Predicting Boredom Based on Gratitude and Integrative Self-Knowledge in Adolescents: With the Mediating Role of the Meaning of Life from Three Existential, Cognitive, and Neurological Approaches

Article Copyright: © 2025 Sara Khalilnezhad. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license for use and distribution (CC BY 4.0). Received 25 April 2025; Accepted 1 October 2025. Journal of Boredom Studies (ISSN 2990-2525) Issue 3, 2025, pp. 1–20 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17392810 https://www.boredomsociety.com/jbs Predicting Boredom Based on Gratitude and Integrative Self-Knowledge in Adolescents: With the Mediating Role of the Meaning of Life from Three Existential, Cognitive, and Neurological Approaches SARA KHALILNEZHAD Shiraz University, Islamic Republic of Iran [email protected] https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7799-4212 How to cite this paper: Khalilnezhad, S. (2025). Predicting Boredom Based on Gratitude and Integrative SelfKnowledge in Adolescents: With the Mediating Role of the Meaning of Life from Three Existential, Cognitive, and Neurological Approaches. Journal of Boredom Studies, 3. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17392810 1. Introduction Abstract: Boredom signals a lack of meaning. Gratitude and self-knowledge promote feelings of meaning in life. I proposed accordingly that gratitude and self-knowledge, by engendering meaning, shield against boredom in adolescents. Specifically, I hypothesized that gratitude and self-knowledge prevent boredom by increasing perceptions of meaning in life, through existential, cognitive, and neurological approaches. A total of 238 high school students (both girls and boys) from Shiraz, Iran, participated in this study, selected through a multi-stage cluster sampling method. Participants completed questionnaires measuring trait boredom, gratitude, meaning in life, and integrative self-knowledge. Results indicated that gratitude and reflective self-knowledge significantly and positively predicted the ‘meaning presence’ component, which in turn significantly and negatively predicted trait boredom. The mediating role of the meaning presence was confirmed. These findings suggest that gratitude and reflective self-knowledge reduce boredom by enhancing meaning presence in life. To summarize, gratitude and reflective selfknowledge correspond with the cognitive, existential, and neurological functions of boredom and can predict a decrease in boredom. Keywords: boredom, DMN, gratitude, meaning, self-knowledge. Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 2 1. Introduction Boredom is a phenomenon that has been discussed sporadically for centuries, being often linked to the study of melancholy (Ros Velasco, 2022, 2026). At present, attention to the experience of boredom is increasing, and researchers, scientists, and philosophers are trying to create a more comprehensive view of the phenomenon by combining practical and theoretical approaches (see, e.g., Elpidorou, 2023; Finkielsztein, 2023; Ros Velasco, 2022, 2026; Svendsen, 2005). Today, boredom experts believe that we need to integrate the inescapable experience of boredom into the public discourse and to shed the prejudices and myths that prevent us from understanding and harnessing it in its multifaceted entirety, those that lead us to seek immediate escape from boredom, rather than embrace it and examine it closely to reap its benefits in social terms (Ros Velasco, 2023). In addition, correlational and experimental studies on existential, cognitive theories, and even neurological research specifically in the field of boredom are increasing (see, e.g., Csíkszentmihályi, 2000; Danckert and Merrifield, 2018; Eastwood et al., 2012; Van Tilburg and Igou, 2013, 2017b, 2019). Throughout the history of the West, philosophers, poets, and writers have developed categories for describing different experiences of boredom (see, e.g., Doehlemann, 1991; Flaubert, 1980; Heidegger, 1976; Valéry, 1951). For example, Martin Heidegger (1976) speaks of a kind of deep boredom that includes existential boredom, where one has a mood without direction and without origin, which includes a loss of meaning in the world as a whole. Gathering the opinions and theories of thinkers in the field of boredom from the past to the present, Ros Velasco (2023) defines boredom as follows: boredom is a state of malaise that we suffer from when the environment in which we find ourselves immersed or the activity we try to engage in does not stimulate us in line with our initial expectations, resulting in the painful experience of meaninglessness. We all suffer from this, more or less frequently, at different times and in different places, depending on both exogenous factors that stem from the possibilities of the context, and endogenous related to one’s own personality and