Applicable Methods And Techniques For Translating Military Eponyms From English Into Arabic

Multicultural Education Volume 11, Issue 10, 2025 _______________________________________________________________________________________ 35 Applicable Methods And Techniques For Translating Military Eponyms From English Into Arabic Mohammad Hanaqtah Article Info Abstract Article History Received: July 21,2025 Eponyms as important features of language have played a very significant linguistic role in military terminology.It occupies an exceptional position with regard to the language system. The translation of military eponyms poses continuous challenges and raises constant issues that translators need to overcome. The correspondence between the eponymous term and its equivalent in most cases does not mean that both source and target terms will be eponymous. The problem of non-standardization of military eponyms and inadequate transfer of specific meaning and content between both languages are some of these challenges.This research seeks to investigate the main difficulties in translating military eponyms and to determine the translation methods that are best used when translating it into the target language. After studying military glossaries that contain military eponyms, the method used in the investigation of the material is a contextual descriptive analysis that includes identification and then analysis of the terms under study. Newmark’s model (1988) will be used to determine the most appropriate translation methods. The results show that the military eponyms should be transliterated and not translated. They are highly professional, as their meaning is known in most cases by specialists only. The semantic information processing provides the translator with reliable means of selecting the appropriate equivalent. Transliteration, addition, deletion, and literal translation were most appropriate translation techniques used. Accepted: October 23 ,2025 Keywords : Military eponyms, Transliteration, Addition, Deletion, Literal. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17436423 Introduction It is well known that military communication plays a fundamental and a crucial role both in war time and in peace time. It is also well known that the transmission of military information, orders, messages, and reports on land, air and sea, has to be accurate and fast in order to meet the needs of military effectiveness when dealing with this information. Translation of military eponyms from English into Arabic is especially challenging when translators attempt to create correct and corresponding translations across languages or when equivalents to military eponyms do not exist in the other culture or language. (Hervey and Higgins 2002, 31-33) argue that dealing with personal names constitutes one of the more straightforward translation challenges: "There are two main alternatives in dealing with names. The name can be taken over unchanged into the TT, or it can be adapted to the phonic/graphic conventions of the TL". Therefore in order for translators who are working in this field to translate them accurately they must have native-level knowledge of the source and target languagesextensive knowledge of field-specific terminology as well very good understanding of the subject field and, previous working experience "Eponym," comes from the Greek word "eponumos," meaning giving one's name to a thing or a person, from "epi" (upon) and "onoma/onyma" (name). (Nida1964) in his book "Towards a Science of Translating" states that an 'eponym' is "any word that is identical with or derived from a proper name. He suggested dividing eponyms into three categories, those derived from persons, objects and places". (Newmark 1981) defines an eponym as "any word that is identical with or derived from a proper name which gives it a related sense"(Newmark1981, 198). Wilkof also stated that "An eponym is a person, a trademark or a brand after which a place, an era, a discovery or a thing is named. Brands and brand names began to appear on a large scale in the early 19th century – as a logical and obvious consequence of the industrial revolution"(Wilkof, Burkitt 2005, 23). (Douglas1990, 76) adds one more meaning, which implies cultural connotations: "A real or fictitious person whose name has become synonymous with an era, event, object, practice, or the like." It was mentioned earlier that the translation of military eponyms is a challenging task due to different reasons e.g. the lack of information about a particular eponym as most of them are descriptive. The fact is that eponyms belong to the source language and therefore they have high degree of cultural specificity. They are well known in source language but may be less known by the translators of the target language or they may mean nothing to 36 members of other cultures and languages. They might be eponymous in the source language but not eponymous in target language. Not all military abbreviations and acronyms which facilitate communication between military personnel and serve as means of linguistic economy have the same semantic load as suggested by (cf. Liepiņa, 2011, 244). Methodology This study is concerned with some of the problems of translating English