II: Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification

Issue 2 (December) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 20 (2024) II: Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification Richard Ellis Corpus Christi College (Alumnus), Oxford OX1 4JF, UK E-mail: r[email protected]g Experiments are presented on the effects of visible light shining on water. To understand these, we note that Landau and others realised General Relativity was incomplete because it does not correct for the Observer’s reference frame. When this is done for the general case,the chronometric invariant formalism of General Relativity (CIGR) predicts a second time dimension directed from the future to the past, and new phenomena at low (eV) energies. The initial objective was to test Brittin and Gamow’s theory that sunlight lowers the entropy level at the Earth’s surface. We detected this effect and found it persists for at least 10 months after exposure to sunlight (17 days after halogen light), contrary to the second law of thermodynamics. In a previous paper, the (photo-mirror) hypothesis was made that light can switch the arrow of time into the mirror world of CIGR, via the Brittin and Gamow effect. Experimental evidence is presented that visible photons switch small (0.2 to 1.5 microns) “quantized” regions of water into the mirror world state; and their brightness distributions match the energy spectrum of the halogen light source (χ2/DF =1.49 and 0.94 respectively) indicating causality. This is detailed evidence for the Brittin and Gamow effect. Furthermore, these domains persist (for 20 and 27 days respectively), which is evidence for the second time dimension, and there is evidence they are surrounded by the membrane also predicted by CIGR. This is also evidence for the photo-mirror hypothesis, which links Quantum Mechanics and Chronometric Invariant General Relativity, and so is preliminary experimental evidence for unification. 1 Introduction Following on from Landau’s work in the 1930s, Zelmanov developed the mathematical apparatus (chronometric invariants) to correct for the reference frame of the Observer in the general case. This was not published until 1956 [1], and confirmed by Cataneo. Since then Borissova and Rabounski have developed the chronometric invariant formalism of General Relativity (which we refer to as CIGR) further, and shown it predicts a more complex structure for space-time: 5D (3,2) [2]. In a previous paper we have made the (photo mirror) hypothesis that visible light can reverse the direction of the arrow of time into that of mirror space-time (predicted by CIGR), by lowering the entropy level via the Brittin and Gamow effect [3]. This provides the theoretical framework for understanding experiments which show evidence, presented below, for phenomena which violate the second law of thermodynamics. The following experimental work investigates the photo mirror hypothesis, and finds evidence for this joint quantum mechanical-relativistic effect. which enables the second law of thermodynamics to be reversed, and for the reduced entropy levels to persist. This is made possible by mirror spacetime, where time is directed from the future to the past. Murray Gell-Mann has said “I should like to emphasize . . . the need to go against certain received ideas. . . . Often they have a negative character and they amount to prohibitions of thinking along certain lines. . . Now and then, however, the only way to make progress is to defy one of these prohibitions that are uncritically accepted without good reason” [4]. One of these prohibitions is the second law of thermodynamics [5, 6]. There are several definitions of the second law. Two early ones by Carnot and Clausius, refer to heat engines [7, 8], which are not the subject of this paper. Furthermore, perpetual motion and similar devices are excluded [9]. Instead we focus on the statistical mechanical approach due to Boltzmann in 1877. Briefly, in Maxwell’s kinetic theory of an ideal gas, heat is due to the motion of the molecules. Each molecule can be in a number of different energy states ϵi, but can only be in one state at a time, so many states are empty. In a system of many molecules N, of which gicould be in the state ϵi, but only some of them, Ni, are occupied, where gi≫Ni and N= ΣiNi. In this degenerate system, there are several different configurations which all possess the same total energy and correspond to approximately the same temperature (Ni∝e−ϵi/kBT). The number of ways Niindistinguishable molecules can be distributed amongst gienergy states is gNi i/Ni!. The number of ways a particular macrostate can be achieved is Ω = (gN1 1/N1!) ×(gN2 2/N2!) . . . , which increases rapidly with the degeneracy. Boltzmann showed that the entropy S=kBln Ωwhere kBis the Boltzmann constant, and the thermodynamic probability Ωis at its maximum at equilibrium [10]. Therefore the entropy is maximum at equilibEllis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification 135 Volume 20 (2024) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (December) rium, and is interpreted as a measure of statistical disorder of the system. Thus the second law was formulated in the 19th century, is considered absolute, and is widely thought to lead to the “heat death” of the Universe. This is in effect a classical physics “Theory of Everything”. It is true that (superficially) there is considerable evidence that