Invalidating Environment and Clinical Symptoms: The Moderator Role of Meaning in Life

Journal of Constructivist Psychology ISSN: 1072-0537 (Print) 1521-0650 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/upcy20 Invalidating Environment and Clinical Symptoms: The Moderator Role of Meaning in Life María-Pilar Tormo-Irún, Jesús Privado, Joanne de la Caridad Cruz García & José H. Marco To cite this article: María-Pilar Tormo-Irún, Jesús Privado, Joanne de la Caridad Cruz García & José H. Marco (14 Oct 2025): Invalidating Environment and Clinical Symptoms: The Moderator Role of Meaning in Life, Journal of Constructivist Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/10720537.2025.2571889 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10720537.2025.2571889 Published online: 14 Oct 2025. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=upcy20 Journal of ConstruCtivist PsyChology Invalidating Environment and Clinical Symptoms: The Moderator Role of Meaning in Life María-Pilar Tormo-Irúna , Jesús Privadoa , Joanne de la Caridad Cruz Garcíaa and José H. Marcob,c aDepartment of health sciences, valencian international university, valencia, spain; bDepartment of Psychology. Personality, assessment and Psychological treatment, university of valencia, valencia, spain; cCiber Physiopathology, obesity and nutrition (CB06/03), health institute Carlos iii, Madrid ABSTRACT The present research examines the potential protective role of meaning in life in mitigating the emotional effects associated with an invalidating family environment in a Spanish-speaking university population. A quantitative, cross-sectional, and retrospective study was conducted using an online survey divided into sociodemographic and clinical data, as well as adaptations to the Spanish versions of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire, the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Invalidating Childhood Environments Scale. The sample consisted of 402 participants. Their ages ranged between 22 and 66 years old, and all of them were Spanish-speakers, mainly from Europe, North America, and Latin America. Moreover, 8.70% (n = 31) reported having been diagnosed with a mental health disorder during childhood, adolescence, or young adulthood. Results showed that Meaning in life moderates the relationship between an invalidating paternal environment and overall psychopathology. Meaning in life may act as a protective factor that mediates between individuals’ psychological well-being and their mental health status and mitigates the negative emotional effects stemming from an invalidating family environment. Invalidating environments and psychopathology One of the basic skills that has been shown to be associated with better family functioning and communication, as well as fewer disturbed behaviors and family arguments, is the frequency of validation behaviors in the family. Validating means transmitting to the other that their actions, thoughts, physical sensations, and emotions are understandable, make sense, and are authentic (Boggiano & Gagliesi, 2018). Validating is communicating to an individual, through words and actions, that they are heard and seen, and that their responses and behavior patterns have inherent validity. Validation means answering “Yes” to the question, “Can this be authentic”? (Linehan, 1997). In contrast, an invalidating environment is one in which parents exhibit many non-validating behaviors. Invalidating environments during childhood are understood as those where caregivers damage, diminish, or ignore the child’s emotional experiences (Chapman & Linehan, 2005). In addition, © 2025 taylor & francis group, llC CONTACT María-Pilar tormo-irún [email protected] Department of health sciences. valencian international university, Pintor sorolla str. 21, 46002 spain. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720537.2025.2571889 ARTICLE HISTORY Received 17 June 2025 Accepted 4 October 2025 KEYWORDS Invalidating environment; meaning in life; psychopathology; cross-sectional study; university population 2M.-P. TORMO-IRÚN ETAL. the invalidation experienced in the family environment during childhood is probably an environmental factor that exacerbates dysregulated behavior, given that the emotional expression of the child is denied, judged, ridiculed, or ignored. Thus, over time, the individual ends up questioning and doubting their own emotional experience without having managed to acquire the skills to deal with their emotions (Linehan, 1993). Based on this definition, Mountford etal. (2007) developed a scale to retrospectively assess parental invalidating responses during childhood: The Invalidating Childhood Environment Scale (ICES). High ICES scores have been linked to psychopathology such as eating disorders (Mountford et al., 2007) or borderline personality disorder (Robertson et al., 2013). Moreover, community studies have found that childhood adversity and invalidating behaviors are risk factors for the development of various mental disorders, including mood disorders, substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, borderline personality disorders, and even psychotic disorders (Herrenkohl etal., 2017). Previous studies have also indicated that the presence of child abuse negatively affects patients’ quality of life, psychological well-being, and recovery (Andresen etal., 2003; Erten et al., 2014). Thus, an invalidating childhood not only affects life satisfaction, but probably also the ability of protective factors involved in maintaining life goals or reengaging in new projects (Boyer et al., 2010). We view validation as a process that is both unidirectional (from parent to child) and interactional. The concept of validation may be related to other concepts in other