Research, Design and Method in Architecture 2025 – II

RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Editor Can KARAGÜLLE Lyon 2025 RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Editor Can KARAGÜLLE Lyon 2025 Research, Design and Method in Architecture 2025 – II Editor • Prof. Dr. Can KARAGÜLLE • Orcid: 0000-0003-1732-4178 Cover Design • Motion Graphics Book Layout • Motion Graphics First Published • October 2025, Lyon e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-925-8 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17384022 copyright © 2025 by Livre de Lyon All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Publisher. The author or authors of the relevant section are responsible for any copyright infringement that may occur due to the images and graphics used in the book. The editor or publisher does not assume responsibility in this regard. Publisher • Livre de Lyon Address • 37 rue marietton, 69009, Lyon France website • http://www.livredelyon.com e-mail • [email protected] i PREFACE Our work titled “Research, Design and Method in Architecture 2025 - II” consists of eight chapters. Elif Nas, Murat Şahin, and Tuba Nur Olgun’s study, “Spatial Analysis of Multidimensional Factors in the Traditional Houses of Gümüşhane,” examines the multidimensional normative structures of traditional houses through spatial syntax analysis, aiming to uncover their effects on spatial organization. The study identified eight traditional houses in Gümüşhane city center for fieldwork and analyzed their spatial organization and sicil cores on a floor-by-floor basis. Merve SİPAHİ’s study titled “Microcosmos in an Ancient City: The Representation of Pompeian Courtyard Gardens” evaluates four courtyard gardens selected from the ancient city of Pompeii in terms of their historical context, spatial order, vegetation, water, sound and light dramaturgy and iconographic program criteria and examines these gardens from a comparative analysis and microcosm perspective with Roman gardens. Elif Özgen and Bilge Sayıl Onaran seek to answer the question of “how integrating art and creativity into the spatial typological characteristics of hospital children’s playgrounds contributes to children’s healing processes, psychosocial well-being, and developmental outcomes”, using the example of two hospitals examined in Ankara. Büşra ALTINOK and Tutku AK ERKEN’s article titled “Evaluation of The Suitability of Inclusive Design Principles in University Campus Outdoor Spaces: The Case Study of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Fine Arts” questions the suitability of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University’s Faculty of Fine Arts and its outdoor spaces for all user groups in the light of inclusive design principles. Pınar Dinç Kalaycı’s article titled “Social-Environmental Sustainability and Professional Progress in Design Studio: A Learning-By-Competing Case” proposes a pedagogy based on learning by competing in studios with the dynamics that shape design. In her study titled “Sound, Memory, and Industrial Heritage: Preserving The Soundscapes of The Ruhr Region”, Şeyma Seyrek examines the critical role of the soundscape in urban memory in industrial areas protected as cultural heritage, with a case study of the Ruhr Region. ii   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Muhammed Emin Demirtaş and Ayça Gülten’s study titled “An Assessment of the Sustainability of Post-Disaster Housing Units in Turkey” evaluates the housing of temporary and permanent solutions constructed after disasters in Türkiye in terms of environmental, economic and social sustainability criteria. In his study titled “From Standards To Strategies: Turkey’s Housing Model As Spatial Governance”, Alper BODUR critically examines the norms and standards that the public has brought to housing production through the concept of spatial governance. I extend my gratitude to the authors whose valuable contributions enriched this work, and to the staff of Livre de Lyon Publishing for their contributions throughout the publication process. I hope this book, composed of contributions from authors from diverse fields, will inspire researchers and practitioners. Editor Prof. Dr. Can KARAGÜLLE iii CONTENTS PREFACE i CHAPTER I. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS IN THE TRADITIONAL HOUSES OF GÜMÜŞHANE 1 Elif NAS & Murat ŞAHİN & Tuba Nur OLĞUN CHAPTER II. MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION OF POMPEIAN COURTYARD GARDENS 31 Merve SİPAHİ CHAPTER III. PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS 49 Elif ÖZGEN & Bilge SAYIL ONARAN CHAPTER IV. SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL PROGRESS IN DESIGN STUDIO: A LEARNING-BY-COMPETING CASE 71 Pınar DİNÇ KALAYCI CHAPTER V. SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING THE SOUNDSCAPES OF THE RUHR REGION 95 Şeyma SEYREK CHAPTER VI. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER HOUSING UNITS IN TÜRKIYE 113 Muhammed Emin DEMİRTAŞ & Ayça GÜLTEN CHAPTER VII. FROM STANDARDS TO STRATEGIES: TURKEY’S HOUSING MODEL AS SPATIAL GOVERNANCE 161 Alper BODUR SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   7 as sitting, sleeping and eating to occur within a single space (Ateş, 2008). This approach fostered a flexible and functional design strategy, optimizing the use of limited physical space (Bektaş, 2020). Additionally, practices related to cleanliness and worship necessitated the inclusion of specific spaces within the house. For instance, small water wells for ritual ablution or areas resembling a ritual bathing room (gusülhane) served as architectural manifestations of these cultural and religious requirements (Gür, 2023) (Figure 6). Figure 6. Example of a Ritual Bathing Room (gusülhane), Konya (Authors’ Archive, 2025). Societal Factors: Neighborhood relations and cultural norms significantly influenced the relationship between traditional houses and their external environment. Considerable attention was given to protecting mutual privacy in the placement of structures, a principle reflected in the orientation of windows and doors (Bektaş, 2020) (Figure 7). While streets and communal courtyards functioned as areas of social interaction, semi-open spaces such as the sofa (hall) and forecourt (hayat) operated as social filters, simultaneously facilitating and restricting visual contact (Göğebakan, 2015). (a) (b) Figure 7. Traditional Streets in Şanlıurfa (a) and Gaziantep (b) Featuring Houses Designed with Privacy Considerations (Authors’ Archive, 2024). 