entropy (of baryonic matter) tends to increase with time. However, baryonic matter makes up only about 4% of the Universe. The other 96% consists of dark matter and dark energy; and we do not know what these are, nor what laws they obey. So it is illogical to assume that the second law applies to them — it may or it may not. Therefore it is perfectly rational to look for processes which create order out of chaos. If an effect is found, then the problem is to understand the results theoretically, so as to facilitate more probing experiments. This is not a general paper on the violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Our starting point is a little-known theory due to Brittin and Gamow (see equation (1) below). This predicts that sunlight shining on the Earth, pumps entropy out into space, thereby allowing negentropy (i.e. order) to accumulate on the Earth’s surface. This appears to be the beginning of the food chain proposed by Schr¨ odinger [11,12]. This paper is divided into three sections. In this first section, we present an exploratory experiment which provides evidence that visible light reverses the second law of thermodynamics by producing ordered states in an inanimate closed system (i.e. pure water), which persist. This persistence should not occur. Before we could investigate this in more detail experimentally, we needed a theoretical explanation for this persistence to guide the experimental work. This explanation comes from the little-known (chronometric invariant) extension of General Relativity (CIGR) mentioned above, which predicts a more complex structure for space-time. In particular it predicts a second time dimension directed from the future to the past and fundamental new phenomena at low energies. Details of this new theoretical approach, are presented in a previous paper and the references cited there [3]. Section II presents results of experiments to test this theoretical explanation. Section III presents conclusions, discussion, and predictions. We start by presenting the small exploratory experiment to test the Brittin and Gamow effect, which we did before this theoretical framework was developed. 1.1 Brittin and Gamow’s Theory Photons from the Sun’s surface (Ts≃5,900◦K) come to the Earth (Te≃300◦K), where they interact. Brittin and Gamow use the quantum theory of radiation to show that the net entropy change on the Earth’s surface is [13]: ∆S= ∆Ss−∆Se=4 3∆Q 1 Ts−1 Te!,(1) which is negative because Ts>Te. They reason that this is not contrary to the second law of thermodynamics because it is simply due to the temperature gradient Ts>Te>Tspace. (NB A similar temperature gradient applies to light from a halogen lamp: Th>Te>Tspace since Th≃3,000◦K.) This quantum effect enables negative entropy to build up on the Earth’s surface, provided it can be stored [14]. However, in the absence of a storage mechanism, any reduction in the entropy levels should dissipate as the (closed) system returns to equilibrium. Nevertheless, Brittin an Gamow calculate that photosynthesis has an efficiency of about 10% for capturing this negative entropy. So this is apparently not a purely physical theory because it relies upon plants (and hence biochemistry) to capture the negentropy. Does this mean that biochemistry alone enables plants to violate the second law? Or is there some underlying physical mechanism for storing the negative entropy, produced by visible light? The focus of this paper is to test the above theory in inanimate systems, specifically in water, by looking for reductions of entropy levels which persist. 1.2 Theory of Exploratory Experiment In order to investigate this, we have done the following simple experiment to test whether there is an underlying physical storage mechanism. 60% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, life is water-based, and plants are 70% water. So if there is a physical mechanism (i.e. not based on biochemistry) for storing this negative entropy, the most likely place to find it would be in water exposed to sunlight. 1.3 Entropy and Brownian Motion We decided to expose a bowl of pure water to sunlight and later measure the Brownian motion of particles therein, to determine if there is any persistent entropy change. Brownian motion is a random walk which covers the whole of phase space. As is well known, the probability ρ(x,t) of a suspended particle moving a distance xalong the x-axis in time tis [15,16] ρ(x,t)=e−x2/4D t 2√πDt ,(2) where Dis the diffusion constant. Diffusion takes place when a molecule moves to an unoccupied state, so that the more unoccupied states, the greater the diffusion. Entropy also increases when there are more unoccupied states, so that an increase in the diffusion constant implies an increase in entropy and vice versa. From the Fokker-Planck equation, the Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy S=−kBR+∞ −∞ ρ(x,t) ln ρ(x,t)dx where ρ(x,t) is given by equation (2) above. Hence S= −kBln 1/√4πDt−0.5so that as the diffusion constant increases, so does the entropy. Conversely, if the entropy has been reduced then the probability ρ(x,t) will become narrower. 