fields, such as “strokes” in Transactional Analysis Psychotherapy (Vos & van Rijn, 2025). Other examples include an unconditional sense of self, self-compassion, appreciation, and compliments, as well as Rogers’ notion of unconditional positive regard, which highlights the role of empathy, acceptance, and authenticity in fostering psychological growth (Rogers, 1951, 1995). The sense of self refers to an individual’s internal representation of who they are, encompassing self-concept, identity, and personal continuity over time. A coherent sense of self is essential for psychological well-being and provides meaning, direction, and stability in life (Erikson, 1968; McAdams, 1996). Self-compassion is defined as being kind and understanding toward oneself during times of pain or failure, rather than being harshly self-critical. It involves self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness (Neff, 2003). Higher levels of self-compassion have been linked to greater emotional resilience and psychological health. Appreciation is the acknowledgment and valuing of positive qualities in others or in life’s circumstances. It is closely linked to gratitude and has been shown to improve well-being and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Adler & Fagley, 2005). Compliments are verbal affirmations that express approval, praise, or admiration for another person’s qualities, appearance, or actions. They serve as positive social feedback and are important in building self-esteem and fostering positive relationships (Knapp et al., 1984). From a systemic ecological perspective, it is important to recognize that cultural, social, and familial factors play a fundamental role in shaping the environments where children grow, form relationships, and learn to navigate the world. These determinants influence not only the values and behaviors children are exposed to, but also the ways in which they understand themselves and others (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This is evident in studies that establish significant relationships between historical and sociocultural premises and personality, cognitive, and psychopathological JOuRNAL Of CONSTRuCTIvIST PSyCHOLOGy 3 variables (Ato Lozano et al., 2007; Desjarlais, 1997; Díaz-Loving, 2006; Florenzano et al., 2009; Ramírez, 2005). Child abuse is commonly defined as any form of violence, whether physical, emotional, or psychological, directed toward a minor (Bowlby, 1979). Research has increasingly suggested that growing up in an invalidating environment—where a child’s emotional experiences are consistently dismissed, ignored, or punished—can have profound long-term effects. Such environments can distort an individual’s perception of themselves and their life, increasing the risk of developing psychological disorders in adulthood (Navidad, 2017; Teran et al., 2019). Parenting styles and psychopathology Researchers have also separately examined the effects of maternal and paternal psychopathology on the mental health and behavioral problems of children. Furthermore, it is argued that there are no differences between the parenting styles of fathers and mothers, although research has shown that adolescents report a lower perception of receiving social and emotional support from their mothers compared to fathers (Raya Trenas, 2008). Regarding the differences between boys and girls when evaluating their parents’ parenting styles, there is often no differentiation between maternal and paternal styles. However, there are references that show that girls have a better perception of both mothers and fathers in all positive dimensions, with the exception of the psychological control dimension, which is considered negative (Solís-Cámara etal., 2003). Studies on positive parenting practices show, for example, that in female single-parent families (Gallego Betancur, 2012), positive parenting patterns prevail, regardless of the family structure. Gallego Betancur (2014) argues that within the cultural legacy of women-mothers-caregivers, there is an ethics of care characterized by a rich notion of childhood that leads them to perceive their children as individuals with capabilities, actively learning, expressing themselves, and being recognized as valid interlocutors with qualities that can be nurtured through their guidance. Furthermore, despite the structural poverty of their living environment, conditions of vulnerability, and their own histories of abuse, violence, and social exclusion, affection is recognized as fundamental for positive parenting, and these women prioritize support and emotional assistance strategies. Other studies reach similar conclusions, demonstrating that caregiving practices characterized by high levels of expression of affection, involvement, and positive guidance promote factors of high resilience in children (Brussino & Alderete, 2002; Iglesias & Romero, 2009). There is extensive support from the literature suggesting that maternal mental health and the quality of childcare have a significant impact on child development (Goodman et al., 2014), which would especially affect children with high levels of extraversion or negative affect (Chen etal., 2014). Early attachment experiences, particularly between mother and infant, profoundly shape brain development and emotional regulation (Schore, 2012). Evidence suggests that the presence of maternal mental illness can negatively affect a mother’s perceptions of parenting, her parenting behaviors, and the establishment of a secure attachment with the baby, with these aspects being a risk factor for the psychological and emotional development of children (Forman et al., 2007). Maternal 4M.