8   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II These factors should not be considered in isolation; rather, they function holistically, interacting with one another. Consequently, traditional housing architecture represents a multidimensional spatial construct, shaped at the intersection of socio-cultural values, physical conditions, economic possibilities, user practices and the broader social structure. 3. Characteristics of Traditional Gümüşhane Houses Gümüşhane is a city located in the transitional zone between Turkey’s Eastern Black Sea Region and the Eastern Anatolia Region, at an altitude of approximately 1,210 meters above sea level. Surrounded by mountainous terrain and deep valleys, the city lies at the confluence of Black Sea and continental climate characteristics (Ürük & Dal, 2024). This geographic and climatic context has directly influenced both agricultural practices and traditional residential architecture. Socio-culturally, Gümüşhane has historically exhibited a cosmopolitan structure, where Muslim, Armenian and Greek communities coexisted and experienced economic and social revitalization, particularly in the 19th century, due to mining activities (Erüz, Türkmen, Demirkır, & Erüz, 2010). The traditional houses of Gümüşhane have evolved in parallel with these geographic, climatic, socio-cultural, economic, and societal conditions, acquiring a distinct architectural identity. The utilization of local materials, construction techniques and spatial arrangements has ensured that these houses possess unique functional and aesthetic characteristics. These features encompass design solutions that facilitate the daily lives of local inhabitants while maintaining harmony with the natural environment. This section examines the fundamental characteristics of traditional Gümüşhane houses, including plan types, material use, interior and exterior spatial arrangements, impacts on social structure and neighborhood texture. 3.1. Plan Types and Spatial Organization The traditional houses of Gümüşhane exemplify the Turkish House plan typology, a hallmark of Anatolian civil architecture. The most prevalent scheme employed in these structures is the internal-sofa arrangement (Işık, 2017). This plan type is particularly functional, as it adapts well to the region’s climatic and topographical conditions (Dolu, 2010; Işık, 2017). Constructed on the sloping terrain of the Harşit Valley, these houses are generally two or three stories high, SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   9 with access provided from different elevations due to the slope (Şenel, 2022; Işık, 2017; Ürük & Dal, 2024) (Figure 8). In terms of layout, the sofa is typically positioned at the center of the building mass, with rooms arranged either symmetrically or asymmetrically on both sides. The sofa serves as the focal point not only for spatial circulation but also for internal family interactions (Dolu, 2010). While the number of rooms is commonly three, examples range from two to six rooms (Dolu, 2010). Figure 8. Traditional House in Gümüşhane (Authors’ Archive, 2020) The spatial organization of traditional Gümüşhane houses is structured around three primary functions: circulation, living and service areas. Circulation spaces include the stone-paved ground floor hall (taşlık) and the sofa; living spaces comprise the room, winter room, storage/chest room and attic storage (fırandol); while service spaces encompass the cooking area (aşhana), kitchen, pantry, toilet, bathroom and wood storage (Dolu, 2010; GİÖİA, 2013). The ground floor is generally designated for service functions with access provided via wooden doors opening from the internal sofa. Ceilings in these areas were often left exposed, revealing wooden beams (mertekler) and earth materials were predominantly used for flooring. Traditional fittings such as built-in storage cupboards (yüklük), divans/benches (sedir), fireplaces and ritual bathing rooms (gusülhane) were commonly present in the rooms, although many of these elements have not survived to the present day (Işık, 2017). The first floor functions as the main living area, continuing the internal-sofa plan scheme. Vertical transitions are provided by wooden stairs located within the interior; however, direct external access to the upper floor is sometimes possible on sloping terrain (Işık, 2017). In some examples, an L-shaped plan emerges by extending a corridor from the sofa, reflecting spatial flexibility and solutions adapted to local needs (Dolu, 2010). Moreover, it has been observed that toilet spaces began to be incorporated into the building starting in the 19th 10   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II century, typically located outside the structure, in the garden, or in subsequently added sections (Karpuz, 1990). Roofs were designed with steep slopes to accommodate the regional climate and attics were often utilized as living spaces (Güçlü, 1990; Işık, 2017) (Figure 9). Figure 9. Harmony of the Traditional Gümüşhane House with the Topography. 3.2. Material Usage and Construction Techniques The selection of materials and construction techniques in traditional Gümüşhane houses was directly influenced by the region’s climatic, topographical and locally available resources (Karpuz, 1990; Işık, 2017; Ürük & Dal, 2024). On the lower floors, rubble stone walls with tie beams, measuring 60–100 cm in thickness, were employed as the primary load-bearing system, while the upper floors utilized stone or adobe infill within a timber frame skeleton system (Dolu, 2010; Işık, 2017; Özçubukçu, 2020; Ürük & Dal, 2024). These stone walls not only provided structural resilience but also contributed to humidity regulation. Additionally, the lath-and-plaster system (bağdadi wall technique) was commonly observed on upper-floor exterior facades and internal partition walls (Kara, 2005). The abundance of local natural resources played a decisive role in material selection, with wood being the predominant building material due to the extensive forest coverage in the region. Softwoods such as pine and spruce, as well as hardwoods like walnut, oak and elm, were used in various structural elements (Sarı & Kayserili, 2021; Ürük & Dal, 2024). Wood served not only in load-bearing components but also in flooring, ceilings, eaves, door and window frames and interior fixtures (Işık, 2017; Sürdem & Çavdar, 2024). SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   