Land, History and Imagination, or Remarks on the Foundations of the New Patriotism

ISSN 2450-8047 nr 2016/2 (2) http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/ht.2016.1.2.02 s. 13-29 13 LAND, HISTORY AND IMAGINATION, OR REMARKS ON THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE NEW PATRIOTISM Wiktor WERNER Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan ABSTRACT Article will address the issue of changes in national identity in Poland in the 20th and 21st centuries. Issue will be considered with the importance of territory in the sense of man’s national identity – this will apply to territories which became a part of the Polish state aft er World War II: in particular, the lower Silesia. Th e main problem will be, therefore, the presence in the common consciousness concepts describing nationality in relation to the category of territory. Area of empirical research will be artefacts of mass culture – and specifi cally Polish popular literature resulting in the mentioned time. KEYWORDS: Poland; Silesia; Polish nation; identity; nationality; Polish literature, popular literature; mass culture; Polish territory; 14 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Th e article will address the issue of changes in national identity in Poland in the 20th and 21st centuries. Th e studied issue will be the sense of patriotism as well as the presence of the image of the territory in the historical consciousness and in the sense of one’s national identity. It will concern both the territories which have known multiculturality and those which became parts of the Polish state aft er World War II: in particular, Lower Silesia. Th e issue under study will be, therefore, the presence in the common consciousness of the concepts describing nationality in terms of relation to land, area, territory. Mass culture artefacts will be the area of empirical research: namely Polish popular literature created in the mentioned time. Th e evolution of social consciousness and world-view will be described, in which concrete terms take the form of symbolic terms. Th e described process is evolution understood as a “rhizome”, i.e., it is multi-linear and inconsistent. Evolution does not involve just the state of mind of “patriotism” but also the components of consciousness related to it which make it possible. Patriotism has been and sometimes is a concrete term in the sense that it was based on realistic grounds. Th ese grounds were concrete phenomena and the emotional response to them in the human psyche. Such real phenomena included family ties, to which the emotional response was the traditional “respect” or “fear” of the father, then transferred onto a ruler, who frequently used styles refl ecting the authority of a “sire”. Concrete phenomena should also include direct social interactions, neighbourly or economic (established via direct exchange in a more external environment than neighbours), as well as the relations of participation in specifi c activities (religious rituals, military service). First and foremost, the inhabited and “domesticated” space was a real value. For this reason, fatherland was treated as a particular extension of home: a sphere of “familiarity”, inhabiting which defi nes us as the state of being “from here”. Th e sense of identity formed by the knowledge of the Land, fi elds, meadows, woods, lakes and rivers, and all the nature fi lling the geographical space. Such a sense also stemmed from the awareness how much work, toil, and sweat it cost to build houses and towns, plough fi elds, clear fallow land, plant trees, dig wells... It was the awareness of the bond forged, generation aft er generation, with hard work and oft en in batt le for the Land and the right to live in it. It was in a concrete space and concrete Land that people loved, bore children, started families, forged neighbourly ties, friendships and collaboration relationships, all kinds of relations between humans, which were known to be “ours” and “familiar”. WIKTOR WERNER Land, history and imagination, or remarks on the foundations of the new patriotism 15 Th e specifi c nature of the phenomena on which the “intuitive patriotism” was based aff ected the nature of this form of collective identity. For Jews, it was their bond with religion and the Torah, the holy book containing a religious and historical description of the community’s past and a vision of its future, as well as categories allowing them to understand the present in relation to tradition and the possible expectations of the future. Sedentary societies tended to spontaneously identify with the “Land of Fathers” as the space of social “rooting” and the area inhabited by people to whom the individual could allegiance: e.g., an economic community, community of fate (subjects to one lord), faith, communication community (sphere of linguistic infl uence), look (“racial”traits), lifestyle (clothes, customs). In modern times (in Europe this