136 Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification Issue 2 (December) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 20 (2024) Brownian Motion Experiment 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 5 10 15 20 counts microns 1a control fit 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 5 10 15 20 counts microns 1b sunlight fit 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 5 10 15 20 counts microns 1c electric fit Fig. 1: Distribution of particle displacements every 10 seconds for a) non-irradiated distilled water =control; b) water measured 10 months after exposure to sunlight =signal 1; c) water measured 17 days after exposure to light from an halogen lamp =electric (i.e. signal 2). The dashed curves show the fits — see Table 1 for details. Both the sunlight and electric light samples are narrower than the non-irradiated control by 21% FWHM. 1.4 Details of Exploratory Experiment Distilled water was exposed to sunlight for 8 days in August in the UK. Another sample was exposed to an halogen lamp (Th≃3,000◦K) so as to receive a similar level of illumination. Both samples were bottled and stored in a box away from direct light, at room temperature which varied by a few ◦C at most. A third sample was taken directly from the amber Winchester supply bottle without any deliberate exposure to light and used as the control. After storing the exposed samples, the Brownian motion measurements were made 10 months and 17 days later respectively, as follows. A few drops of the sample were placed on a microscope slide, 1 micron diamond particles were added, it was covered and viewed under a microscope (magnification ×1000), with a video attachment. The Brownian motion of the diamond particles was readily visible and recorded at room temperature. 1.5 Results of Exploratory Experiment Diamond particles with a diameter of about 0.7 microns were selected for measurement. The distance r=px2+y2moved in 10 seconds was measured. A number of particles were tracked for each sample, with a total of order 700 data points per sample. The distributions for the three samples are shown in Figure 1. There is little or no background and no long tails. Fits to the two-dimensional form of Einstein’s theory are very good, as shown by the curves in the Figures, and the chi-squares per degree of freedom, shown in Table 1, are all close to 1. So we have observed Brownian motion. The distributions of the solar and halogen (electric) samples, are both narrower than the non-irradiated control. The fits show that sunlight and halogen light have reduced the diffusion constant by about 23% and 22% respectively. (The difference δ=−0.01 ±.029 between these two signals is not statistically significant.) This translates into a reduction in the entropy by 4.7 ±0.7% for water exposed to sunlight and 4.4 ±0.7% for halogen light. These correspond to 6.5 and 6.2 standard deviations respectively, so this reduction in entropy is statistically significant. Therefore this is evidence for the Brittin and Gamow effect. However, this reduction in entropy has persisted, despite the samples being closed systems in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings, for 10 months and 17 days respectively, which is far longer than the few hours to reach thermal equilibrium. So there appears to be a physical mechanism for storing the negentropy. What is this? 1.6 Discussion and Second Law In the above experiments, most visible photons pass through the water because it is transparent. A few interact dynamically with water molecules, which can lower the entropy level locally by the Brittin and Gamow effect (see equation (3) below). Then according to the second law, as the water returns to thermal equilibrium, the entropy should return to the maximum. Pippard said that the second law is not violated under any circumstances [5]. Thus the fleeting kinematic effects of photons could not produce a persistant effect unless Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification 137 Volume 20 (2024) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (December) Table 1: Exploratory experiment: Determination of Diffusion Constants and Entropy for water exposed to sunlight and halogen light. Sample type or difference χ2/DF Diffusion constant µm2/sec Entropy S kB=1 ∆S(signal — control) ∆S/σ (No. of std. devn.) Signal 1 =solarized water 1.13 0.691 +.019 −.021 2.732 +.014 −.015 −4.7±0.7% 6.5 Control =non-irradiated water 0.91 0.903 +.023 −.026 2.866 +.013 −.015 — — Signal 2 =halogen light water 1.15 0.701 +.020 −.022 2.739 +.014 −.016 −4.4±0.7% 6.2 δ=(signal 1 — signal 2) δ=−0.01 ±.029 there is some agency which causes or facilitates this persistence. Without such a mechanism, this persistence violates the second law. In both experiments above (sunlight and halogen), it is just photons in and photons out. Photons are massless and travel at the speed of light, and cannot combine chemically with water. Therefore we rule out the so-called “memory of water” — see Appendix A for details. The interaction of photons with water is purely dynamical. Assuming that the water molecules move at random, one would expect the reductions in entropy to dissipate as the water returns to equilibrium. But this does not happen in the above experiment. There are two possible types of explanation for this. Either this effect is a property of water (e.g. due to its structure), or it is due to some external agency. It is generally accepted that water has some peculiar properties, some of which may be explained by its structure. Theories of the structure of water are summarised in Appendix B, where it is shown that they do not explain the phenomena observed. Therefore these isothermal entropy reductions must persist because there