military eponyms and attempting to offer some solutions to these problems. Hence the current study aims to be a theoretical approach to the translation of military eponyms. The data used contained a number of English military eponyms extracted from the "Glossary of Military Terms, Lexicon, and Abbreviations taken from "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms"(2020). To achieve the aim of this study the researcher will be first analyzing the methods and techniques in terms of terminology that were employed during the translation process of military eponyms, then investigating the challenges and problems that translators encountered during the translation process, and lastly determining the most appropriate translation methods and techniques used by the translators. The definition of translation strategy adopted in this researchis as posited by (Lörscher 2005, 600), namely "translation strategies are procedures for solving translation problems. They range from the realization of translational problems to its solution or the realization of its unsuitability by a subject at a given moment”. The application of atranslation strategy starts from identifying translation problems and findingthe best solution for the problems(Lörscher1991). As a result, it is possible for the translator to use various existing translation strategies based on the purpose (skopos) of the translation, as put forward by( Vermeer1989), namely “[the skopos rules] canexpand the possibilities of translation, increase the range of possible translation strategies, and release the translator from the corset of an enforced and hence often meaningless. Literature Review According to (Van Hoof, 2001) there are three types of eponyms (1). Identical in source language and target language such as Kalashnikov (AK-47) a deadly assault rifle which was invented by Mikhail Kalashnikov of Russia. (2). Different in source language and target language such as Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV). (3). Cases where there is no equivalent eponym in either source language or target language such as Abrams M1a third-generation American main battle tank named after General Creighton Abrams. (Newmark1988) also stated that there are three categories of eponyms, namely derived from persons, objects and places. The eponyms in this study belong to the first category that is derived from persons. (Fernandes, 2006) stated that proper nouns can be divided in two categories: conventional proper nouns and loaded proper nouns. According to him the conventional proper nouns seem to have no obvious semantic meaning; their morphology and phonology do not need to be changed to fit in the target language, or they have an international status. Conventional proper nouns will most probably not be translated (Fernandes2006,4849). Loaded proper nouns can be „faintly "suggestive" to overtly "expressive" names and nicknames‟. In relation to the translation of eponyms (Fernandes 2006,53-54) suggests ten procedures to translate proper nouns: rendition, copy, transcription which he used as a synonym for transliteration and suggested that transcription is used between different alphabets and /or writing system. Substitution which according to him should be used when a „formally and/or semantically unrelated name‟ is used in the target text, recreation where the translator creates a new proper noun, and at the same time attempting to reproduce a similar effect in the target language, deletion where the proper noun in the source text is removed in the target text when the proper noun has little meaning; addition where the translator adds information to the proper noun - transposition where the translators change the word class from the source language to the target language "without changing the meaning of the original" (p:53-54) phonological replacement, - and conventionality. (Pym 2004,92) stated that proper nouns should not be translated, as there cannot be any qualitative equivalence. He says that "[p]roper names are untranslatable simply because they do not have to be translated”(p, 92). Then he stated (2014:4) that borrowing and calque, as suggested by (Vinay and Darbelnet 1958/1995,91) can be used for translating names and terms. On the other hand (Nord 2003,182-196) stated that there are "no rules for the translation of proper names" (p, 183). She also noticed that translators use different procedures when they translate proper nouns. According to her, if the name is descriptive in other word explicit then this name should be translated, but if the name is not explicit and has an implicit meaning, the meaning may be lost in translation unless the translator adds extra information that could compensate for this loss. She adds that translators use the following different procedures when translating proper nouns (2003:182-183) non-translation that results in a different pronunciation in the target language, transcription or transliteration, and morphological adaptation. (Nord 2003,182196) suggested the following procedures: reproduction, adaptation, substitution, rendering proper nouns as common nouns, neutralization, calques, and deletion When a translator reproduces a proper 37 noun from the source text, it is used unchanged in the