expectations. The person who is bored feels that their relationship with the present reality is damaged and they should do whatever within their grasp to return to an optimum state of stimulation, which translates into the sense of wellbeing yearned for. She offers one of the most recent categorizations of types of boredom, taking into account historical, philosophical, psychological, and structural aspects, which include: (1) situationdependent and transient boredom (also known as state boredom), (2) situation-dependent and chronic boredom (social approach), (3) individual-dependent and chronic boredom (cognitive and neurological approach, also known as trait boredom), and (4) profound boredom (existential approach) (Ros Velasco, 2025, 2026). Research shows that both trait and state boredom have a strong connection to meaning of life (Fahlman et al., 2009; Van Tilburg et al., 2013, 2019, 2022; Van Tilburg and Igou, 2011; 2017b). Gratitude has been identified as a positive resource for protection against psychological challenges (Wood et al., 2010). A grateful person may not always experience gratitude, but they are likely to experience gratitude in certain situations, so grateful people have a lower threshold for boredom. Gratitude is also a psychological resource that can prevent boredom, and it does so by providing a sense of meaning in life (O’Dea et al., 2024). Self-knowledge provides a unique philosophy of life for each individual that can be used to make decisions about relationships, Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 3 behaviors, and valuable goals. As a result, it imbues life activities with meaning and value (Schlegel, 2009). The present research is a correlational study which analyzes the role of gratitude and selfknowledge in predicting boredom through the mediation of meaning in life, as well as a review of the research conducted on the interaction of three of the above highlighted approaches to the phenomenon of boredom: existential, cognitive, and neurological. 1.1. Boredom Trait or State? Boredom is often defined as the aversive experience of wanting, but being unable, to engage in satisfying activity (Eastwood et al., 2012). State-based (or situation-dependent and transient boredom) is momentary and often evoked by situations that are dull, repetitive, and unchallenging (Chan et al., 2018). But boredom is not only caused by boring situations (e.g., monotony, constraint, mismatched challenge, devalued activities [Danckert and Eastwood, 2020]) but also by psychological factors or individual differences. This notion is consistent with early theorizing on two types of boredom: one caused by external, environmental circumstances (stated-based or situation-dependent boredom) and the other caused by internal factors (boredom that comes from within, i.e., trait boredom or individual-dependent boredom [Bernstein, 1975; Neu, 1998; Todman, 2003]. Psychological factors might predispose some people to experience boredom regardless of the situation (Mercer-Lynn et al., 2014). Studies also show that boredom can also result from a situationally induced boredom that, when sustained over time, becomes chronic (situation-dependent and chronic boredom [Ros Velasco, 2025, 2026]). In such cases, even when the individual knows what they would like to do in order to meaningfully occupy their time, they are unable to pursue this occupation not due to a psychological issue, but because the environment in which boredom arises is too constrictive or limiting ( Ros Velasco, 2025, 2026). Profound/existential might be the result of trait boredom (individual-dependent) and situationdependent and chronic boredom (Ros Velasco, 2025, 2026). While boredom can be fleeting and situationally determined, some people experience boredom more often than others. This observation gave rise to the concept of boredom proneness (here referred to as trait boredom [Farmer and Sundberg, 1986]). Boredom proneness is a traitlike construct representing individual differences in the frequency and intensity of boredom and the perception that one’s life is boring (Tam et al., 2021). According to Gorelik and Eastwood (2024), the definition of trait boredom consists of two parts; namely they suggest that to be highly trait-bored means that one often experiences boredom (not because of constrictive or limiting situations), and that one possesses at least some of the psychological factors (individual differences) thought to cause boredom. Thus, they are proposing to define trait boredom in terms of the frequency and cause of boredom. The first component—frequently experiencing boredom—can be measured directly via self-report, and the second component—possessing the psychological factors thought to cause boredom—establishes a nomological network for demonstrating the validity of a self-report measure of trait boredom. By defining trait boredom in this manner, we can draw on existing empirical research and theory related to boredom; in particular, building on our understanding of the psychological causes of boredom. At this point, I have chosen to prioritize frequency of boredom, as opposed to other qualities of the experience Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 4 such as pervasiveness, duration, intensity, and tolerability. Trait Boredom Scale (TBS) was built on this basis (Gorelik and Eastwood, 2024). 