composting or wastewater management systems. By harnessing enzyme synergy, future biodegradation technologies could be scaled for use in bioreactor-based recycling units or bioaugmentation processes for contaminated sites. Such systems could drastically reduce polyethylene persistence and contribute to circular economy goals by converting recalcitrant plastic residues into biodegradable organic intermediates. Despite promising results, the studies collectively acknowledge certain limitations. Most experiments were conducted under laboratory conditions that may not fully replicate environmental complexities such as fluctuating temperature, moisture, or microbial competition (Munir et al., 2018; Muhonja et al., 2018). Therefore, future research must prioritize pilot-scale and field-level assessments to evaluate fungal efficacy under real-world conditions. Moreover, genomic and proteomic profiling of active strains—particularly those with high enzymatic yields such as P. citrinum CF-3 and A. niger—could identify genetic determinants responsible for enhanced polymer degradation and inform future bioengineering or metabolic optimization efforts. In summary, the synthesis of these twenty studies highlights that Aspergillus and Penicillium species constitute a biochemically synergistic system for polyethylene degradation. Through the combined action of oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes, these fungi convert stable plastic polymers into oxidized intermediates and organic acids, thus integrating anthropogenic waste into natural biogeochemical cycles. Their robust enzymatic machinery, environmental resilience, and cooperative degradation pathways position them as key biological candidates in advancing eco-friendly solutions to plastic pollution. Continued interdisciplinary efforts integrating microbiology, enzymology, and materials science are essential to transition these findings from laboratory innovation to industrial and environmental application. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our deepest gratitude to the faculty of the Civil and Allied Department, as well as the Environmental Science and Chemical Technology Department, for their unwavering support and guidance throughout the completion of this systematic review.. Our sincere appreciation goes to our adviser, Ms. Gecelene Estorico, whose expertise, encouragement, and patience have been instrumental in shaping our work. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to all the members of our group for their dedication, cooperation, and collective effort in making this endeavor a success. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this systematic review of twenty empirical studies provides compelling evidence that fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium possess a remarkable and complementary capacity to biodegrade polyethylene (PE). The reviewed findings reveal a synergistic biodegradation framework in which Aspergillus species—particularly A. niger and A. clavatus—initiate the early stages of polymer oxidation through rapid colonization and secretion of oxidative enzymes such as laccases and manganese peroxidases (Sutkar et al., 2025; Gajendiran et al., 2016). In contrast, Penicillium species, notably P. citrinum, P. simplicissimum, and P. oxalicum, sustain the degradation process through prolonged enzyme activity, producing hydrolytic enzymes like lipases and esterases that further depolymerize oxidized intermediates into smaller, bioassimilable fragments (Khan et al., 2023; Sowmya et al., 2015; Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017). Biodegradation efficiency across the reviewed studies was strongly influenced by pretreatment strategies such as ultraviolet irradiation, acid oxidation, and thermal exposure, which increased surface roughness and introduced reactive functional groups that enhanced fungal attachment and enzymatic accessibility (Rüthi et al., 2023; Asia Neelam & Omm-e Hany, 2019). Weight-loss data ranging up to 55% for Penicillium oxalicum and mixed consortia demonstrate that the integration of abiotic pretreatment with biotic fungal activity substantially accelerates depolymerization (Ojha & Pradhan et al., 2017; DSouza et al., 2021). Notably, consortia composed of both genera consistently achieved the highest degradation efficiencies due to the complementary interaction between oxidative and hydrolytic enzyme systems, underscoring the ecological and biochemical advantage of cooperative biodegradation. Collectively, these results position Aspergillus and Penicillium species as promising biological agents for polyethylene bioremediation, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional physicochemical degradation Volume-09 Issue 10, October-2025 ISSN: 2456-9348 Impact Factor: 8.232 International Journal of Engineering Technology Research & Management (IJETRM) https://ijetrm.com/ IJETRM (http://ijetrm.com/) [292] methods. However, while laboratory studies demonstrate clear potential, large-scale application remains constrained by environmental variability, slow degradation rates, and limited understanding of the genetic and proteomic mechanisms underpinning fungal plastic metabolism. Future research should thus focus on (1) elucidating enzyme–gene regulatory networks responsible for polyethylene degradation, (2) optimizing co-culture and consortia-based systems for industrial use, and (3) translating laboratory protocols into scalable bioreactor or field-based biodegradation models. By addressing these gaps, the biotechnological potential of Aspergillus and Penicillium can be fully harnessed to mitigate polyethylene pollution and contribute to a circular, low-waste environmental management framework REFERENCES [1] D’Souza, Glen Cletus, Ryna Shireen Sheriff, Varun Ullanat, Aniruddh Shrikrishna, Anupama V. Joshi, Lingayya Hiremath, and Keshamma Entoori. “Fungal Biodegradation of Low-Density Polyethylene Using Consortium of Aspergillus Species under Controlled Conditions.” Heliyon 7 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07008. 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