is some external agency which causes them too. For example, when a magnetic field is applied to a perfect spin gas, the spins become aligned and the entropy decreases. This can occur at constant temperature, in which case both the energy levels and their populations change to correspond to the same Boltzmann distribution for that temperature [17]. In general an isothermal entropy change requires both the energy levels and their populations to change. However the above results, whilst they show an isothermal entropy decrease, cannot be so explained because there is no external field to entrain the water molecules. The Earth’s gravity and magnetic fields would not do this, nor did they affect the control. Furthermore we present evidence below and in Appendix B, that the structure of water did not cause this persistence. So we need to find an alternative explanation. There are two additional possibilities: either this simple experiment and the others below, are wrong, or there is something we don’t know about the second law. In order to avoid theoretical bias, we decided to accept the experimental results at their face value and investigate an alternative (theoretical) solution. One way to understand the above experiment is in terms of the arrow of time. Eddington noted that entropy tends to increase with time [6]. What happens when photons lower the entropy level, as observed above? Does the Brittin and Gamow effect reverse the arrow of time? There are three possibilities: 1. It does not affect the flow of time, in opposition to Eddington’s hypothesis. Therefore the reduction in entropy would dissipate as the system returned to thermal equilibrium, contrary to the observations. 2. The direction of time is reversed momentarily, probably locally where the photon interacts, but returns to normal after the entropy has been reduced. However, the entropy would then increase as the system returned to equilibrium, contrary to the observations. 3. The direction of time is reversed locally and this persists. One possibility is that when a photon interacts, it switches the direction of the flow of time into another spacetime, where time flows from the future to the past, if such a space-time exists. In this way, this effect would not violate the second law nor the arrow of time. Furthermore, this second type of space-time could provide the external agency required for this phenomenon to persist. There is a version of General Relativity which predicts another space where time flows from the future to the past. We have discussed this in more detail in the theory paper referred to above [3]. However we give a brief summary here. 1.7 Chronometric Invariant General Relativity In the 1930s, Landau pointed out that General Relativity is not complete because it does not allow for the Observer’s reference frame [18]. Zelmanov correctly introduced the Observer using chronometric invariants [19, 20]. Borissova and Rabounski have shown that Chronometric Invariant General Relativity (CIGR) requires the existence of a second sector (mirror world) with a second time dimension directed from the future to the past [2,21,22]. The mirror world is separated from normal space-time by a membrane with three layers, but 138 Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification Issue 2 (December) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 20 (2024) shares the same space as normal space-time. We make the following deductions from this theory: 1. This second time dimension is a macroscopic one. 2. This second time dimension enables entropy levels to decrease with respect to our time, and therefore makes the second law of thermodynamics dual. 3. The membrane between the two worlds consists of 3 layers, 2 layers of photons (1 positive energy on the outside, the other negative on the inside) and a middle layer which is purely spacial with no time dimension, so photons cannot traverse is. It is thus opaque to photons and will reflect or scatter them. 4. We make the hypothesis that light, under certain circumstances, can switch space-time into the mirror world state, by means of the Brittin and Gamow effect, in which light reduces the entropy level and so reverses the direction of time. We call this the photo-mirror hypothesis [3]. The persistent decrease in the entropy of water exposed to sunlight and of that exposed to halogen light observed above, are preliminary evidence for the photo-mirror hypothesis. 1.8 Conclusions for Section I: Brownian Motion Experiment 1. Brownian motion has been observed in the above experiments. 2. Sunlight and halogen light both reduced the entropy levels in water by approximately the same amount within the errors. This reduction persisted (for at least 10 months and 17 days respectively), so there appears to be a physical mechanism for storing negentropy in water. 3. Theories of the structure of water do not explain this persistence. Therefore it must be due to some external agency. 