1.2. Gratitude Broadly defined, gratitude is a habitual focus on an appreciation of the positive aspects of life (Wood et al., 2010). It can be conceptualized as an emotional response, a mood, or a trait involving an appreciation of what is good in life (Ma et al., 2017). Gratitude is linked to ample psychological, physical, and relational benefits across the lifespan (Portocarrero et al., 2020; Wood et al., 2010). As an emotion, gratitude involves a two-stage cognitive process: a) recognizing that something positive has occurred, and b) recognizing that an external agent played a role in achieving it (Wiener, 1985). Gratitude is a strong predictor of meaning in life, possibly through positive affect (King et al., 2006). Gratitude predicts less boredom, and this relationship is mediated by presence of meaning in life (O’Dea et al., 2024). 1.3. Self-Knowledge In all of times, self-knowledge has been considered an important stage in the life of every human being who wants to achieve security, peace, and true happiness. As Laozi, who lived in China around five hundred years before Christ during the time of Confucius, states in the book Tao Te Ching: “Knowing others is intelligence and awareness, knowing oneself is pure wisdom. Mastering others is power, mastering oneself is true power” (1991, v. 33). Genesis emphasizes that “God created man in His own image and for Himself. Therefore, knowing ourselves leads to knowing the reflection of God’s image” (Hamilton, 1990, Gen 1:24). This is why self-knowledge in Christianity leads to God-knowledge. In the Quran, the holy book of Muslims, it is stated: “Do not be like those who forgot God and God made them forget themselves” (Quran 59:19). Morin (2017) compiled a comprehensive set of terms related to the self, providing definitions based on prior research to offer a practical framework for scholars. In his definition, self-knowledge refers to “an organized set of accurate self-information, a realistic self-concept, and accurate introspection about oneself” (Carlson, 2013; Gibbons, 1983; cited in Morin, 2017, p. 2). The meaning of self-knowledge in the present study is the Integrative self-knowledge that was proposed by Ghorbani (2008). He stated that Integrative self-knowledge refers to the individual’s effort to integrate his/her experience in the past, present, and future in order to adapt and improve himself/herself. Integrative self-knowledge means understanding the current mechanisms in the flow, within oneself, in a way that is temporally aligned. In this way, understanding of ongoing experiences, in the present, is integrated with stable mental reconstructions that arise from past experiences (Ghorbani 2008; Ghorbani et al., 2003). In their opinion, this model was built for the purpose of an integrated understanding of the processes within himself/herself as well as awareness of them and increased awareness of intrapsychic dynamics, and it has two aspects: experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge, which include the cognitive processing of information related to himself/herself in the present and past. Coherent self-knowledge is the capacity to understand the temporality and coherence of one’s internal processes and experiences (Ghorbani, 2008). In other words, experiential selfknowledge is the receptive processing of information related to the self that takes place in terms of its moment-to-moment and dynamic changes in the present. It provides immediate input from Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 5 personal experiences that is necessary to cope with challenges and achieve future goals, and also prevents automatic and involuntary forms of responding. On the other hand, reflective selfknowledge is the cognitive processing of information related to the self that is related to the past. In reflective self-knowledge, the individual analyzes personal experiences through higher and more complex cognitive actions and, through this, achieves more complex mental schemes that facilitate his adaptation (Ghorbani et al., 2003). As Brodsky (1995) emphasizes, boredom has above all a formative value as it shows the self its own finitude and cultivates in it a sensitivity that has a moral effect (compassion) as well as a richer experience of life and of oneself. There is no self-deception in boredom, and this is the beginning of self-knowledge. However, Bambrah