11 Stone was primarily employed on the ground floor and in facade details (Dolu, 2010; Düzgün & Çalık, 2017), with local varieties such as andesite, basalt and limestone preferred (Sürdem & Çavdar, 2024). Adobe was applied on upper floors due to its lightweight nature and thermal insulation properties, typically protected with plaster to guard against water damage (Şenel, 2022; Sürdem & Çavdar, 2024). Roof systems were designed to withstand the region’s harsh, snow-laden climatic conditions (Sürdem & Çavdar, 2024). Most houses feature roofs with slopes of 35-45 degrees, commonly employing gable, hip or three-hipped roof types (Dolu, 2010; Işık, 2017; Ürük & Dal, 2024). Roofs constructed with a wooden truss system include purlins placed on base tie beams, supported by posts and reinforced with rafters. These posts typically rest on upper-floor walls and in cases where the attic is utilized, the space is converted into attic storage (fırandol) (Dolu, 2010). Hartama, a traditional local roofing material, consisted of thin boards split from wood, with fibers oriented perpendicular to the roof slope (Dolu, 2010; Sürdem & Çavdar, 2024). Its production was prohibited under the Forest Law of 1956 and its use largely declined with the adoption of sheet metal in the 1960s (Dolu, 2010). Today, most roofs are covered with alaturka tiles, zinc sheets, or other modern materials. Historically, overhanging and stepped eaves, typically clad in wood, reflected both functional and aesthetic adaptation to climatic conditions (Gümüşhane Governorship, 1999; Işık, 2017; Ürük & Dal, 2024). 4. Methodology In this study, the Space Syntax method was employed to analyze the factors influencing the formation of traditional Gümüşhane houses. Space Syntax provides an effective framework for understanding how spatial layouts, interior and exterior organization, material usage, social structures and physical environments are interrelated. This approach enables the simultaneous examination of historical, cultural and functional dimensions of space. Space Syntax comprises a set of theoretical and analytical methods designed to investigate the relationships between the formal configurations of spaces and social structures or human behavior. First developed by Hillier and Hanson (1984), the method aims to elucidate the logic of spatial organization at both architectural and urban scales. Its fundamental premise is that space should be treated not merely as a physical entity but as a system that carries and shapes social relations (Bekleyen, 2024; Özbek, 2007). 12   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II The method provides both graphical and quantitative analytical tools to reveal how spatial arrangements at various scales affect movement patterns, encounter probabilities and wayfinding behaviors (Sanlı et al., 2011). Spaces are abstracted into formal representations and calculations are performed based on these models. Common representations include axial lines, convex spaces, visibility graphs and connectivity maps. Metrics derived from these analyses -such as integration, connectivity, choice and depthnumerically express a space’s accessibility and relational position relative to other spaces (Bekleyen, 2024; Tazefidan, 2018). Specifically, the integration value indicates spatial centrality within the network, while the choice value offers insight into wayfinding and passage probability. Space Syntax can be applied across a wide range of contexts, from traditional settlements to modern urban fabrics. It is particularly valuable in the analysis of traditional residential textures, as it allows for the assessment of structural properties within spatial organization (Tazefidan, 2018; Akan, 2024). In urban morphology studies, it effectively reveals the structural dynamics of urban textures (Tibet, 2024). The method is also applied to institutional buildings -such as museums, schools and hospitalswhere spaces exhibit diverse functional requirements (Bal & Aykal, 2022). In historic urban fabrics, Space Syntax facilitates the understanding of spatial behaviors by modeling movement patterns, including wayfinding and accessibility (Akan, 2024). Furthermore, it has proven effective in interdisciplinary applications, such as monitoring spatial changes over time and evaluating transformations in built environments (Öztürk, 2018). Beyond analysis, Space Syntax serves as an information-generating tool that supports designers, planners and conservationists in decision-making. It aids both in configuring new spaces and evaluating the performance of existing ones during the architectural design process (Sanlı et al., 2011; Özbek, 2007). Outputs such as the identification of areas with high social interaction, measurements of privacy levels and understanding of interior-exterior spatial transitions underscore the method’s significance, particularly in the study of traditional residential structures. In traditional Turkish houses, especially in settlements like Gümüşhane, where the architecture is closely aligned with natural topography and sociocultural norms are prominent, Space Syntax provides critical data for understanding aspects such as the separation of private and public spaces, the location of social core areas, the organization of movement axes and the SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   13 interactions within internal courtyard systems. It allows for precise, measurable interpretations of traditional planning decisions, including the private-public (haremlik-selamlık) division, vertical organization of floor plans and the permeability of facades facing the street (Tazefidan, 2018; Akan, 2024). Accordingly, Space Syntax constitutes a powerful analytical tool in architectural research, enabling the simultaneous investigation of formal and behavioral dimensions of traditional residential textures. Its application to the study of traditional Gümüşhane houses provides a scientific basis for evaluating local identity, social interactions and spatial transformations throughout their historical development. 