Sustainable Water and Cold Chain Solutions: Solar-Powered Desalination and Ice Production for Arid Climates

International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 164 Sustainable Water and Cold Chain Solutions: Solar-Powered Desalination and Ice Production for Arid Climates Lakdar Kairouani 1 and Khira Dchich 1 1 Higher School of Engineering and Technological Studies (ESIET), Arab University of Sciences (UAS), 34 Av. Cyrus Legrand, Tunis 1002, Tunisia ✉[email protected] ✉[email protected] ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT ©2025 RS Publication Paper ID: ID: IJRES68C1ADAFD09D1 Received: 2025-09-16 Published: 2025-10-16 DOI: https://dx.doi.or g/10.5281/zenodo. 17375114 Page No: 164-172 This research proposes a combined desalination and ice production facility for dry climates, utilizing solar energy harvested through photovoltaics. The integrated system is designed for a daily output of 10 tons of potable ice and 1000 cubic meters of water suitable for agricultural use, sourced from moderately saline groundwater. The proposed infrastructure combines photovoltaic electricity generation, reverse osmosis membrane separation, and refrigeration technology for ice creation. In contrast to systems reliant on fossil fuels, this plant offers significant environmental advantages, preventing the release of an estimated 1500 tons of carbon dioxide each year. This investigation evaluates potential equipment providers, assesses the practicality of the design, analyzes its financial profitability, and underscores its ecological advantages. The project holds significant promise for areas grappling with limited water resources and the need for improved food storage. Keywords: Brackish water treatment, CO₂ emissions reduction, Cold chain, Desalination, Environmental impact, Ice production, PV system, Renewable energy, RO, Technoeconomic analysis. Highlights  Dual-purpose station producing 1000 m³/day irrigation water and 10 tons/day sanitary ice.  PV system dimensioned for 7 h/day solar availability: about 0.86 MWp capacity, about 5500 m² module surface.  Water quality improved from 2000-5000 mg/L TDS (brackish) to less than 500 mg/L TDS (post-RO), meeting FAO/WHO standards.  Environmental impact: about 1500 tons CO₂ avoided annually, brine discharge requires management.  Strong technical feasibility, economic viability, and sustainability benefits for Arid Regions. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Cite This Paper: Lakdar Kairouani and Khira Dchich (2025). "Sustainable Water and Cold Chain Solutions: Solar-Powered Desalination and Ice Production for Arid Climates". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN ENGINEERING & SCIENCE (IJRES) , vol. 9, no. 5, 2025, pp. 164-172 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17375114 International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 165 1. Introduction Water scarcity and food security represent significant global challenges in the 21st century, with particular severity in arid and semi-arid zones. Many nations, especially those located in North Africa, the Middle East, and certain littoral areas, experience a paradoxical situation characterized by critical water stress for both residential and agricultural purposes, despite the presence of substantial reserves of non-potable water sources, such as saline groundwater or seawater bordering their extensive coastlines (World Bank, 2019). Concurrently, these regions are endowed with a valuable natural resource: elevated levels of solar irradiance. This contradiction is merely one facet of a more intricate problem. The agricultural and fisheries industries are significantly impacted by the adverse effects of high temperatures. Persistent inadequacies in storage infrastructure, coupled with prolonged periods of elevated temperatures, both diurnal and nocturnal, result in extensive spoilage and wastage of freshly produced food (FAO, 2021). This dual constraint, encompassing limited water availability and the inability to adequately preserve food, perpetuates food insecurity, impedes economic progress, and exacerbates impoverishment in rural communities. Therefore, it is crucial to formulate comprehensive, sustainable, and adaptable strategies capable of transforming inherent limitations into opportunities. This investigation seeks to explore and model a novel, synergistic strategy predicated on the principle of utilizing readily available solar energy, a renewable and locally accessible resource, as a primary instrument to address both challenges concurrently. The application of solar photovoltaic energy, which has experienced consistent cost reductions in recent years (IRENA, 2023), is particularly pertinent for enhancing the economic viability of desalination and refrigeration processes. Consequently, the primary aim of this research is to evaluate the technical and economic viability of a coupled system, wherein photovoltaic (PV) arrays supply power to two essential components: * A reverse osmosis (RO) desalination system designed to convert brackish or seawater into water suitable for both human consumption and agricultural irrigation. This membrane-based technology is well-suited for the treatment of brackish water, offering regulated energy consumption (Al-Kaabi et al., 2021). * A food refrigeration unit dedicated to the chilling and preservation of agricultural and International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 166 fishery products, spanning from the point of origin to the marketplace, thereby substantially minimizing post-harvest losses. Solar-powered cooling solutions are recognized as promising for food supply chains in developing nations (IRENA, 2015). This methodological approach offers several key benefits. First, it facilitates partial or complete independence from the national electrical grid, which is often unreliable, expensive, and characterized by high carbon emissions in the regions under consideration. Second, it provides a localized and decentralized solution that can be tailored to the specific requirements of coastal communities or remote rural regions. Finally, it aligns with lowcarbon development pathways, avoiding the emission of greenhouse gasses associated with electricity generation from fossil fuels. The use of solar energy for desalination in agriculture in dry land regions has been regarded as a possible answer to these problems (Ahmed Bdour et al., 2024). This analysis will initially contextualize the magnitude of the challenges pertaining to water and food security in sun-drenched coastal regions. Subsequently, it will review the current state of prominent technologies, including reverse osmosis desalination and food refrigeration, with an emphasis on their energy demands and recent advancements, incorporating the issue of brine by-product management (Jones et al., 2019). It will then present the evolution of the photovoltaic sector and its potential to sustainably power these processes, employing standardized methods to assess system energy efficiency (Shahzad et al., 2018). Finally, it will delineate the central theme of the study: how the synergistic integration of these three technologies can foster a beneficial cycle for the sustainable progress of these vulnerable areas, reflecting broader research into the resilience of agrifood systems (FAO, 2021). 2. Description of the Installation Some regions need water for irrigation, conservation systems for agricultural and fisheries products, and human requirements because they are both desert and sunny at the same time. This study is suggested in light of this. The reverse osmosis desalination machine, ice production unit, and auxiliary equipment are powered by a series of photovoltaic panels that make up the planned system. The features and space requirements of the various units are described below. 1000 m 3 of desalinated water are produced daily by the system; 10 m 3 are used to make ice, and the remaining water is utilized to irrigate farmland. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 167 The design and process flow diagram of a green desalination and ice production system, which incorporates appropriate modules from both local and international markets, are depicted in Figure 1. Figure 1 describes the many interrelated portions of the planned plant process flow diagram. Figure 1: Conceptual process flow diagram of the integrated solar-powered desalination and ice production system The planned installation is intended to generate 10000 kg of ice and 1000 m 3 of desalinated water daily. About 1000 m 3 of the brine is extracted for various purposes. The following lists the photovoltaic panels, RO desalination unit, ice producing unit, required spaces and accessories, and the size of the agricultural land: 2.1. Photovoltaic Power Plant The photovoltaic (PV) system's capacity was determined by local solar irradiance data, with an average of seven peak sun hours (PSH) per day utilized in the estimations to guarantee consistent daily function of the desalination and ice production facilities. After factoring in various system inefficiencies stemming from components such as inverters, cables, temperature variations, and dust accumulation, the overall required PV capacity was established. The dimensioning methodology for the solar-powered brackish water desalination and sanitary ice production system components was predicated on specific assumptions and computational approaches, detailed below: The photovoltaic (PV) system's size was calculated based on the subsequent premises and procedure: * The cumulative energy requirement was defined as the sum of the energy necessary for desalination and the energy needed for ice production. * The desalination energy demand was estimated to range from 3500 to 4000 kWh per day, based on a production volume of 1000 cubic meters per day and a specific