et al. (2023) examined the relationship between boredom, self-knowledge (i.e., awareness of one’s internal experiences), and selfdirected attention (i.e., focusing on internal states) and found that trait and state boredom is positively associated with self-directed attention but negatively associated with selfknowledge—suggesting that individuals prone to boredom frequently focus on their thoughts and feelings without clearly understanding them, leading to a sense of disconnection from their goals and desires. When an external environment fails to engage a person cognitively (because of monotony, inappropriate levels of challenge, lack of choice, or devalued activities [Elpidorou, 2018]), individuals may instead focus inward on the distress caused by a lack of cognitive engagement (Bambrah et al., 2023). This is consistent with psychodynamic theories of boredom, which posit that boredom stems from an inability to consciously decipher what one desires (e.g., Wangh, 1975). 1.4. Meaning in Life According to the model proposed by Steger et al. (2008), meaning in life is a highly desirable psychological quality. People search meaning when they feel their lives have little meaning or when they are losing it. The first aspect, the meaning presence, indicates whether an individual sees their life as meaningful and purposeful. This term refers to the perception of oneself and the world around them, including the perception of how one fits into the world. The second aspect, the meaning search, refers to the strength, intensity, and active effort of individuals to create or increase their perception of meaning and purpose in their lives (‘How can I make my life more meaningful?’). While the meaning presence implies some kind of outcome, the meaning search refers to an active and process-oriented factor (Steger et al., 2008). Accordingly, the Steger questionnaire (Steger et al., 2006), in addition to the existential aspect of meaning (meaning presence), also focuses on the cognitive aspect of meaning (meaning search). 1.4.1. Approaches of Boredom Regarding Meaning in Live Existential Approach: From an existential approach, the absence of meaning plays a central role in boredom. Boredom is associated with a sense of meaninglessness and is linked to various psychological and physiological problems, such as symptoms of depression, anxiety, and increased stress (Goldberg et al., 2011; Lee and Zelman, 2019; O’Dea et al., 2024). However, strategies for reducing boredom and mitigating its consequences are still underexplored. Emerging evidence suggests that experiences which enhance a sense of meaning can buffer against boredom (O’Dea et al., 2022; Van Tilburg et al., 2019). Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 6 Cognitive Approach: From a cognitive approach, boredom is primarily characterized by two elements: negative appraisal of one’s situation and attention difficulties (Eastwood et al., 2012; Van Tilburg and Igou, 2017a). These elements can function both as causes and as components of the experience of boredom. They are also interrelated: a negative evaluation of one’s situation can lead to inattention, while a lack of attentional engagement often leads to a negative appraisal. The prevailing view is that negative appraisals linked to boredom are rooted in the perception that one’s situation lacks meaning (Elpidorou, 2023). Supporting this view, studies have shown a strong association between the experience of boredom and the perception of meaninglessness (Fahlman et al., 2009; Van Tilburg and Igou, 2017b). When individuals are no longer cognitively engaged in a satisfying way, cognitive approach suggests two broad strategies to restore engagement: one option is to shift to a different topic or activity in the hope that it will be more fulfilling; the other is to re-evaluate one’s relationship to the current task or situation to make it more meaningful (Elpidorou, 2023). Neurological Approach: From a neurological approach, research has shown that activity in the default mode network (DMN) increases during experiences of boredom (Danckert and Merrifield, 2018), as well as during periods of creativity, imagination, and idea generation (Bartoli et al., 2024). EEG studies indicate that the onset of boredom does not signal a complete disengagement but rather a shift in the form of engagement, typically inward (Katahira et al., 2018; Perone et al., 2019; Tabatabaie et al., 2014; Yakobi et al., 2021). Activity in the DMN has been shown to decrease when one is actively engaged in a task and attention is externally directed (Gusnard and Raichle, 2001). Indeed, when an individual is actively engaged in a demanding task, activity in a central executive network (CEN) typically increases while activity in the DMN decreases (Greicius et al., 2003; Mason et al., 2007; Weissman et al., 2006). According to Steger