process took place between the 16th and 19th centuries) the collective consciousness was signifi cantly transformed. Th e dynamic political changes in almost whole Europe at that time, combined with the stratifi cation of societies, emergence of the middle class and intelligentsia, made more and more people ponder the questions of legitimacy of power and its actions in a given territory. Th e Hussite movement which questioned the authority of the emperor, peasant revolts in German states against the rule of local princes, the resistance of Zaporozhian Cossacks against Polish and Russian nobles are all examples of concrete historical events att esting to the growing need of an authority which woutl be “ours”, or towards which a given collective would feel close and not foreign. Among other reasons, the Partitions of Poland were possible because from the 16th to the 18th centuries the idea of a “nation of nobles” was promoted in the Both Nations Commonwealth, making peasants second-class citizens virtually deprived of national classifi cation. Th erefore, a peasant was mentally tied to the land he farmed and where he lived, he felt affi liation with a religion (albeit identifi ed in fairly territorial terms of one’s priest, church, parish), treating his lord (pol. pan) and master as belonging to a diff erent, foreign nation. Th e Polish szlachta (nobility) paid a steep price for its alienation from the lower strata: having lost its state and guaranteed privileged position in the 18th century, it suff ered spectacular disasters in the 19th trying to convince the people to fi ght for independence. It was impossible, however, without world descriptions which would explain to the people its affi liation to the nation understood as ahistorical and ethnic community blending all social strata and groups. Such knowledge began emerging in the second half of the 19th century, from intelligentsia, the social group able to produce such knowledge, who wanted to spread it far and wide. It was a whole discourse of stories (both writt en and oral, addressed to the people: sermons, talks, simple literature, journalim, lectures given along various practical courses held for village dwellers. To succeed in persuasion, these stories had to refer to the knowl- 16 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS edge about the world which had already been accepted and internalised in collective identity. Which, at that point in time, were the sense of connection with the land/ territory and the awareness of religious affi liation. Th e rhetorical mechanism which led broad social masses to identify with the idea of Polishness was the shift ing of acceptance from that which had already been recognised as their own to the values and ideas described as the outcome/conclusion of what had been accepted. Th e idea of the Polish nation was described in ethnic terms as a linguistic community, in historical as a collective bound by a common historical experience, common roots and common heritage; religious, since it has been Christian (Catholic, in particular) for ages; existential, as it prefer a rustic, country way of life; territorial inhabiting certain lands for centuries. Th e latt er category was very important in the 19th-century national discourse, for it referred to the actual phenomenon of living in a specifi c place and emotional response. Th e Polish state was restored in 1918, yet not in its borders from 1776, which led to the sense of loss and longing for “Great Poland”. Th is issue was particularly intense aft er 1945. In the mid-20th century, the political ones (both territorial, legal, and systemic), social, and ideological circumstances under which the Polish society lived changed drastically. Th e Polish territory changed under the agreements between the Big Th ree reached in Yalta and Potsdam cutt ing off from Poland the lands which traditionally took part in constructing the idea of Polishness and Polish state in the 19th century. Th e 19th-century egalitarian concept of the Polish nation – comprised of all social groups – still used some elements of the elitist “nation of nobles” concept, predominant until the end of the 18th century. Motifs which made a successful transition are the “militaristic” theme of the Polish nation as a defender of civilisation and faith against Eastern invasion (bulwark) and the existential theme of connection to the land (both noble, aristocratic and peasant, agrarian). Th ese motifs made the sense of national identifi cation and patriotism more concrete by tying it to space – broadly understood Eastern Borderlands (Pol. Kresy) as well as particular territories, the Vilnius Region, Volhynia, Podole, so beautifully described in Polish literature. Th e motif of bravery and sacrifi ce of many generations who defended these lands from the Tatars, Turks, Muscovites, and other foes, and who worked hard to manage them built the social sense that the present was connected