energy consumption of 3.5 to 4.0 kWh per cubic meter (Qasim, M., et al. 2019). * The ice production energy demand was estimated to range from 900 to 1000 kWh per day, assuming a production target of 10 tons per day and an energy consumption of 90 to PV Array Brackish water Freshwater Storage RO Unit Brine Discharge Ice Production Auxiliaries International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 168 100 kWh per ton (Shandong Baocheng Refrigeration Equipment Co., Ltd). * Consequently, the total daily energy demand was calculated to fall within the range of 4400 to 5000 kWh per day. * Given an average solar irradiation of 7 hours per day (Frija et al., 2020), the required PV capacity was determined to be between 630 kWp (4400/7) and 715 kWp (5000/7). * Taking into account system losses, estimated at 15-20%, the adjusted installed PV capacity was established at 0.86 MWp. * Assuming a module efficiency of 18% and a solar irradiance of 1000 W/m², the necessary surface area was calculated as PV capacity divided by the product of module efficiency and solar irradiance, resulting in approximately 4722 m² (860,000/180). This value was then rounded up to approximately 5500 m² to accommodate spacing requirements and facilitate maintenance operations. 2.1.1. Surface of PV Modules To approximate the required area for photovoltaic (PV) modules, the subsequent parameters were taken into consideration: * PV system rated power: 0.86 MWp * Module conversion efficiency: 18% * Incident solar radiation: approximately 1000 W/m² The calculation of the necessary surface area proceeded as follows: The power output per unit area of the module was determined by multiplying the incident solar irradiance by the module efficiency, yielding 180 W/m². Dividing the total system rated power (857,000 W) by the module power density (180 W/m²) results in an estimated module surface area of 4761 m², approximated to 0.48 hectares. Considering factors such as interrow spacing, module tilt angle for optimal solar capture, and provisions for maintenance operations, a total land area of approximately 5.5 hectares is recommended for the PV installation. Potential vendors and producers of the equipment essential for a photovoltaic installation within the global market are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Suppliers and manufacturers for photovoltaic installation Equipment Manufacturers / Suppliers PV Panels (500–600 Wp) JinkoSolar, Trina Solar, LONGi, SunPower Inverters SMA, Huawei, Sungrow Battery Storage (1 to 2 MWh) Tesla, BYD, Saft 2.2. Reverse osmosis desalination plant (RO) The reverse osmosis desalination plant provides 1000m 3 of desalinated water per day from a brackish water source whose characteristics are provided in Table 2. Table 2 below shows the characteristics of the brackish water and the desalinated water. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 169 Table 2: Brackish Water Feed and Desalinated Water Quality (Post-RO) Parameter Typical Value Achieved Value TDS (mg/L) 2,000-5,000 < 500 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 3-7 dS/m < 0.75 pH 6.8-7.5 6.5 – 8.0 Hardness (as CaCO₃) 300-800 mg/L 50 – 150 Chloride (Cl⁻) 500-1500 mg/L < 250 The reverse osmosis desalination unit treats brackish water, the physicochemical characteristics of which are listed in the Table 2, to produce drinking and irrigation water. This unit is selected based on its production capacity and the quality of the water produced. For information purposes, the Table 3 lists several manufacturers of these treatment modules. Table 3: Suppliers and manufacturers for Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis (1000 m³/day) Equipment Manufacturers / Suppliers RO Membranes DuPont FilmTec, Hydranautics, Toray, Hydropro WS Pumps Grundfos, KSB, Flowserve RO Packages Veolia, Suez, Metito The desalinated water meets FAO, WHO standards, making it safe for irrigation and sanitary ice production. The RO process reduces TDS and chloride to levels suitable for irrigation and ice production. Post-treatment remineralization adjusts pH and hardness as needed for agricultural suitability. Comparison with Standards is indicate in Table 4 Table 4: Parameter FAO Irrigation Guideline WHO Drinking Water TDS (mg/L) < 2000 < 1000 EC (dS/m) < 3.0 - pH 6.5 - 8.4 6.5-8.5 Hardness (mg/L as CaCO₃) < 500 ≤ 500 Chloride (mg/L) < 250 < 250 2.3. Sanitary Ice Production (10 tons/day) The sanitary ice production unit transforms the desired quantity of treated water into ice blocks. This unit is selected based on its production capacity and the quality of the ice produced. This unit must have a high coefficient of performance to reduce its electricity consumption. The refrigerant used in this unit must also conform with environmental standards. For information purposes, the Table 5 lists several manufacturers of these sanitary ice block production modules. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 170 Table 5: Equipment Manufacturers / Suppliers Block Ice Machines Shandong Baocheng Refrigeration Equipment Co., Ltd, Geneglace, Scotsman, Hoshizaki Compressors Bitzer, Daikin, Frascold Ice Storage Geneglace, Ice Systems Ltd, Carrier, Thermo King Backup Generator 250 kVA - various suppliers 3. Techno-Economic Assessment The estimated prices of the various components of the entire installation are shown in Table 6. Based on these prices, the payback time was calculated. Table 6: Components ant Cost in (M USD) Component Cost (M USD) PV Plant (0.86 MWp) 0.8 – 0.9 RO Desalination (1000 m³/day) 0.7 Ice Plant (10 t/day) 0.3 Storage & Civil Works 0.5 Total 2.3 – 2.4 Investment costs are derived from recent project data in North Africa, (Frija et al., 2020) and (Ghaffour et al., 2015):  PV plant (0.85 MWp): 0.9–1.0 M USD.  RO desalination plant (1000 m³/day): 0.7 M USD.  Ice production unit (10 t/day): 0.25-0.3 M USD.  Storage, civil works, distribution: 0.5 M USD. Total investment cost = 2.3-2.4 M USD. Operating costs:  Desalinated water = 0.45-0.60 USD/m³, (Qasim et al. 2019).  Sanitary ice = 70-90 USD/ton, (GEA Group, 2020).  Operating Expenditure (OPEX): 0.15-0.20 USD/m³ water; 60-80 USD/ton ice. Payback period: 6-8 years depending on subsidies. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 171 4. Environmental Impact To estimate the amount of CO 2 saved, the following data were considered:  Diesel desalination and ice plants typically consume 0.3-0.4 L diesel/kWh, (Shatat et al., 2012).  Equivalent energy demand = 4400-5000 kWh/day or 1.5-1.8 million kWh/year.  Diesel-based emissions = 0.27-0.30 kg CO₂/kWh or 1600-1700 tons CO₂/year.  PV-based emissions negligible. Avoided emissions = about 1500 tons CO₂/year. These data allow us to obtain the following results: - CO₂ reduction: about 1500 tons/year avoided compared to diesel. - Food security: irrigation for about 50 hectares of agricultural land, (Ayers et al.,1994). - Cold chain: reduces post-harvest losses by 20-30%, (Ben Salem et al.,2019). - Brine management: about 1000 m³/day at 8 to 10 g/L TDS requires controlled discharge or valorization. 5. Conclusion This study confirms the technical and economic feasibility of a solar-powered dual-purpose desalination and ice production plant in arid regions. With modest investment (about 2.3 to 2.4 M USD), it ensures sustainable water and cold chain solutions, while mitigating CO₂ emissions. Pilot projects should focus on brine valorization, smart irrigation integration, and local manufacturing opportunities. References - Abdulrahman Al-Kaabi, Huda Al-Sulaiti, Tareq Al-Ansari, Hamish R. Mackey (2021). 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A standard primary energy International Journal of Research in Engineering & Science ISSN:(P) 2572-4274 (O) 2572-4304 Available online on http://rspublication.com/IJRES/IJRE.html volume 9 Number 5, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17375114 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 172 approach for comparing desalination processes. npj Clean Water, 1(1), 2. -World Bank. (2019). Beyond Scarcity: Water Security in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank Group. -Qasim, M., et al. (2019). Reverse osmosis desalination: A state-of-the-art review. Desalination, 459, 59–104. -Shandong Baocheng Refrigeration Equipment Co., Ltd. Ice Block Machine Technical Data. https://www.baocharm.com/lce-block-machine. -Frija, A., Chebil, A., & Dhehibi, B. (2020). Economic assessment of solar-powered desalination for agriculture in Tunisia. Renewable Energy, 152, 1463–1472. -Ghaffour, N., Missimer, T.M., & Amy, G.L. (2015). Technical review and evaluation of the economics of water desalination. Desalination, 356, 94-114. -GEA Group. (2020). Ice Production Systems: Technical and Cost Benchmarks. GEA Technical Datasheet. -Shatat, M., Riffat, S. B. (2012). Water desalination technologies utilizing conventional and renewable energy sources. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 9(1), 1-19. -Ayers, R.S., & Westcot, D.W. (1994). Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1. FAO. -Ben Salem, H., & Mzoughi, N. (2019). Post-harvest losses in the Tunisian fisheries sector. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 10(5), 55-64. Nomenclature Wp: Watt-peak, nominal PV module power under Standard Test Conditions (STC: 1000 W/m² irradiance, 25 °C cell temperature, AM 1.5 spectrum). PSH: Peak Sun Hours, average equivalent full-sun hours per day. TDS: Total Dissolved Solids, expressed in mg/L. EC: Electrical Conductivity, expressed in dS/m. pH: Measure of water acidity/alkalinity. CaCO₃: Calcium carbonate equivalent, used for hardness (mg/L). Cl⁻: Chloride concentration (mg/L). CAPEX: Capital Expenditure, investment costs (USD). OPEX: Operational Expenditure, annual operating costs (USD). Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Arab University of Sciences (UAS), Tunis, Tunisia.