et al.’s (2008) definition of meaning, the meaning presence implies some kind of outcome, which does not require focusing on external activity but is a form of introspection. So it can activate the DMN system because it is outcome-involved and introspective. The meaning search, which is an active and process-oriented factor that focuses on external activity, can activate the CEN system. Of course, this claim is based on evidence from the activity of the two networks DMN and CEN, but it has not yet been neurologically investigated exactly which brain networks are activated by the meaning presence or the meaning search in life. Additionally, reflective self-knowledge is associated with increased activity in the brain’s DMN (Schneider et al., 2008; Whitfield-Gabrieli et al., 2011). Neurological studies also show that increased gratitude modulates the connections of the DMN and improves emotion regulation and spontaneity (Kyeong et al., 2017). Although neurological variables were not measured in this study, neurological evidence and research studies were reviewed. Figure 1 depicts the proposed model for this research. Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 7 Figure 1. Conceptual Research Model I examined the relationship between gratitude and boredom using existential, cognitive, and neurological approaches, that is, considering and integrating perceptions of meaning in life (Steger et al., 2006). Given that boredom features low meaning in life (Van Tilburg and Igou, 2012, 2017a) and gratitude fosters feelings of meaning in life (Kleiman et al., 2013; McCullough, 2002), and studies also show that boredom trait is positively associated with egocentrism and negatively associated with self-knowledge (awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and memories [Bambrah et al., 2023]), I hypothesize that meaning in life instilled by gratitude and integrative self-knowledge protects against boredom experiences. This hypothesis rests on research indicating that sources of meaning in life counteract boredom (O’Dea et al., 2022; Van Tilburg et al., 2013, 2019). My hypothesis regarding the relationship between gratitude and integrative self-knowledge (as the predictor) and boredom (as the criterion) and meaning in life (as mediating variable) builds on two specific components: Hypothesis 1: Gratitude and integrative self-knowledge predict less boredom. Hypothesis 2: Perceptions of meaning in life mediate the relation between gratitude and integrative self-knowledge with boredom. 2. Method This study examined gratitude and integrative self-knowledge as predictors of boredom in adolescents, with the mediating role of meaning in life, through existential, cognitive, and neurological approaches. The study is considered applied in terms of its purpose and nature. Regarding data collection and implementation, it follows a descriptive (non-experimental) and correlational design. To test that the negative association between gratitude and boredom is attributable to their shared relation to meaning in life, I employed Model 4 from PROCESS (Hayes, 2018) with 10,000 bootstraps, using gratitude and integrative self-knowledge as the predictor, meaning in life as the mediator, and boredom as the criterion. Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 8 2.1. Participants Because of the few existing studies on the experience of boredom in adolescents carried out so far, the sample of this study was selected from a statistical population of adolescents. Despite having many opportunities for learning and recreation, they often report feelings of boredom (Drob and Bernard, 1987; Van Tilburg et al., 2013). Adolescents who experience chronic boredom are less likely to participate in hobbies and activities such as sports, and more likely to overuse the Internet or engage in risky behaviors such as substance use (Biolcati et al., 2017). Although statistics on boredom prevalence are limited, existing data suggest that boredom is most common around ages 17–18 (Danckert and Eastwood, 2020). I aimed for power (1 − ß) = .80, anticipating a moderate correlation of ρ = .35, adopting a Type-I error α = .05 (two-tailed). I controlled for potential order effects by assigning participants at random to different orders of the measured constructs. This sample was selected using a cluster random method and was based on Kline’s (2005) criterion of 2.5 to 5 times the number of items in the research instruments. Accordingly, I required a sample of 170 participants. Given that I used order variations studies that are prone to dropouts, I exceeded the required sample size. The statistical population consisted of high school students from Shiraz, Iran. The number of participants in this study was 250, and after eliminating those who met the exclusion criteria, the sample size reached 238, that from among the existing classes. Nine classes were randomly selected and all students of the selected classes constituted the research participants. The research participants were students in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades of high school (143 girls, 95 boys) between the ages of 15 to 19 years (Mage = 16.43, SD = 1.02). 