to the past and the connection between all social (and, to a lesser extent, religious and linguistic) groups coming from “here”. Th ese lands were taken from the Polish state in 1945, and due the political situation of the People’s Republic of Poland (PRL) this fact could not be presented offi cially as a loss or result of violence but rather as a kind of “historical justice”. Th e alteration of political system and exchange of ruling elites not only enforced the recognition of WIKTOR WERNER Land, history and imagination, or remarks on the foundations of the new patriotism 17 the new borders in terms of international law but also the acceptance of the “justice” of this change: that is, reformulation of knowledge and historical consciousness so that the change would not be seen as robbing the Polish nation but placing it in the right space instead. It was signifi cantly easier, in common perception, to gain the acceptance to the incorporation into Poland of the lands which were torn from the orbit of Poland in the middle ages and in 16th-17th centuries (in terms of both political, cultural, and linguistic infl uence) and gradually lost its Polish/Slavic identity for aGerman one than to the loss of the lands which had left a very strong mark both in the history of Poland and through their narrative image present in historical writing, literature, and historical consciousness. Th ere were two issues in the socio-political situation in Poland aft er 1945: the Polishness of the Kresy of the Two Nations’ Commonwealth which became part of the USSR and, aft er 1991, Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine; and the issue of the common Polish, Slavic, and also German history of Pomerania and Lower Silesia, and the presence in particular of German material culture in the lands sett led by Poles expelled from their small homelands. Th e sense of injury mixed here with a peculiar “joy of revenge”.1 Th e sense of strangeness in the new place did not give way easily under the pressure of knowledge about “returning to motherland” taught at schools and in offi cial ceremonies. Th roughout the PRL period, the discourse on the social consequences of the territorial changes of Poland aft er 1945 was, as particularly politically sensitive, was controlled by state institutions. It changed drastically aft er 1989, when preventive censorship was abolished, yet many other things also changed, as the generation which knew Poland only in its “Yaltan” borders came to the fore. Volhynia, Podole, and the Vilnius Region are terms known from historical texts, sometimes from parents’ tales. Whereas Wrocław, Owl Mountains, and Kołobrzeg are remembered from school trips or holidays, or simply places where they live. Th is article will analyse the works of authors born in the People’s Poland (PRL), for whom Recovered Territories are simply their homeland. By the end of the 20th century, the socio-political, economic, and cultural conditions of the Polish society also changed drastically; this time, however, without shift ing political borders (even though the very meaning of borders changed). As the extent of changes and systemic transformation in Poland and whole Central and Eastern Europe is not a subject to be exhausted in a single work, we shall focus on a single 1 Hanna Gerlich, “Obrazy świata minionego – oswajanie ziem zachodnich. Analiza jednego przypadku wświetle relacji autobiografi cznych” [Images of the past world: Domestication of the western territories], Etnografi a Polska, Vol. XXXVIII: 1994, is.1-2 , p. 26-45. 18 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS aspect of it: the changes in the historical consciousness and knowledge comprising the collective identity of Poles. Th ere was a dynamic change at the turn of the 21st century in the substratum of historical consciousness, the repositories storing the knowledge necessary for individuals and social group to develop identities. In the 20th century, two discourses played a major role in shaping individual and collective consciousness: the discourse of memory of the family/closest social environment of an individual, dominant in the period of primary socialisation, and the discourse of offi cial knowledge in common circulation, comprised of professional narrations of history, literature, and journalism, commissioned by the state and supplemented by an equally professional and somewhat “offi cial” discourse of the opposition. Characteristically, the public discourse, both of the state and opposition) strongly aff ecting the historical consciousness of 20th-century Poles, was professional, which means regulation of the content of the message according to the traditional rules of the given discourse, enforced by a group of highly authoritative specialists. Whereas the non-dominant factor was the fl ow of information between the recipient of a message and its author. In eff ect, this meant that writers, for an instance, were more concerned