5. Findings This section presents the findings related to the selected traditional houses in the Gümüşhane city center, based on data obtained through the Space Syntax method. First, the analyzed houses are introduced; subsequently, the results of the Space Syntax analyses are presented using tables and figures; finally, the influence of socio-cultural and physical factors on spatial organization is discussed. Within the scope of the study, four neighborhoods -Süleymaniye, Bağlarbaşı, Hasanbey, and Karaerwhere the traditional residential texture is authentically preserved, were identified in the Gümüşhane city center. A total of eight houses, two from each neighborhood, were analyzed. The selection criteria for these houses included architectural integrity, their potential to represent the structural characteristics of the period and suitability for comprehensive documentation. Figure 10. Map Representation of the Selected Neighborhoods within the Study Area. 14   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II The tables below provide essential information regarding the traditional houses located in the four neighborhoods included in the study (Tables 1–4). Table 1. Houses located in Süleymaniye Neighborhood (Compiled by the authors, utilizing Gümüşhane Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016; Işık, 2017) Neigh. House Name Photograph Ground Floor 1st Floor Süleymaniye Neighborhood Ali Erkan House The Ali Erkan House is a traditional dwelling exhibiting a middle-hall plan, consisting of a ground floor, first floor and attic is sited in accordance with the sloping terrain. Access to the structure is provided from two different facades due to the topography. The ground floor comprises a stone-floored sofa and two rooms, along with service areas, including the kitchen and pantry. The first floor features a wood-clad sofa and adjoining rooms. Traditional architectural elements, such as the built-in storage cupboard (yüklük), ritual bathing room (gusülhane) and divan/bench (sedir), have been preserved within the interior spaces. Zeki Kadirbeyoğlu House This traditional house, dating back to 1861, exhibits an internal-sofa, square plan and was constructed as a ground floor plus first floor building. The entrance on the east facade, combined with the stone ground floor and lath-and-plaster (bağdadi) upper floor, provides articulation to the facade. Originally in a dilapidated state, the building has been restored to closely resemble its original form. The rooms surrounding the sofa retain traditional interior elements, including built-in cupboards, sedir (divan/bench) and plaster niches. It represents one of the rare examples in Gümüşhane featuring a mansion bath (konak hamamı). In terms of facade ornamentation and inscription, it exhibits similarities with the Şahbenderoğlu House. The hip roof is covered with alaturka tiles and the eaves are clad in wood. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   15 Table 2. Houses located in Bağlarbaşı Neighborhood (Compiled by the authors, utilizing Gümüşhane Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016; Işık, 2017) Neigh. House Name Photograph Ground Floor 1st Floor Bağlarbaşı Neighborhood Şahbenderoğlu House The Şahbenderoğlu House is a traditional dwelling featuring an internalsofa plan, set within a garden and consisting of a ground floor, first floor and attic. Constructed between 1873 and 1874, it is one of the rare examples in Gümüşhane whose date can be precisely determined from inscriptions. Although the original plan was partially altered due to the later division into private-public quarters (haremlik-selamlık), the house largely preserves its unique architectural identity with rooms arranged around the sofa, complemented by traditional cupboards and divan/bench (sedir) arrangements. The facades exhibit rich traditional ornamentation, including pen-work, inscribed verses, and oriel windows/projections. The attic floor is spacious, airy and traditional window and door arrangements are maintained on the facades. Hüseyin Soysal House The Hüseyin Soysal House, situated on a sloping and spacious plot, is a rectangular-plan structure featuring an internal-sofa plan type, and comprises a basement, ground floor, mezzanine, and attic. Constructed with stone, adobe, and wood, the building provides access from different elevation levels; from the street at the south facade and from the garden at the north. The basement serves as a storage area, while the upper floors are designated for residential use. Internal connections between floors are limited, with some staircases added at a later stage. The adjacent annex houses the wet volumes and is constructed using stone and adobe. The original roof covering, which consisted of Marseille tiles, has been replaced with corrugated metal sheeting. 16   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Table 3. Houses located in Hasanbey Neighborhood (Compiled by the authors, utilizing Gümüşhane Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016; Işık, 2017) Neigh. House Name Photograph Ground Floor 1st Floor Hasanbey Neighborhood Hasan Fehmi Ataç House The Hasan Fehmi Ataç House, featuring an internal-sofa plan type, is a three-story traditional dwelling. The ground floor was commissioned by Selim Bey in 1874, while the upper floors were added by his son, Hasan Fehmi Ataç. Constructed using stone, adobe and wood, the main entrance is located on the south facade. The ground floor accommodates service units, the upper floors contain living areas, and the attic comprises a spacious sofa and two attic storage rooms (fırandol). The south facade is articulated with oriel windows/projections, string courses, and a balcony, whereas the north facade remains simpler. The steep-sloped hip roof is covered with alaturka tiles. Following its restoration in 2004, the structure is currently utilized as a guest house and restaurant. Raif Tuna House The Raif Tuna House, constructed with an internal-sofa plan type in harmony with the sloping terrain, is a registered traditional dwelling built using conventional techniques. It comprises a ground floor and a mezzanine floor above. The ground floor is constructed of stone, while the upper floor features adobe infill within a timber frame. Access is provided from different elevations on the north and south facades. The rooms arranged around the sofa, along with the kitchen and toilet, constitute the traditional plan configuration. The first-floor sofa projects outward as an oriel window, adding articulation to the facade. The facade design is distinguished by its wooden joinery, segmental arched windows and string courses. The building is topped with a hip roof, originally covered with alaturka tiles. Following restoration, the house is currently utilized as a public service building. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   23 interactions and daily circulation primarily occurring on this level. Conversely, the lower Depth value on the first floor (1.737) suggests that this floor is designed for more introverted and private uses. The Space Syntax analysis of the eight traditional houses in the Gümüşhane city center revealed significant findings regarding Depth, Connectivity and Integration values across different floors of each dwelling. These data indicate that the spatial organization and social cores of the houses vary according to topography, construction period and usage patterns, demonstrating that each structure embodies a distinct spatial configuration. In general, it was observed that in some houses, the social focus is concentrated on a single floor (e.g., Şahbenderoğlu House and Hüseyin Soysal House), whereas in others, the social core spaces are distributed across multiple floors (e.g., Erdemir Akagün House, Ali Erkan House and Zeki Kadirbeyoğlu House). These variations suggest that topography, user preferences and periodspecific social norms are decisive factors in the formation of spatial organization. It was further noted that social foci are more pronounced in early-period houses (e.g., Şahbenderoğlu House), whereas later-period structures (e.g., Erdemir Akagün House and İbrahim Aykaç House) display a more balanced inter-floor social integration. This trend indicates the gradual development of flexibility in social organization and evolving concepts of privacy over time. At the neighborhood scale, the Ali Erkan and Zeki Kadirbeyoğlu Houses in Süleymaniye Neighborhood exhibit the strongest inter-floor integration, with social activities distributed equally between floors. The topography allows for dual-facade entrances and active use of both levels, reflecting a spatial arrangement that accommodates daily life across multiple floors. In contrast, the Şahbenderoğlu and Hüseyin Soysal Houses in Bağlarbaşı Neighborhood concentrate social functions on a single floor. The first floor serves as the social core in the Şahbenderoğlu House, while the ground floor fulfills this role in the Hüseyin Soysal House. This single-floor orientation reflects a more introverted lifestyle, emphasizing privacy and is accompanied by relatively weak inter-floor integration despitemulti-level access. The Hasan Fehmi Ataç and Raif Tuna Houses in Hasanbey Neighborhood show high integration and connectivity values on the ground floor, indicating that social life is predominantly situated at this level. Inter-floor transitions are limited and the ground floor maintains a strong connection with the street, highlighting the influence of street culture and neighborhood relations on the spatial configuration. 24   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Finally, the Erdemir Akagün and İbrahim Aykaç Houses in Karaer Neighborhood demonstrate a balanced social organization across floors. Social spaces are distributed across multiple levels and privacy boundaries are more flexible. Specifically, the high connectivity and integration values of the first floor in the Erdemir Akagün House suggest a permeable social arrangement between floors. In summary, Süleymaniye and Karaer Neighborhoods exhibit balanced social organization between floors; Bağlarbaşı Neighborhood shows a singlefloor-dominant social pattern and Hasanbey Neighborhood demonstrates a ground-floor-focused social arrangement. These differences are shaped not only by topographical conditions but also by the historical development, social structure and settlement culture of each neighborhood. 6. Evaluation And Conclusion This study, by utilizing the Space Syntax method to analyze the spatial organization and social cores of eight traditional houses in the Gümüşhane city center on a floor-by-floor basis, has revealed how traditional dwelling architecture is shaped by elements such as topography, construction period and mode of use. The analyses showed that each dwelling possesses a unique spatial configuration and that social foci are concentrated on different floors depending on the house. In light of the data obtained, while social activities are concentrated on a single floor in some houses (e.g., the ground floor of the Hüseyin Soysal House and the first floor of the Şahbenderoğlu House), social life is distributed more evenly across floors in other dwellings (e.g., Erdemir Akagün House, Ali Erkan House and Zeki Kadirbeyoğlu House). This finding indicates that the houses developed different spatial organization strategies depending on the social norms of their construction period, topographical features and user preferences. At the neighborhood scale, it was determined that social organization also varies. A balanced distribution of social cores across floors was observed in the Süleymaniye and Karaer Neighborhoods, whereas in the Bağlarbaşı Neighborhood social activities were concentrated on a single floor and in the Hasanbey Neighborhood a ground-floor-dominated social use pattern was identified. These differences are directly related to the historical development, land structure and settlement culture of the neighborhoods. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF MULTIDİMENSIONAL FACTORS . . .   25 Another important finding of the study is that social foci are more distinctly emphasized in early-period houses, whereas social integration becomes more flexible and balanced across floors in later-period dwellings. This suggests that the concepts of social life and privacy in traditional houses evolved and diversified over time. In line with the findings obtained from this study, the following recommendations are proposed to more comprehensively reveal the social and spatial dynamics of traditional houses: • Expanding the scope of Space Syntax analyses to include traditional residential patterns in diverse geographical and cultural contexts. • Conducting detailed examinations of the effects of social, economic and cultural variables on spatial organization. • Investigating the transformations of dwellings across different historical periods through comparative analyses. • Supporting conservation and restoration strategies by evaluating registered structures with the aid of spatial data. • Strengthening the dimension of social sustainability by correlating the usage habits of local residents with Space Syntax findings. Developing spatial principles that enable the transfer of traditional dwelling typologies into contemporary housing design. In conclusion, these recommendations are intended to contribute not only to the conservation and documentation of traditional houses but also to the integration of spatial analyses into contemporary architectural and planning processes. Thus, the study provides a foundation for both understanding the local architectural heritage and advancing theoretical as well as practical approaches for the future. References Akan, S. (2024). Evaluating areas with tourism potential in historic urban fabrics using the space syntax method: The case of Diyarbakir Sur içi (Master’s thesis, Dicle University, Institute of Science, Department of Architecture). Council of Higher Education National Thesis Center. Aksoy, E. (1963). Ortamekan: The fundamental organizational principle in Turkish vernacular architecture [in Turkish]. Architecture and Art, 7–8, 39–92. Arık, F. Ş. (1992). 