target text, although this may include changes to the pronunciation of the target word. Proper nouns may also be adapted according to the morphology of the target language. (Vermes2010:112-113) suggested eight possible procedures for the translator: 1. Transference used when the translator uses the proper noun from the source text unchanged in the target text. 2. Substitution used when there is an established proper name in the target text that corresponds with the one from the source text 3.Transliteration or naturalization 4.Translation (proper).5. Modification or total transformation which according to him incorporates omission, addition and generalization, the target-text proper noun is changed „logically, or conventionally, unrelated or only partly related‟ to the source-text proper noun. This may mean significant changes to the form and significance of the original proper noun. 6. Omission of the name, or part of it to have the same implied meaning, or part of it, as the original source-text proper noun 7. Supplementing the name by an added element or addition 8. Generalizing the meaning of the name. (Hermans1988) stated that there are at least four procedures for translating names. First the name can be reproduced in the target text. Second it can be transcribed or transliterated. Third it can be substituted. Fourth it can be translated. He also suggests that there can be other procedures that can be used by translators: the name can be deleted, the name can be substituted with a common name, the translator can use a combination of the previous procedures, and a proper noun can be inserted in the target text while there is not a proper noun in the source text. Findings and discussion The aim of this study is to determine the most appropriate methods or techniques to translate military eponyms in order to produce a target text proper noun with a similar denotative and connotative meaning. The military eponyms were looked up in "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms" (2020) to determine the possible meanings. These meanings were listed in tables and combined with the most appropriate translation methods and techniques. The table below shows the selected military eponyms plus their definitions taken from "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms" (2020) and the translation methods and techniques that were chosen by the translators. Table 1: Military Eponyms, English & Arabic meaning plus their back translation, and the methods of translation No Military Eponym English Meaning Arabic Meaning Back translation Method of translation 1 Abrams M1 Third generation of American main battle tank named after General Creighton Abrams سماربا تبابد وإ1 Abrams Tank M1 Transliteration and addition 2 AK-47, Avtomat Kalashnikov An assault rifle, developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Kalashnikov شاضر أ فىكنيضلاك ك47 Kalashnikov machinegun Transliteration, deletion, and addition 3 Big Bertha (howitzer). German siege howitze one of the largest artillery pieces ever fielded رستواهنا غفذم Howitzer Gun Transliteration and addition 4 Bradley An American infantry fighting vehicle which was named after General Omar Bradley -World War II دىنجنا تهقان تهتاقمنا يندارب Fighting personnel carrier Bradley Transliteration and addition 5 Carl Gustaf Portable reusable anti-tank weapon produced at Carl GustafStadsGevärsfaktori from where it derives its name. لراك تيقذنب فاتسىغ ةداضمنا ثابابذهن Anti – tank Carl Gustaf Rifle Transliteration and addition 6 Fairbairn Sykes fighting knife resembling a dagger or poignard by William Ewart Fairbairn and Eric Anthony Sykes in Shanghai based on concepts which the two men initiated before World War II while serving on the Shanghai Municipal Police in China نريبريف تبرح Fairbairn Bayonet Transliteration and addition 7 Gatling Gun Rapid-fire spring loaded, hand cranked weapons, and a forerunner of the modern machine gun and rotary cannon. Invented by Richard Gatling غنهتاق شاضر Gatling Machinegun Transliteration and addition 8 Lanchester A submachine gun given the general شاضر Light Literal, 38 Submachine gun designation of Lanchester named after George Herbert Lanchester who was charged with producing the weapon at the Sterling Armaments Company. رتسيطنلا فيفخنا Lanchester Machinegun Transliteration and addition 9 M1 Garand A semi-automatic rifle was named after its Canadian-American designer, John Garand. وإ تيقذنب1 تبض تيكيتامىتلاا Semiautomatic Rifle M1 Literal, Transliteration and addition 10 Martini-Henry A breech-loading single-shot leveractuated rifle that was used by the British Army. First developed by Henry O. Peabody (in his Peabody rifle) and improved by the Swiss designer Friedrich von Martini. تيقذنب ينيترام – يرنه MartiniHenry Rifle Transliteration and addition 11 Mauser A bolt-action rifles designed by Peter Paul Mauser, رزىمنا تيقذنب Mauser Rifle Transliteration and addition 12 Mills British hand grenades. They were the first modern fragmentation grenades used by the British Army by William Mills, a hand grenade designer from Sunderland, سهيم تهبنق تيوذينا Mills hand grenade Transliteration and addition 13 Molotov cocktail A Molotov cocktail is also known as a petrol bomb, alcohol bomb, bottle bomb, poor man's