with the opinions of literary critics, colleagues who were authorities in their milieu, and magazine editors, than readers. It was also largely the case of historians, publicists, and fi lm directors. At the turn of the 21st century, Polish culture and identity discourses, which were part of it, came under a “self-funding” pressure in the conditions of a free market of cultural goods, which led to a dynamic development of mass culture. Th e specifi c trait of mass culture products is that it shows the mass audience images of the world which coincide with their reception of reality. A feedback loop forms between the images best fi tt ing the expectations of the mass audience, which replicates certain ways of describing the world, plot themes, character patt erns, and narrative schemas.2 In the products of Polish mass cultures of the early 21st century, we shall pay att ention to the repeating connections between the described phenomena and the meanings, symbolic categories, and axiological values accompanying them. Another issue to which we shall pay att ention is the nature of the emotional feedback between the components of a description and its recipient. Since the products of mass culture evoke not only semantic associations but emotional reactions as well, they may serve as the empirical basis for the research into not only collective consciousness understood as collective knowledge of the world, but also mentality, or the unconscious, emotional reception of reality. By analysing the phenomena of 2 Cf. Antonina Kłoskowska, Kultura masowa. Krytyka i obrona [Mass culture: Criticism and apology], Warszawa, 2005, p. 97-105 WIKTOR WERNER Land, history and imagination, or remarks on the foundations of the new patriotism 19 mass culture, and collective consciousness and mentality through them, we enable ourselves to reach the phenomena which form social identity, i.e., the unconscious categories based on which we intuitively “know”, or rather “feel” who we are.3 Historical topics are clearly visible in the Polish popular literature of the turn of the century. Even though they do not always take the “pure form” of historical novels or popular-historical works, they are oft en found in syncretic literary works combining the genres of historical, crime, and fantasy literature. Artifacts of mass culture are oft en similarly ill-defi ned, since it leaves their authors more freedom to use various themes and storytelling conventions enjoying the recognition and interest of recipients-consumers. Similarly, the region of Lower Silesia and Wrocław seems to be att ractive to authors following this cultural trend due to its ill-defi ned nature and certain heterogeneous historical depth produced by millennia of rich, and thus regrett ablly bloody, history. We may visit the Piasts’ Silesia of 1236-1241 thanks to the historical-picaresque trilogy by Tomasz Łysiak: Szalbierz [Con man]4, Bliznobrody [Scarbeard]5, and Psy Tartaru [Hounds of Tartarus]6. Th ese are tumultuous times of wars for dominance in the Polish Kingdom divided into duchies-provinces; times when the Polish lands are visited by foreign merchants, knights and knightly orders, times of the impending Tartar onslaught. We follow the title character, the con-man named Jerusalem, a half-Tartar, who came to Poland to spy and prepare the imminent invasion but renounces his past when he discovers love to a woman and a child; knight Dragaila, bearing Kraplan coat-of-arms, a forerunner of the western “knight errant” idea, proud of his descent from St George, heroic deeds in defence of the faith, and his terrible sword named “Hoodripper”; his squire Karlito, a cynical humpback, who masks his sincere devotion to his master with repulsive look and terrible manners; Hannah, agirl endowed with prophetic talents, with whom Jerusalem will fall in love aft er a long struggle with himself and for whom he will abandon his people; and a mysterious boy with a strange tatt oo on his chest, sought by strange armed monks in black masks. Reading the novel, we fi nd sudden plot twists but also the life of medieval Wrocław, turning into a multi-ethnic metropolis, where German merchants trade in overseas goods, thieves and beggars have their own holidays, Duchess Hedwig performs charitable acts, and an old Yotvingian plots to hand the city to the approaching Mongols. 3 Cf. John Storey, Inventing popular culture: fr om folklore to globalization, Oxford, Malden, 2003, p. 78-91. 4 Tomasz Łysiak, Szalbierz, Warszawa 2007. 5 Tomasz Łysiak, Bliznobrody, Warszawa 2008. 6 Tomasz Łysiak, Psy Tartaru, Warszawa 2010. 