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Investigation of traditional Gümüşhane and Gaziantep houses in the context of physical factors, materials and structural construction [Article in Turkish]. Otuzyedi Journal of Art and Design, 3(2), 129–155. Yürekli, H., & Yürekli, F. (2005). The Turkish house: A concise reevaluation [in Turkish]. Yapı Publications. 31 CHAPTER II MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION OF POMPEIAN COURTYARD GARDENS Merve SİPAHİ (Asst. Prof.), Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Faculty of Architecture, Design and Fine Arts, Department of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, E-mail: [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-3246-6302 1. Introduction Cities are structures that develop in relation to the use of natural resources while fulfilling the function of responding to social needs. The reflection of the relationship among human beings, natureand space onto the spatial plane and the physical environment plays a decisive role in the formation of cities. Archaeological sites, on the other hand, bear traces of different periods throughout history and serve as significant indicators that reveal the cultural accumulation of civilizations, their ways of lifeand their interactions with the environment (Erdoğan, 2006; Lynch, 1972). The remnants of ancient civilizations have been materialized in archaeological sites that emerge both above and beneath the ground. These areas not only reflect the social, economicand cultural characteristics of past societies but also constitute important cultural and natural heritage assets in terms of their geographical context (Olgun & Yılmaz, 2014). Historical cities possess distinctive characteristics in terms of landscape identity (Perihan & Aşur, 2020). Gardens in ancient Roman cities were not merely ornamental and recreational spaces but also complex entities that offered spatial experience through architectural axes, water systems, plant diversityand sculptural integrity (Masi et al., 2024; Wallace-Hadrill, 1994; Zanker, 1999). These 32   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II gardens were often arranged in the form of a peristyle or hortus; at the center of colonnaded courtyards were pools or euripi channels, axisaligned planting bedsand iconographic sculptures (Langgut et al., 2022). Plant selection reflected a synthesis of aesthetic and functional concerns; alongside flowering and aromatic species and symbolic trees such as cypresses, fruit trees and shade-providing plants also constituted integral elements of the landscape (Sarkowicz, 2003). Water features (pools, fountainsand channels) enhanced the dramatic effect of the gardens by providing both environmental cooling and spatial emphasis (Bekiroğlu, 1992; Carroll-Spillecke, 1995; Düzenli et al., 2019). In addition, garden depictions in frescoes and mosaics established a visual dialogue between real landscapes and idealized nature, revealing that Roman gardens were not merely physical spaces but also aesthetic and cultural realms of representation (Henderson, 2004). The most comprehensive archaeological evidence regarding Roman gardens is found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were buried under layers of lava and tuff following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (Masini et al., 2025). The volcanic cover ensured the exceptional preservation of not only the architectural fabric of the cities but also their vegetative elements. Consequently, the examination of carbonized plants with contemporary technologies enables detailed insights into the flora diversity and usage practices of the period. Furthermore, frescoes adorning the walls of houses document the aesthetic arrangements and vegetative compositions of Roman gardens from an iconographic perspective. Therefore, Pompeii is regarded as one of the sites that most comprehensively reveals Roman garden culture through both material remains and visual representations (Carroll, 2003; Sarkowicz, 2003; Henderson, 2004). Standing out as a cultural stratum shaped by different civilizations, the ancient city of Pompeii serves as a living laboratory for the Mediterranean region. Founded in the sixth century BCE and buried under lava following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, the city’s identity exhibits a multilayered structure (Berry, 1998). Although numerous structures have been uncovered in Pompeii, only a few have been excavated with environmental priorities in consideration (Murphy et al., 2013). An examination of Pompeii’s spatial structure reveals land-use patterns characterized by dwellings, temples, public spaces, gardens, peristylesand green areas that establish a relationship between nature and the urban fabric (Guzzo, 2009). Encompassing an area of 66 hectares, the city is surrounded by walls and MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION . . .   39 northeastern edge of the garden assumes a focal role within the composition of water and sculpture. This configuration demonstrates both the permeability of the boundary between private life and nature and the reflection of cosmic order within the domestic architecture of Rome (Figure 3). 