4. We deduce that the external agency is probably a second space-time. For example, Chronometric Invariant General Relativity has a second macroscopic time dimension, which is directed from the future to the past. 5. We make the hypothesis that visible light can switch, via the Brittin and Gamow effect (when it lowers the entropy level), the direction of time into mirror space-time. We call this the photo-mirror hypothesis. The rest of this paper is directed to finding more specific evidence for this. 2 Light and Water Light shining on pure water is a physical system. We decided to look for additional evidence for the Brittin and Gamow effect, for this hypothetical second time dimension and for the photo mirror hypothesis. To do this we exposed HPLC grade water to a 400 watt halogen lamp (1100 lux at surface of the water) and took regular samples for up to 6 days. 2.1 Viscometer Experiment The statistical error in the exploratory experiment above goes as 1/√M, where Mis the number of observations, which -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 1 10 100 1000 Viscosity (Pa.s) Frequency (turns/sec) Viscosity of water exposed to halogen light Halogen light sample Control Fig. 2: This rheometer data shows the halogen sample has two components: at low turns per second the viscosity is above the control, and at higher tps it is below the control. makes it labour intensive to increase the precision. So for M=700 the error is about 4%. There is another equation due to Einstein: D=RT/6πNηawhere Ris the gas constant, η is the viscosity, ais the radius of the particle, and Nis Avogadro’s number; which shows that the diffusion constant Dis inversely proportional to the viscosity. The advantage is that viscosity can normally be measured with a precision of about 0.1% using a capillary viscometer (in a constant temperature bath), with a stop watch. The viscometer used gave precise results for the untreated (i.e. not deliberately exposed to light) HPLC grade samples, which agreed with the known viscosity of water at 20◦C with a precision of about 0.1% or better, as expected. However, results for all the halogen light treated samples tended to be less consistent, even if they had been exposed to halogen light for only a few hours. Repeated measurements of the same halogen light treated sample had a much wider spread, up to five times that for the control (i.e. untreated), despite attention to detail, such as cleansing between samples. (More details of the viscometer technique, are given in the following reference [23].) Despite these larger errors, all the viscosity measurements of treated water were significantly greater than that of untreated pure water, implying that light lowers the diffusion constant and hence the entropy, as originally observed. However, there was evidence that irradiated samples had two components, with different viscosities. 2.2 Rheometer Experiment To investigate this possibility of two components, a sample was exposed to halogen light for 48 hours. Three days later, it was measured using a cone-and-plate rotation rheometer [24]. Distilled water was used as the control. The results are given in Figure 2. Note, the increase in the viscosity of distilled water below 10 turns per second (tps) is an instrumental effect. Nevertheless, the data shows that the water which has been exposed to halogen light, has two components, one with visEllis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification 139 Volume 20 (2024) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (December) Fig. 3: The control sample of distilled water, examined using a novel microscope technique. It looks mainly black because there are no “structures” or domains to reflect the light, apart from a bit of noise (e.g. from ambient lighting). cosity greater than that of the control at low tps, the other with viscosity less than that of the control at higher tps. So the water exposed to halogen light has two components. What are these? 2.3 Theory of light and water Whilst Brittin and Gamow’s theory (equation 1) is derived from the quantum theory of radiation, it is presented there in terms of the macroscopic energy flow from the Sun to the Earth, and then from the Earth to space. In this experiment, light from a halogen lamp shining onto a bowl of water, consists of individual photons. Water is transparent and so most photons pass straight through, and only occasionally does a photon interact with the water, so that ∆Qis replaced by the energy of that photon hν: δS=4hν 3 1 Ts/h−1 Te!.(3) This energy is radiated away by lower energy photons, and there is a small reduction in entropy δSlocally in the water. Then by the photo-mirror hypothesis, a small region around this interaction would be switched into the mirror world state. According to CIGR, this will automatically be surrounded by the triple-layer membrane, since the two worlds are separated by this membrane. This enclosed mirrorworld region could then persist in the water, because the momenta of molecules in the mirror state are still positive, and so will balance across the membrane. We will refer to these small mirror-world states as “domains”, or in the case of images or software detection thereof, as “structures” or “sources”. 