20 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Th e last book of the cycle bears a strong mark of Duke Henry the Pious, true to his name: an actual Christian ascetic as well as a Polish patriot who fought German margraves for the Lubusz forts and, above all, bravely defended his duchy against the mighty Mongol army. In the last pages of the book, the author refers to a novel hypothesis that the duke was not slain during the batt le at “Dobre Pole” (lit. Good Field) near Legnica but rather was imprisoned and later beheaded in front of the Mongol commander’s tent when he refused to bow. Th e story of his death is modelled aft er the death of Christ in the Gospel of John, infusing his character and the events with mysticism: the blood of a martyr was spilled on the Land and for the Land.7 Th e events of the “Hussite” trilogy by Andrzej Sapkowski, composed of the novels Narrenturm8, Boży Wojownicy [God’s warriors]9 and Lux Perpetua10, taking place 200 years later, are also permeated by a mystical atmosphere of historical fantasy. Th e story takes place mainly in Lower Silesia and the Czech lands. Th e Protagonist, Reinmar von Bielau, a medic and fl edgling mage, is involved in religious wars, political intrigues, and the gnostic struggle of light, reason, and love with darknes, stupidity, fanaticism, and cruelty. Th e Silesia of Sapkowski’s trilogy is a trans-frontier territory, where magic mingles with material reality, Polishness and Slavic-ness with Germanity, faith with hypocrisy, cruelty with love. It is a crucible where new ideas are born, fuelled by old and very old matt ers. Th e Hussite struggles against German and Polish crusaders are observed by creatures of the magical and pagan past, living relics of the ancient times, powerless to prevent the coming of the new. Th e antiquity of Silesia is oft en emphasised: by the ubiquity of magic, a power owing its vitality to being deeply rooted in time and space, but also by fatigue and readiness for the change which will end the cruelty. Th ere are Piast dukes in the novels: representatives of a dynasty tired of ruling, tainted with savagery, and doomed to perish not unlike the forest monsters, gnomes, and werebeast shape-shift ers. We watch a rapidly changing world: the old dies and in its death throes the new is born. Th e world of pagan magic beings and the world of the Piasts are fading away, replaced by Germans and Czechs as well as reformed Christians, modern, disciplined, and ruthless in their devotion (both Hussites-protestants and Catholics), bringing with them the power of religion and technology: a new magic based on books, research, and experiment. Th ey also bring along total war and ruthless fanaticism. Th e new world, however, proves no bett er than the old one, it simply 7 Cf. T. Łysiak, Psy Tartaru [Hounds of Tartarus], Warszawa 2010, p. 499-500. 8 Andrzej Sapkowski, Narrenturm, Warszawa 2002. 9 Andrzej Sapkowski, Boży Wojownicy, Warszawa 2004. 10 Andrzej Sapkowski, Lux Perpetua, Warszawa 2006. WIKTOR WERNER Land, history and imagination, or remarks on the foundations of the new patriotism 21 has greater destructive potential. Sapkowski describes a world stretched between many dimensions of reality: magical and real, Polish, German, and Czech, catholic, pagan, and Hussite (protestant), as well as historical and modern. Th e language of the trilogy is a daring blend of archaised style (with references to the classics of Polish historical novel, Sienkiewicz and Kraszewski) with the ultra-modern Polish of the youth. Th e protagonists discuss social, philosophical, and religious issues using remarkably current notions and categories intertwined with old-Polish words. Th e narration is similarly inconsistent: once modern, once archaised. Reading the novel, we get the impression of making fl uent transitions between worlds, now in historical reality, then in modern times. Th is suspension “between” the supernatural and the real dimensions of reality can also be found in Wrocław in the novel Gallery of city wonders (Pol. Poczet dziwów miejskich) by Krzysztof Piskorski. 11 Its story runs parallel in the modern capital of Lower Silesia and in the “unnaturban” dimension of the city. Th us, we make acquaintance of vodyanoy, gnomes, gargoyles (from the cathedral), and basilisk Zhmf, hiding in the cellars. Th is whole magical host does not live as they fairy-tale ancestors did since they adapted to living in a non-magical world just as foxes and boars adapted to living on the outskirts of cities. Rrax the Raven, endowed with magical properties, is the oldest living inhabitant of Wrocław, owing it to his reason and the habit to keep away from the historical turmoil aff ecting the region (in both dimensions). During Bretislaus’ Raid, he was “curing a cough” in the forest, and when in the 13th century “raucous” kobolds came to Wrocław and started a war against the local strange folk, he hid in a tree hollow. Piskorski’s book is told in a humorous tone and fi lled with witt y episodes involving a fruit winery employing dwarfs, due to the high sulfur content in their urine; Baba Yaga, defeated by a student of ethnology and Rrax the Raven, fi nds employment as awashroom att endant; Wrocław is visited by time-travelling Soviet special services, etc. Nonetheless the magical or mystical nature of the city may be emphasised in an entirely diff erent style, which is the case of the Holy Wrocław (Pol. Święty Wrocław) by Łukasz Orbitowski.12 Th e image of the city is painted in shades of grey, the city is wanting, the people are wanting, not very bad (though there are many stupid and nasty ones) yet certainly not good: a corrupt lawyer, a drunkard dentist, workers, bums, several nut cases, jaded school kids. Only Michał and Małgosia, in love with each other, seem a bit likeable, if anyone. In these surroundings, at the end of a cold winter, the “Holy Wrocław” appears in one of the prefab concrete housing cooperatives: in one 11 Krzysztof Piskorski, Poczet dziwów miejskich, Lublin 2007. 