8 3.2. Casa di Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stabiana (Regio IX, Insula 3, No. 5) Historical context: The Casa di Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stabiana is a significant residence located in Region IX of Pompeii, dated to the mid-1st century CE. It takes its name from Marcus Lucretius, a local politician whose inscription was found on the house walls. The frescoes and garden arrangement uncovered during the excavations conducted in the late 19th century stand among the most refined examples in Pompeii in terms of both painting art and landscape history (Ling, 2005; Trentin, 2019). Spatial configuration: The Casa di Marco Lucrezio follows the classical atrium–tablinum–peristyle sequence yet displays a more compact and focused spatial organization compared to other Pompeian houses. The garden, covering approximately 25 m², is organized around a central circular pool, whose perimeter is defined by partially preserved low walls (parterre boundaries) and column bases. Large window and door openings opening to the garden reinforce the continuity between interior and exterior spaces, creating a direct visual axis from the tablinum toward the garden. A small nymphaeum niche located on the northeastern edge of the garden assumes a focal role within the composition of water and sculpture. This configuration demonstrates both the permeability of the boundary between private life and nature and the reflection of cosmic order within the domestic architecture of Rome (Figure 3). Figure 3. Courtyard Garden of the Casa di Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stabiana Vegetative composition: The low hedge plants (Buxus sempervirens) still traceable on the site divide the garden into geometric parcels. The area surrounding the central pool is defined by species such as box, laurel (Laurus nobilis) and pomegranate (Punica granatum); small statue pedestals placed in the corners complement the vegetative axes. This arrangement emphasizes the disciplined and formal representation of Figure 3. Courtyard Garden of the Casa di Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stabiana Vegetative composition: The low hedge plants (Buxus sempervirens) still traceable on the site divide the garden into geometric parcels. The area surrounding the central pool is defined by species such as box, laurel (Laurus nobilis) and pomegranate (Punica granatum); small statue pedestals placed in the corners complement the vegetative axes. This arrangement emphasizes the disciplined and formal representation of nature. Archaeobotanical studies (Ciarallo, 2004) show that these plant species were consciously selected for both their visual balance and symbolic meanings (victory, purification, fertility). The central symmetry of the vegetative composition defines the garden as a kind of organized micro-nature. Dramaturgy of water, sound and light: The circular fountain pool located at the center of the garden serves as the main focal point determining both the visual and acoustic effects of water. The gentle sound of the water, combined with the visual order created by the surrounding hedges and sculptures, generates a sensory harmony. This design approach forms a landscape composition that reflects the elements of nature (water, light and sound). Iconographic program: The small statues within the garden (for example, representations of Pan or youthful figures) create an iconographic unity consistent with the pastoral scenes depicted in the wall paintings. The sequence of statues arranged around the circular pool materializes the theme of “man within nature.” 40   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Relation to the roman garden tradition / Microcosmos: The garden of the Casa di Marco Lucrezio represents a simplified urban-scale version of the peristyle gardens of Rome. However, unlike other examples, here the water element becomes the primary determinant of the central composition. The vegetative arrangement, sculptures and the nymphaeum element establish a balanced coexistence between the natural and the artificial. This condition reflects the Hellenistic-influenced concept of “aesthetic order” adapted to the local context of Pompeii. The garden functions as a sensory microcosmos that guides human perception and experience. 3.3. Casa dei Vettii (VI.15.1) Historical context: One of the most famous domus of Pompeii, the Casa dei Vettii represents one of the finest examples of the Late Imperial period (62–79 CE) decorative style. The house was extensively renovated after the earthquake of 62 CE and was documented in detail during the excavations of 1894–96. With its frescoes and garden layout, it constitutes one of the most comprehensive examples of Roman interior aesthetics (URL-4). Spatial configuration: Comprising two atria and a peristyle with eighteen columns, the plan exhibits a strong sense of axiality and represents a “late” domus typology. The garden strengthens the circulation and visual axes through sculptures and water channels and contains fountains and statues, including the statue of Priapus, arranged around the peristyle. Marble basins and water features reinforce this spatial composition. The smaller front peristyle is allocated to service functions, while the larger rear peristyle serves for representation and leisure. The main peristyle is enclosed on all four sides by Corinthian columns and features a long central pool (euripus). This layout is a spatial expression of social status and domestic hierarchy (Figure 4). Figure 4. Courtyard Garden of the Casa dei Vettii MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION . . .   41 Vegetative composition: Before and after the restoration, parterres enclosed by hedges were observed around the peristyle, along with fruit and ornamental plants and vegetative borders defining the walking axes. The vegetative arrangement was organized according to the rhythm of the sculptures and defined by geometrically trimmed hedges. This configuration reflects the ideal of “controlled nature” in Roman horticulture. Dramaturgy of water, sound and light: The long euripus channel in the garden is enriched with statues and fountains. Within the peristyle there are small fountains, niche pools and a rich dramaturgy of water achieved through the combination of tables, statues and basins. The peristyle garden formed by water channels and small fountains includes many sculptures, notably the statue depicting Priapus, arranged throughout the garden. Iconographic program: The Casa dei Vettii features an iconographic program in which mythological narratives are extensively employed. These iconographies convey themes of wealth, status and moral order. Relation to the Roman garden tradition / Microcosmos: This house exemplifies the transfer of Roman villa garden aesthetics to an urban scale. Here, microcosmos is constructed on both social-representational and sensoryexperiential levels. The interplay of water and light, the orderly vegetative formations and the mythological sculptures reproduce, on a smaller scale, the Roman ideals of order, harmony and abundance. 