2.4 Microscope Experiment In order to make visible these otherwise hidden domains in water, we have used a novel microscope technique developed by Schweitzer [25]. This technique involves first examining the sample with normal illumination to see if it contains any bacteria, dust particles or other impurities. If the sample is clear (as expected for distilled water), then a drop of the water is allowed to evaporate whilst illuminated from the side, approximately orthogonal to the direction of view. When it is about 0.1 mm thick, hidden structures or domains, if present, become visible, provided that the side illumination and other conditions are correct (see Appendix C for details of this technique). Quite why domains in bulk water are invisible, yet become visible when the thickness is less than about 0.1 mm, is not clear. Perhaps when the water becomes thin enough, the domain membranes become distorted and start to scatter the side illumination. The theory needs to be worked out in more detail. We just report the experimental facts. Figure 3 shows the results using this technique, for the 140 Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification Issue 2 (December) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 20 (2024) Fig. 4: Hidden domains in water exposed to halogen light for 37.5 hours, revealed by a novel microscope technique using side illumination. These domains are 0.2 to 1.5 microns in size, with a few exceptions. control sample of distilled water (i.e. not HPLC grade) which has not been deliberately exposed to sunlight nor halogen light (although it may have been exposed to some ambient lighting during the experiment). The process of distillation randomises the water and so breaks up any “structures” or domains, so that this control sample looks mainly black because there are few “structures” or domains to scatter or reflect the light, apart from a bit of “noise”. Figure 4 shows the first sample, which had been exposed to a 500 Watt halogen lamp for 37.5 hours. Figure 5 shows the second sample which had been exposed to halogen light for 79.5 hours. These are the black and white versions of the original colour CCD images, which are also mainly black and white. There are no signs in the originals, of a range of colours, which could come from diffraction. We conclude that these domains are reflecting or scattering light (from the side illumination) into the microscope. The first image (figure 4) was recorded 20 days after exposure to halogen light, and the second (figure 5) 27 days after exposure. So the effect persists. 2.5 Analysis of Results of Microscope Experiment In both images there are hundreds of white “sources” which are 0.2 to 1.5 microns across (apart from a few which have started to merge together), independent of exposure time. The existence of these 0.2 to 1.5 micron zones in the water suggest that halogen photons have interacted with the water according to equation (3). If these sources are so produced, then there should be some correlation between their size distribution and the energy spectrum of the photons which produced them. We investigate this and their persistence in more detail below. These domains look like stars in the night sky, even though they are being observed with a microscope instead of a telescope. The appearance is so similar that we decided to use astronomy software to do pattern recognition on these images [26]. The software was run with the default parameters and found 1288 “sources” in the shorter exposure (figure 4) and 935 in the longer one (figure 5), which is a bit less because of the black regions in that image. The program calculates the isophotal flux which is defined as the sum of the pixel counts above backround of all the pixels in a particular “source” (Pi∈Spi). The histograms of the isophotal flux, or brightness, for the sources detected in the two images are shown in Figures 6 and 7 respectively, by solid lines. The selection criteria in the software for distinct sources affected the first two bins, so they are excluded. We have also plotted the spectrum of light from the halogen lamp, which has been converted from wavelengths to electron volts [27]. The halogen spectrum (broken line) falls away from the main peak quite quickly down to the secondary peak, and then decreases more slowly after that, matching the two measured brightness distributions well. This suggests the halogen photons have caused these sources. Furthermore, the brightness is independent of the exposure time, being depenEllis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification 141 Volume 20 (2024) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (December) Fig. 5: Hidden domains in water exposed to halogen light for 79.5 hours, revealed by a novel microscope technique using side illumination. These are 0.2 to 1.5 microns in size. dent on the photon energy, as predicted by equation 3. We then fitted this spectrum to the data using just three parameters for the least squares fit: an x-axis offset because the photon energy corresponding to zero brightness is about 1.55 eV; an x-axis scaling parameter to convert from electron volts to brightness (counts); and a vertical scaling factor to convert from relative intensity to counts. The chi-squares per degree of freedom are 1.49 and 0.94 in Figures 6 and 7 respectively. So the two brightness distributions have the same shape as the halogen light spectrum, independent of the exposure time, as predicted by equation 3. This confirms that halogen photons have caused these domains via the Brittin and Gamow effect. The problem with Figure 4 and 5 is that they are pictures. So although we see sources, we do not know if these are produced by the incident halogen photons, or by dust particles, or possibly even bacteria. The advantage of the astronomy software is that enables us to quantify the data and plot the brightness distributions and compare them with the halogen energy spectrum. We see in Figures 6 and 7 that they have almost the same shape, which is confirmed by the fits. Therefore these domains have been produced by halogen photons by the mechanism given in equation 3. Furthermore, these mirror world domains are correlated with photons whose energies are quantised. Therefore we observe the “quantisation” of regions of water probably in mirror-space-time. We then combined the two spectra. This is shown in Figure 8 and the chi-square per degree of freedom is 1.67. This is good evidence that the domains are being produced by the photons from the halogen lamp. Nothing material has changed — it is just photons in and photons out. But the state of the water has changed proportionately to the energy of the incident photon, and the effect persists. 