grenade, or simply Molotov The name "Molotov cocktail" was coined by the Finns during the Winter War called in Finnish: polttopullo or Molotovinkoktaili. The name was an insulting reference to Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov, who was one of the architects of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed in late August 1939 تهبنق فىتىنىمنا Molotov Bomb Transliteration, deletion, and addition 14 Patton A series of tanks used by the United States military from the 1950s to the 1990s, named after General George S. Patton. نىتابنا تبابد Patton Tank Transliteration, and addition 15 Shrapnel Anti-personnel artillery munitions which carried a large number of individual bullets close to the target and then ejected them. Shrapnel is named after MajorGeneral Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), a British artillery officer اياظض مينبرطنا Shrapnel Fragments Transliteration, and addition 16 Smith Gun An ad hoc anti-tank artillery piece used by the British Army. The Smith Gun was designed by retired Army Major William H. Smith as a makeshift anti-tank weapon, ثيمس غفذم داضمنا ثابابذهن Antitank Smith gun Transliteration, and addition 17 BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile Land Attack Missile. A tomahawk is a type of single-handed axe from North America, traditionally resembling a hatchet with a straight shaft. The name came into the English language in the 17th century as an adaptation of the Powhatan (Virginian Algonquian) word. Tomahawks were general-purpose tools used by Native Americans خوراص كىه امىتنا يج يب109 Tomahawk missile BGM-109 Transliteration, deletion, and addition 18 Vickers The Vickers machine gun or Vickers gun is a name Refer to the water-cooled British machine gun produced by Vickers Limited, originally for the British Army. شاضر زركيفنا Vickers machinegun Transliteration, and addition 19 AH-64 Apache attack helicopter An American twin-turboshaft attack helicopter named after Native American tribes in the Southwestern United تيحورم يضابلاا صتا أ تهتاقمنا Apache fighting helicopter Transliteration, and addition 39 States, 64 AH64 20 UH-60 Black Hawk A four-bladed, twin-engine, mediumlift utility helicopter manufactured by Sikorsky Aircraft. Named after the Native American war leader Black Hawk, ثارئاط كلاب ثامذخنا صتا ىي كىه 60 Black Hawk Utility aircrafts UH60 Transliteration, and addition 21 CH-47 Chinook An American twin-engined, tandem rotor, heavy-lift helicopter . Named "Chinook" after the Chinook people of the Pacific Northwest. مقننا تيحورم كىناطت ميقثنا صتا يس47 Chinook heavy – lift transport helicopter CH 47 Transliteration, and addition 22 C-12 Huron Military designation for a series of twinengine turboprop aircraft based on the Beechcraft Super King Air and Beechcraft 1900. Refer toWyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America. ةرئاط يس نوراهنا 12 Huron aircraft C12 Transliteration, and addition Transliteration plus addition It can be seen from the table above that as among the techniques for translating military eponyms there is an overwhelming tendency by the translators towards using additional clarifications and direct loan or transliteration where the source-text proper noun is transcribed to the pronunciation and the morphology of the target language. Transliteration plus addition combined were used as methods of translation to translate 14 eponyms out of 23 which represents 60 % of the samples of the study as can be seen in the following examples: ST: Bradley TT: يندارب تهتاقمنا دىنجنا تهقان BT: Fighting personnel carrier Bradley ST: Carl Gustaf TT: ثابابذهن ةداضم تيقذنب BT: Anti –tank Gustaf Rifle ST: Mills TTتيوذينا سهيم تهبنق BT: Mills hand grenade In order to avoid mistranslations a special attention to terminology equivalence was given by the translators.In example 1. Thetranslator translated Bradley which has no connotations in the target cultureas تهتاقمنا دىنجنا تهقان يندارب . With such a non-connotative name it is best to simply reproduce it, i.e. transfer it from the source language into the target language, as its only referent is the person himself. Using the transliteration method here implies to the readers that there is no historical or cultural significance they should concern themselves with.The translator kept the military eponymBradley as it is in order to grasp the accurate meaning of this term so the meaning-potential is retained. (Bahumaid1992, 133-139) states that Arabicization in the form of loan translation, direct loan or transliteration is the most usual way of introducing foreign, normally English or French terms in Standard Arabic. Transliteration is ″the replacement of Source language letters (i.e. graphological units) by non-equivalent target language letters, on the basis of a set of conventionally established rules″ (Ilyas 1989, 24). To make up for the semantic loss, and to release the target language readers from ambiguities the strategy of addition is proposed.Therefore, the translator added three new words which were not mentioned in the source text to attain the intended meaning, the equivalent effect and to make the translation accurate and more readable. The words which were added are soldiers دىنجلا , fighting ةلجاقملا , and vehicle تهقان . Through the strategy of addition, the translator could still adopt preservation to conserve the strangeness in the target culture, but supplement the text with necessary information (Davis 2003).This extra information was added to the military eponym so that it can be more understandable to the target readers,therefore the degree of comprehensibility and naturalness of rendering this eponym was high. In the second example Carl Gustafwas keptas it is without any change and additional explanatory information has been supplied for the TL readers. The additional words which were added to the original military eponym were the word rifle ةيقدنب and the word antitank داضم تابابدلل . They were added to tell the readers that Carl Gustaf is a rifle and it is used as an anti-tank weapon. Additional information is used when "a translator comes to decision to maintain the word which does not have equivalent and to supplement extra information in order to convey the meaningfulness of the word". (p43). Furthermore, "additions can vary from helpful to misleading, because a translator must have a very good knowledge of the target language and audience in order to provide an appropriate addition"(Davise2003, 56). 40 In the third example the translator transliterated the military eponym Mills intoسهيم where the name is transferred from the source text into the target text without any alterations. The name here is shifted to conform to the phonic or graphic rules of the TL. New words were added to the original, bomb which means تهبنق then hand grenade which means تيوذي . These new words were added to the source terms to tell the readers that this type of bomb is a hand grenade bomb and not another type of grenades. In this example the translator preserves the original item and adds some essential explanations.(Fernandes2006, 53) stated that "the translator adds information to the proper noun that was not present in the source text (P, 53)". If the translator did not add these new words and only translated Mills by itself, the target readers would not fully grasp the intentional idea conveyed and would not know that the text is talking about ةيوديلا زليم ةلبنق. Literal translation plus transliteration In the following examples tow techniques namely literal translation plus transliteration combined were used to translate eponyms in order to achieve a text in the target language which is as correct as it is idiomatic. Both techniques were used to translate 5 eponyms out of 23 which represents 22% of the samples. ST: AH-64 Apache attack helicopter TT : صتا64أ تهتاقمنا يضابلاا تيحورم BT: Apache fighting helicopter AH - 64 ST: UH-60 Black Hawk lift utility helicopter TT: صتا ىي كىه كلاب ثامذخنا تيحورم60 BT: Utility Black Hawk helicopter UH – 60 ST: CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift transport helicopter. TT: صتا يس كىناطت ميقثنا مقننا تيحورم47 . BT: Chinook heavy – lift transport helicopter CH – 47 ST:Transport aircraft C-12 Huron TT: يس مقننا ثارئاط12 نوريه BT: Huron transport aircraft C 12 ST:OH-6 Cayuse observation helicopter TT: صتا وا شىياك علاطتسلاا تيحورم6 BT: Observation helicopter Cayuse OH6 Transliteration was used to translate the eponyms (Apache, Black Hawk,Chinook, Huron, and Cayuse)whileliteral translation was used to translate the abbreviation in addition to the numbers and the rest of the words in each example. Literal translation is the ″conveyance of denotative meaning of phrases and sentences in a text from one language to another″ (Farghal and Shunnaq 1999, 13).The translators conducted a direct transfer of a source text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate target language text in which the translator‟s task is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic conventions of the target text. This translation technique is acceptable only if the translated text retains the same syntax, meaning and the same style as the original text. The meaning of the source language text is considered most important and hence done on a principle of semantic equivalence. It can be noticed that in all the previous examples the military eponyms were transcribed in the equivalent characters of the target language in order to keep the military eponyms legible in target language. And the right meaning for the rest of the military terms was obtained which makes the target terms readable and acceptable for the target readers. It should be mentioned here that Literal translation sometimes works and sometimes it does not. Because one sentence can be translated literally into Arabic it does not mean that all sentences can be translated literally. Deletion The following examples show the least used techniques in this study namely deletion as a method or technique for translating military eponyms. Three eponyms out of 23 which represents 13 % of the sample of the study were translated using this technique ST: AK-47 Avtomat Kalashnikov. TT: فىكنيضلاك BT: Kalashnikov ST: Molotov cocktail. TT: فىتىنىمنا تهبنق BT: Molotov bomb ST: BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile. TT: كىه امىت خوراص BT: Tomahawk Missile 41 The deletion method or technique was applied by the translators in the above examples to make the source text more implicit in the target language