2.2. Procedure and Materials Following data collection, SPSS-27 was used to enter data, calculate means, standard deviations, correlation coefficients, Cronbach’s alpha, and to conduct multiple regression analyses. PROCESS Model 4 (Hayes, 2018) with 10,000 bootstraps was applied to assess the significance of mediating effects in the model and AMOS-24 was used for structural equation modeling, confirmatory factor analysis, and hypothesis testing. After obtaining the students’ consents, the research questionnaires were administered in groups in the randomly selected classes. After giving informed consents, participants reported demographics regarding their age and gender. Then completed the following questionnaires: 1) Trait Boredom Scale (TBS), based on the Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS), which integrates dimensions such as non-participation, high arousal, low arousal, inattention, and time perception into a single construct—agency. The scale includes 6 items such as ‘I often feel bored’, that from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (coefficient alpha = .91 [Gorelik and Eastwood, 2024]). As this scale had not been standardized in Iran, I translated and adapted it for use in this study in accordance with ethical and scientific principles. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77. 2) Then participants completed Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), that measured two dimensions of meaning: meaning presence (MP-MLQ) and meaning search (MS-MLQ). The MLQ consists of 10 items with scales ranging from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true). Items 1, 4, 5, 6, and 9 assess MP-MLQ (e.g., ‘I understand the meaning of my life’), while items Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 9 2, 3, 7, 8, and 10 assess MS-MLQ (e.g., ‘I am always looking for the purpose of my life’). Item 9 is reverse scored (coefficient alpha values ranging from .82 to .87 for the scale and subscales [Steger et al., 2006]). 3) Afterward, participants completed the Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6), that measured the intensity, frequency, density, and span of gratitude experiences. GQ-6 has 6 items such as ‘I have many things in my life for which I am grateful’. Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (coefficient alpha = .82 [McCullough et al., 2002]). 4) Integrative Self-Knowledge Questionnaire (ISK) measured integrative self-knowledge by combining three components: experiential self-knowledge (E-ISK), reflective self-knowledge (R-ISK), and cohesive self-knowledge (C-ISK). ISK has 12 items whose responses are rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (mostly false) to 5 (mostly true). E-ISK items include, e.g., ‘I often get so caught up in what is happening that I can’t really see how I am going to behave in that situation’; R-ISK items include, e.g., ‘Through deep reflection on myself, I have discovered what I really want in life and how I might achieve it’; and C-ISK items include, e.g., ‘I get confused whenever I try to analyze my role in a problem’. Items 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12 are reverse scored (coefficient alpha values ranging from .74 to .90 for the scale and subscales [Ghorbani, 2008]). 3. Results This study measured four main variables: gratitude (GQ6), integrative self-knowledge (ISK), meaning in life (MLQ), and trait boredom (TBS) and their subscales. The correlation matrix of the scales and subscales is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Correlation Matrix of Measures Measures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 TBS 1 -0/37** -0/42** -0/18** -0/15* 0/35** 0/37** -0/39** 0/46** 2 MLQ 1 0/76** 0/81** 0/39** 0/03 -0/11 0/48** -0/22** 3 MP-MLQ 1 0/25** 0/36** -0/12 -0/14* 0/48** -0/30** 4 MS-MLQ 1 0/25** 0/03 0/03 0/28** -0/06 5 GQ6 1 0/12* 0/06 -0/24** -0/02 6 ISK 1 0/85** 0/09* 0/82** 7 E-ISK 1 0/13 0/58** 8 R-ISK 1 -0/31** 9 C-ISK 1 TBS: Trait Boredom Scale; MP-MLQ: Meaning presence from MLQ; MS-MLQ: Meaning search from MLQ; GQ6: Gratitude Questionnaire; ISK: Integrative Self-Knowledge; E-ISK: Experiential Self-Knowledge from ISK; R-ISK: Reflective Self-Knowledge from ISK; C-ISK: Cohesive Self-Knowledge from ISK. p≤ .001** p≤ .05* Khalilnezhad Journal of Boredom Studies 3 (2025) 16 Eastwood, J., Frischen, A., Fenske, M., and Smilek, D. (2012). The Unengaged Mind: Defining Boredom in Terms of Attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044 Elpidorou, A. (2018). 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