2.6 Scattering from Surface or Volume of Domains Do these domains reflect or scatter the side illumination from their surface or from their volume? According to equation 3 the decrease in entropy is proportional to the energy of the interacting photon. If the randomness of water is homogeneous, as one expects from the normal second law of thermodynamics, then the volume of the region generated with this reduced entropy δSwill be proportional to the energy of the incident photon. Therefore if scattering is from the volume, then the brightness of these domains will be similar to that of the spectrum from the halogen lamp, as observed above. However, it is probable that scattering comes from the surface for two reasons. Firstly because bulk water is transparent to the side illumination and appears black (e.g. Figure 3). If it scatters side illumination, then the water has changed in some way, for which there is no explanation, except perhaps CIGR. Secondly CIGR predicts there is a triple layer membrane around these domains which is impenetrable to photons, and therefore the scattering comes from the surface. 142 Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification Issue 2 (December) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 20 (2024) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 0 10 20 30 40 50 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 counts Relative intensity Brightness (counts) Brightness distribution of ’sources’ in water with spectrum of halogen light Photon energy (eV) Brightness of sources Photon spectrum Fig. 6: Brightness distribution after exposure to halogen light for 37.5 hours, plus the spectrum of halogen light in eV. χ2/DF of fit is 1.49. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2 2.5 3 3.5 counts Relative intensity Brightness (counts) Brightness distribution of ’sources’ in water with spectrum of halogen light Photon energy (eV) Brightness of sources Photon spectrum Fig. 7: Brightness distribution after 79.5 hours exposure to halogen light, with halogen spectrum. χ2/DF of fit is 0.94. 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 0 10 20 30 40 50 2 2.5 3 3.5 counts Relative intesnity Brightness (counts) Brightness distribution of ’sources’ in water with spectrum of halogen light Photon energy (eV) Brightness of sources Photon spectrum Fig. 8: Combined brightness distributions with halogen spectrum. χ2of fit is 1.67. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 2 4 6 8 10 counts Elongation (ratio) Elongation of ’structures’ in both samples halogen Fig. 9: Histogram of elongation (=major axis/minor axis) for both images. We investigate the scattering as follows. In the absence of a complete unified theory of CIGR and Quantum Mechanics in water, we reason that these persistant domains probably have a stable shape, such as a spherical one or spheroidal one which is not too elongated. The source extraction software fits an ellipse to each “source” and calculates the major and minor axes, and their ratio, the “elongation”, which is ⩾1. The distributions of the elongations for the two images, are very similar, so we have plotted them together in Figure 9. This is quite a narrow distribution: 74% have elongation less than 1.4. So most domains are only slightly elongated, as we expect for stable structures. We now investigate the brightness distribution for different ranges of elongation El. Figure 10(a) shows the brightness distribution for elongation El <1.2; 10(b) for the elongation in the range 1.2–1.4; and 10(c) for elongation El ⩾1.4. We see that the more elongated domains tend to have higher brightness. We have shown above that brighter domains tend to be correlated with more energetic photons. Higher energy photons have higher momenta and will interact over longer distances in the water, and so reduce the entropy level in more elongated regions, as observed. This is evidence for this kinematic effect, In Figure 10(a) (elongation <1.2) only 5% of the total, have brightness greater than 1300 counts, whereas in 10(b) 20% have brightness greater than 1300, and in 10(c) 41% have brightness greater than 1300. So brighter domains are there in the data, but hardly any are detected in 10(a) with elongation <1.2. Elongated domains must be in this sample, but with their longer axes pointing towards or away from the microscope, so that they do not appear elongated. If these hidden elongated domains were scattering and reflecting side illumination from their volume, then they would show up as brighter domains in 10(a). But they are not there in significant numbers, and so we conclude that they are scattering and/or reflecting the external light source from their surface, as predicted by CIGR. Ellis R. Preliminary Evidence for a Second Time Dimension Directed from the Future to the Past, and for Unification 143