-P. TORMO-IRÚN ETAL. depression (Cornish etal., 2006; Field, 2011; Milgrom et al., 2004; Nieto et al., 2017; O’Connor et al., 2014; Reck et al., 2004; Righetti-Veltema et al., 2002; Stein et al., 2014), perinatal anxiety (Bögels & Brechman-Toussaint, 2006; Goodman et al., 2014; Marchesi et al., 2016; Middeldorp et al., 2016; Stein et al., 2014), and psychotic disorders (Aktar et al., 2019; Wan et al., 2007) can have significant negative effects on both the mother and the baby. The evidence suggests that both maternal negative affect and maternal psychopathology, particularly anxiety and depression, can predict internalized and externalized problems in children, specifically behavioral problems and symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (Antúnez et al., 2018; Bertino et al., 2012; Crawford et al., 2011; Gartstein et al., 2013; Goelman et al., 2014; Harvey & Metcalfe, 2012), which can increase or decrease depending on the severity of the maternal symptoms (Nicholson et al., 2011). Thus, family structure is crucial in the acquisition and assimilation of values, attitudes, behavior patterns, and social norms, which begin in early childhood as children initiate their social integration. This idea supports the studies by Gottfredson, which found that 84% of adolescents who engage in antisocial behaviors have failed to develop a social bond in their family environment (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). Meaning in life as protective factor against psychopathology It is assumed that the distinctive characteristic of the human being is the need to give meaning to one’s existence (Frankl, 1959). Frankl (2006) defines meaning in life as the experience of freedom, responsibility, and self-determination, and he associates it with a positive view of life, the future, and oneself. Meaning in life can be understood as the sense and meaning that people give to the nature of their own being and existence (Steger et al., 2006). Following the Steger et al. (2006) model, we consider meaning in life to be the sense made of and significance awarded to the nature of one’s being and existence. This definition represents an effort to encompass all the major definitions of meaning and allows respondents to use their own criteria for meaning. The notion of meaning as a central aspect of human life is important for coping with very stressful life experiences, and much research has focused on the restoration of meaning after experiencing highly stressful situations (Baumeister et al., 1998; Derecka & Puchalska-Wasyl, 2025; Gillies & Neimeyer, 2006). Martela and Steger (2016) suggested that meaning in life is made up of three dimensions: a) Coherence, the cognitive component of meaning in life, is defined as the degree to which people feel that the world around them is structured, predictable, and explainable; b) Purpose, the motivational dimension, refers to the way people experience that their life is guided by valuable life goals; and c) Mattering, the affective component, refers to the sense of value inherent in life and implies that one has a life worth living. High levels of meaning in life help the individual to propose and achieve vital goals that direct and give meaning to life itself. People with low meaning in life perceive their experience as fragmented and incoherent. They sense a lack of life goals, nothing seems worthwhile in their future, and they perceive their existence as unimportant (George & Park, 2016). JOuRNAL Of CONSTRuCTIvIST PSyCHOLOGy 5 Some authors have studied how Meaning in life is related to quality of life, which is an essential aspect when studying care in patients with mental illness (Cramer et al., 2000). Along the same lines, other authors suggest that a critical component of mental health includes the conviction and personal feeling that life has meaning (Ryff & Singer, 1998). Mausch (2009) argues that meaning in life could act as a protective factor against stress between adversity and psychological symptoms in the general population. At this point, it has been suggested that the meaning in life category can play a fundamental role as a mediating variable between stressful situations and their impact on people’s psychological development (Marco et al., 2014, 2021; Park, 2010). Findings have shown that people with a low perception of meaning in life have more depression, anxiety, and clinical problems. They are less happy and less satisfied with their lives and have more psychological suffering, more psychopathology, and more problems (Marco et al., 2016; Marco & Alonso, 2019; Muñoz-Mendoza et al., 2018; Weibel et al., 2017). In clinical settings, research has been carried out on the relationship between meaning in life and personality disorders, observing that existential emptiness is associated with psychopathology (Edwards & Holden, 2001; Lorca etal., 2021; Marco etal., 2017; 2020). Additionally, some authors have proposed that Personal Construct Psychology (PCP) makes valuable contributions to psychotherapy with child survivors of family violence because it helps to explore and reconstruct the individual meanings these children assign to themselves, others, and their experiences (Truneckova, 2025). Parenting styles have long been recognized as crucial factors influencing children’s psychological development and their broader outlook on life, including their sense of meaning in life. Research suggests that authoritative parenting—characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and clear boundaries—positively correlates with the development of purpose and meaning in adolescents and young adults (Baumrind, 1991; Steger et al., 2006). This sense of meaning acts as a psychological buffer, reducing the risk of mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation (Brassai etal., 2011). Conversely, authoritarian or neglectful parenting styles are associated with