12 Łukasz Orbitowski, Święty Wrocław, Kraków 2009. 28 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS an att empt to resolve the paradox affl icting the generation of people living with the feeling that they lost the land of their ancestors, and the sense of involuntary injustice they perpetrated taking over someone else’s homes and lands. Th is paradox was created by the offi cial historical policy of PRL, which tried to ignore the signifi cance of the eastern territories, even though it was unable to silence many facts att esting to the contrary or remove the image of the “Kresy”, made permanent by the great Polish literature, from the historical consciousness of Poles. It was paradoxical that, on the one hand, the traditional interpretation of patriotism was upheld, an important part of which was the commandment “never to abandon the land of our folk”, and, on the other, a concept of historical justice was created and realised by abandoning the land of fathers and moving to the territories which were not politically Polish for centuries. Authors born in PRL took advantage of the freedom granted by the seemingly “trivial” genres in the popular culture area to create an interesting and coherent view of history, which cancels the above paradox. By using the notions of “frontier”, “continuum”, and “palimpsest”, this view of history moves the understanding of history from the concrete and historical to the symbolic and metaphorical level, taking care to prompt a quick, emotional reaction in this dimension with the means of literary expression. In the essence, it is not a new practice: it was previously employed by the great Romantic literature, by Sienkiewicz, who wrote “to lift hearts” in the area of the 19th-century pop-culture. Let us illustrate this literary and historiosophical practice with the story “Polish house” (Pol. Polski dom) by Ziemiański, from the collection Tesla’s trap.34 In the story we meet a modern Polish family, accidentally stuck in the rain, on a road, without any means of transport allowing them to return to the city. Out of nowhere, there comes a well-dressed man, who off ers them hospitality at his home, which turns out to be an elegant palace. Th e protagonists are received with unusual hospitality and elegance. Th e landlord, Count Bartowski, calls a physician to take care of the rain-soaked children, the dinner is served by the household staff , and even aparish priest joins the company to play cards. Th e eeriness of the scene is emphasised by such anachronistic details as long-unused medicines administered to the children who got cold by the physician, the fact that he knows nothing about antibiotics, and the statement which was the landlord’s mantra that “his spouse was safe, on her way to England, protected by the coachman.” In the morning, aft er breakfast, the mysterious count gives the protagonist a medallion with the words “Homeland – to its defender” and tells his servants to drive the guests to the railway station. From the windows of the train, the characters see the place where they spent such a pleasant night, which is charred ruins now. Another pas34 Cf. A. Ziemiański, Pułapka Tesli, Lublin 2013, p. 5-21. WIKTOR WERNER Land, history and imagination, or remarks on the foundations of the new patriotism 29 senger tells them a story about the people who lived in the mansion which stood there, murdered short aft er the war by unknown bandits. Only the countess survived of all the family, who managed to escape to England, saved by the coachman. In the last scene, the protagonist takes out of his pocket the medallion, which not so lont ago was like new and is now old and stained with rust. In this story, Ziemiański creates a view of the historical community on which patriotism is founded: it is a community, a continuum of the living and the dead, transcending the borders of reality and the real world; thanks to which every place and event in which we take part may be of a special importance to us and build our affi liation with the historical community of nation. TRANSLATION: Andrzej PIETKIEWICZ BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gerlich Hanna, Obrazy świata minionego – oswajanie ziem zachodnich. 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