and to avoid clumsy and unnatural translation. Deletion deals with cutting out elements which have no effect to change the original meaning of ST (Antonini2005, 213-214). According to (Stetting 1989), deletion is the omission of individual lexical items or deletion of clauses, sentences or even complete paragraphs. Any information which is considered unnecessary is eliminated. Deletion may meet the cultural needs or stylistic expectations of the target readership. (Baker 1992, 40) cited in (Nababan2004,41) refers to deletion as "omission of a lexical item due to grammatical or semantic patterns of the receptor language". This technique which is sometimes called omission or deletion, is considered "unavoidable"(Diaz Cintas &Remael 2007, 162). For successful translation the translator in the first example deleted the abbreviation AK-47 which stands for (Automatic Kalashnikov 1947) and transliterated Kalashnikov into فىكنيضلاك . Using the deletion method here is acceptable since there is no need for this abbreviation or for the date of manufacturing. Whether the abbreviation or the date ofmanufacturing were mentioned or deleted in this example the readers will not benefit from that. Just mentioning Kalashnikov by itself will provide the readers with an idea that the text is talking about Kalashnikov machine gun since t is well known. In the second example Molotov cocktail. Molotov was the Soviet Prime minister (1890-1986).Cocktail is a bomb made with a petrol-filled bottle and fuse. The word cocktail which means in this context a mixture of different things was used because two things petrol-filled bottle and fuse were combined to make this bomb.One meaning for the wordCocktailin Arabic is مكطم وا ظيهخ.The translator transliterated Molotovthen deleted the word Cocktail مكطم وا ظيهخ since it was not the right choice and it does not give the right intended meaning or the same impact and used the word bomb instead. The whole thing became Molotov bomb فىتىنىمنا تهبنق instead of Molotov Cocktail ظيهخفىجىلىملا . BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile is aLand Attack Missile (DOD).Tomahawk is derived from the Algonquian words Tomahak or Tamahakan meaning used for cutting.The letters and the numbers BGM-109were translated literally into their Arabic equivalent وا يج يب109 . The word cruisewhich means in Arabic وا ةيرهن ةلحر وا ةيرحب ةلحر ةهجىم ئش وا ةعرس ثبثم وا رمي وا عكسحي was deletedsince none of these gives the meaning of Land Attack Missile. The word missile was translated literary into its Arabic equivalent خوراص so the whole translation became خوراص يج يب كىه امىتنا109 . Conclusion In this study the basic rule concerning the translation of military eponyms is that they are left untranslated. They should be transliterated and not translated. In all cases the translators preserved the original item but deleted or added to the source item some essential explanation. The percentage of the translation techniques that were identified and used most often to attain equivalence and retain the meaning potential can be seen in figure 1 below. Figure 1 below shows the percentage of each translation technique. Transliteration as the process of transferring the letters from the alphabet of one language to the alphabet of another is used to obtain phonetic equivalents in a target language for a given SL term. The term should be phonetically written the same way as it is written from the source language. Translators should be aware that transliteration doesn‟t really render the words in a new language - just a new format. Transliteration and literal translation show faithfulness to the source items therefore the translators during the translation process were in consistency with the fidelity rule and loyalty principle.Addition of relevant information was another method of translation used. According to (Van Dijk,1988) it is used to provide further information about previous events, context, or historical background. (Newmark1988) stated that the information added to the translation is 42 normally cultural (accounting for the differences between the source culture and the language culture) technical (relating to the topic), linguistic (explaining wayward use of words). (Nida1964) adds" if ambiguity occurs in the receptor language information and if the fact that greater specifity may be required so as to avoid misleading reference and the concept of addition gains strength while translating from implicit to explicit that "important semantic elements carried implicity in the source language may require explicit identification in the receptor language"(Nida 1964, 227). Deletion was another effective method used by the translators to translate military eponyms. (Baker1992, 40) acknowledges deletion as "omission of a lexical item due to grammatical or semantic patterns of the receptor language". Literal translation was also used by the translators to achieve the fully literal equivalence of each element of the original text. It occurs when a source language phrase or word is translated into a target language phrase or word, without worrying about style, but adapting the text to the target language syntactic rules, with minimal adjustments. 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