lower levels of meaning in life and increased susceptibility to various forms of psychopathology during adolescence and early adulthood (Martínez et al., 2021). According to Baumrind (1991), authoritative parenting fosters autonomy and self-worth, which are foundational elements in constructing a meaningful life. Furthermore, recent studies indicate that supportive parental environments contribute to a stronger sense of existential meaning by nurturing emotional security and self-reflection (Steger etal., 2006). These findings highlight the long-term psychological consequences of parenting and the importance of fostering both emotional support and existential development in children. According to the Steger et al. (2006) framework, meaning in life has two main dimensions: Presence of Meaning, that is, purpose in a person’s life; and Search for Meaning, which has been given credit for the emergence of meaning as an important variable (Wong & Fry, 1998). However, the search for meaning in life has been all but neglected in the research. Maddi (1970) also argued that the search for meaning is a fundamental human motivation. These two factors were of substantial theoretical interest, given previous research on the presence of meaning in people’s lives and the 6M.-P. TORMO-IRÚN ETAL. emphasis on the search for meaning (e.g., Frankl, 1963; Maddi, 1970). More recently, Schlegel and Hicks (2017) and Wong (2017) have proposed foundational models outlining the key psychological processes involved in meaning-making and meaning-seeking. According to their work, meaning-making involves the interpretation and integration of life experiences into a coherent narrative, often in response to challenges or existential concerns. Meaning-seeking, on the other hand, refers to the active pursuit of purpose, coherence, and significance in one’s life. These processes are considered essential for psychological well-being, resilience, and personal growth, particularly in the face of adversity or uncertainty. There is a broad consensus among researchers that the presence of meaning in life is negatively associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, the relationship between the search for meaning and psychopathology appears to be more complex. Specifically, searching for meaning without already having a sense of meaning may be positively associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression (Marco & Alonso, 2019). Thus, this is an important gap in the research on the science of meaning. In summary, on the one hand, numerous studies have found that invalidating environments can be a risk factor for psychopathology. On the other hand, numerous studies have identified meaning in life as a protective variable against psychopathology. For this reason, it is interesting to analyze the role that meaning in life could play as a factor modulating the possible negative emotional effects associated with the experience of a disabling family environment during childhood from the father or mother. This research has several objectives: a) to test the mediator role of meaning in life (presence and search for meaning) in the relationship between an invalidating environment in childhood and symptoms of anxiety and depression; b) to analyze whether paternal vs. maternal invalidating behaviors have a different influence on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Based on the aforementioned literature, we hypothesize that: a) Meaning in life (presence and search for meaning) will be a mediator in the relationship between an invalidating environment in childhood and symptoms of anxiety and depression; b) Both paternal and maternal invalidating behaviors will have a similar influence on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Method Participants Participants were 402 adults (68.40% women, n = 275), some married or in a couple (74.90%, n = 301), and some with children (50.20%, n = 202). Their ages ranged between 22 and 66 years, with a mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of 35.65 ± 5.98 years. All of them were Spanish-speakers, mainly from Spain (23.90%, n = 96) and the United States (Florida) (64.20%, n = 258). Only 8.70% (n = 31) reported having a health problem at the time of the survey. Of these, diabetes mellitus and bronchial asthma/allergies were the main health problems, with nine participants each. In addition, 8.70% (n = 31) reported having had a diagnosis of some mental disorder during childhood, adolescence, or young adulthood, the most frequent being Depressive Disorders (1.40%, JOuRNAL Of CONSTRuCTIvIST PSyCHOLOGy 7 n = 5), Phobias (1.40%, n = 5), Personality Disorders (1.10%, n = 4), Anxiety Disorders (0.80%, n = 3), and ADHD (0.80%, n = 3). Only 0.80% (n = 3) stated that they were receiving some type of psychological or psychiatric treatment at the time of answering the questionnaire. However, 5.60% (n = 20) stated that they were taking some type of medication at the time of the study. Instruments Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Marco et al., 2022; Steger et al., 2006). It is one of the most widely used instruments in psychology to measure sense and meaning. This instrument has two subscales: the Presence of Meaning subscale, understood as the degree to which individuals understand, give, or see meaning in their lives, accompanied by the degree to which they perceive themselves as having an underlying purpose or objective; and the Search for Meaning subscale, referring to the degree to which people attempt to establish and/or increase their understanding of meaning or purpose in their lives. The MLQ consists of 10 response items, rated on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 = “Totally false” to 7 = “Totally true”. In our sample, this instrument has shown good internal consistency for both subscales, with Cronbach’s α coefficients = .97 for the Search for Meaning in life subscale and α = .85 for the Presence of Meaning subscale. The Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI-18; Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983), adapted to Spanish by Mezzich et al. (2000). It consists of 18 items that refer to physical, anxious, and depressive symptoms, rated on a 4-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (a lot). This scale is composed of three subscales: a) Somatization (6 items), which assesses psychological discomfort caused by the perception of physical problems such as muscle pain, respiratory problems, stomach problems, etc.; b) Depression (6 items), which assesses clinical symptoms characteristic of depressive disorder, such as dysphoria, loss of energy and interest, hopelessness, etc., c) Anxiety (6 items), which assesses general signs of anxiety, such as restlessness, nervousness, and tension. In addition, the BSI-18 contains a Global Severity Index (GSI) that combines the number of symptoms and the intensity of the perceived discomfort. This index is considered a good predictor of the participant’s psychopathological state (Derogatis, 2001; Mezzich etal., 2000). In our sample, the three scales and the global index of severity had adequate internal consistency (somatization α = .97; anxiety α = .94; depression α = .88, and for the GSI α = .92). Moreover, emotional disorders such as anxiety, depression, and somatization share the same predisposing and maintaining factors and are viewed from a transdiagnostic perspective rather than a categorical one (Barlow, 2011). The Invalidating Childhood Environment Scale (ICES; Mountford et al., 2007), adapted to Spanish by Puddington et al. (2020). It allows retrospective measurement of exposure to a disabling environment during childhood. It is structured in 14 items that measure specific behaviors of parents using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = “never” to 5 = “all the time”, with scores ranging from 14 to 70. This scale has shown good internal consistency. In the present study, it showed adequate psychometric properties, with a Cronbach’s α of α = .86 for the subscale referring to the mother, and a Cronbach’s α of α = .87 for the subscale referring to the father. 8M.-P. TORMO-IRÚN ETAL. Procedure The study adheres to ethical principles. The research was undertaken with the consent of each participant, and the study has been independently reviewed and approved by an ethics board. The project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Valencia (Code 2551253). A quantitative, cross-sectional, and retrospective study was carried out, based on the online application of a survey to students from the Valencian International University. University students during the academic year were invited to participate in the research (with the possibility of redistributing it to other relatives and friends) on a voluntary basis and without receiving compensation or retribution for it. The questionnaire was designed digitally through the Google form application, and it was distributed by email or WhatsApp. It was an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire, with a total duration of approximately 10 min. In order to access the questionnaire, it was necessary to accept the informed consent that described the research. First, the multivariate distribution of the variables was analyzed in order to find out whether they presented a multivariate normal distribution, which is a prerequisite for making estimates based on Maximum Likelihood. Second, two confirmatory structural equation models were fitted with the AMOS V.7.0 program (Arbuckle, 2006). A sample of 402 participants was used for the 5 indicators, yielding a ratio of 402/5 ≈ 80 participants per indicator, which far exceeds the recommended minimum of 100 participants and 80 times the number of indicators (Byrne, 2001). The absolute goodness of fit statistics used to measure the fit of the model to the empirical data were: the ratio χ2/df (Bentler & Bonett, 1980), with values below 3 indicating a good fit; Root Mean Square Errors (RMSEA) (Steiger, 1990) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) (Hu & Bentler, 1999), with values < .08 indicating a good fit (Hair et al., 1999); Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993), with values above .95 indicating a good fit; and the matrix of standardized residuals, which, when there are few values greater than |± 2.58|, indicates that the model has a good fit to the empirical data (Hair et al., 1999; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). The incremental fit indices that compared the resulting model with the null model were: Normed Fit Index (NFI) (Bentler & Bonett, 1980), Comparative Adjustment Index (CFI) (Bentler, 1990), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) (Tuker, & Lewis, 1973), with values above .95 indicating a good fit and that the empirical model is significantly different from the null model. Results Table 1 displays descriptive statistics for age, the results of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Search and Presence), the BSI, and the ICES maternal (ICES mT) and paternal (ICES pT) versions. The analyzed variables presented multivariate normality using a bootstrapping estimation procedure (p = .647, Bollen & Stine, 1993). Therefore, the maximum likelihood estimation procedure was used to estimate the structural equation models. Figure 1 shows the first contrasted model, in which the invalidating environment of the mothers and fathers is grouped into one factor. JOuRNAL Of CONSTRuCTIvIST PSyCHOLOGy 15 Bögels, S. 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