3.4. Casa di Octavius Quartio (II.2.2–5) Historical context: The Casa di Octavius Quartio is the residence with the largest private garden in Pompeii. It was excavated by Spinazzola between 1916–21 and by subsequent teams in the 1930s and 1971. Due to the electoral inscriptions on the façade, it was long referred to as “Loreius Tiburtinus,” while the Octavius Quartio seal found inside indicates its later ownership. After the earthquake of 62 CE, the house was reconstructed as a “re-staged” domus with an extensive garden layout. The garden still contains plant species believed to have been originally cultivated on site (URL-5; Cirillo et al., 2017). Spatial configuration: Within the large garden area measuring approximately 63 × 32 meters, two long euripi positioned perpendicularly form the main axis (a T-shaped canal layout). Summer dining areas (biclinium/triclinium), small pavilions and bridges establish “theatrical” systems of circulation and visual framing. At the junction of the two water channels stands a four-columned aedicula housing a nymphaeum, which supplied water to a canal more than 42   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 50 meters in length. Surrounded by porticoes, this layout possesses both symmetrical and scenographic character. In the distance, a small nymphaeum dedicated to Aphrodite serves as a visual focal point. The garden is adorned with mythological scenes where love intersects with death and transformation (Narcissus, Pyramus and Thisbe); these themes, combined with the water element, generate an allegorical meaning symbolizing the cyclicality of life (Figure 5). 11 Historical context: The Casa di Octavius Quartio is the residence with the largest private garden in Pompeii. It was excavated by Spinazzola between 1916–21 and by subsequent teams in the 1930s and 1971. Due to the electoral inscriptions on the façade, it was long referred to as “Loreius Tiburtinus,” while the Octavius Quartio seal found inside indicates its later ownership. After the earthquake of 62 CE, the house was reconstructed as a “re-staged” domus with an extensive garden layout. The garden still contains plant species believed to have been originally cultivated on site (URL-5; Cirillo et al., 2017). Spatial configuration: Within the large garden area measuring approximately 63 × 32 meters, two long euripi positioned perpendicularly form the main axis (a T-shaped canal layout). Summer dining areas (biclinium/triclinium), small pavilions and bridges establish “theatrical” systems of circulation and visual framing. At the junction of the two water channels stands a four-columned aedicula housing a nymphaeum, which supplied water to a canal more than 50 meters in length. Surrounded by porticoes, this layout possesses both symmetrical and scenographic character. In the distance, a small nymphaeum dedicated to Aphrodite serves as a visual focal point. The garden is adorned with mythological scenes where love intersects with death and transformation (Narcissus, Pyramus and Thisbe); these themes, combined with the water element, generate an allegorical meaning symbolizing the cyclicality of life (Figure 5). Figure 5. Courtyard garden of the Casa di Octavius Quartio Vegetative composition: Cypresses, pergolas shaded with vines and path-border plants are read together with the statues arranged along the axes following the water channels. The trees are rhythmically aligned on both sides of the channels, reinforcing the idea of “growth along the Figure 5. Courtyard garden of the Casa di Octavius Quartio Vegetative composition: Cypresses, pergolas shaded with vines and path-border plants are read together with the statues arranged along the axes following the water channels. The trees are rhythmically aligned on both sides of the channels, reinforcing the idea of “growth along the flow.” The vegetative texture, together with artificial waterways and bridges, transforms the garden into a living stage. Dramaturgy of water, sound and light: The continuous movement of water within the euripus system interacts with sunlight, creating dynamic reflections throughout the garden. Water flowing from marble masks placed along the channels produces a melodic rhythm. The fusion of light and water generates a “theatrical atmosphere” in combination with wall mosaics and sculptures. Iconographic program: Throughout the garden, sculptures with Dionysian and nymph themes, reliefs of Apollo and Artemis and figures of Pan can be MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION . . .   43 found. This iconography is organized around the themes of fertility of nature and mystical transformation (Zanker, 1999). Combined with pastoral scenes in the frescoes, these themes turn the garden into both a sacred and artistic microuniverse. Relation to the roman garden tradition / Microcosmos: The Casa di Octavius Quartio represents an urban adaptation of the Hellenistic–Roman villa garden type. The long euripus and axial symmetry integrate the order of nature with architecture. In this garden, microcosmos is represented through the continuous movement of water, light and motion. A dynamic order reflecting the cyclicality and rhythm of the universe on a miniature scale is present. The long canals and open-air staging create a “theatrical microcosmos” in which the villa rustica landscape merges with the urban peristyle concept. 3.5. Evaluation of Pompeian Courtyard Gardens in the Context of Roman Garden Typologies When compared with Roman garden typologies, the courtyard gardens of Pompeii display both similarities and distinctive elements. The use of sculpture, which in villa and imperial gardens is generally associated with broad perspectives and open spaces, is concentrated on a smaller scale within the narrower peristyle courtyards of Pompeii. In the Casa dei Vettii, the placement of mythological sculptures and the figure of Priapus exemplify the adaptation of status-display functions of villa gardens to an urban context. In the Casa degli Amorini Dorati, the lararium frescoes and small statuettes emphasize the ritual dimension, transforming Pompeian gardens into spaces with not only aesthetic but also sacred functions. In terms of water features, large-scale arrangements such as euripus channels and nymphaea seen in imperial villas appear in more compact forms in Pompeii. The double euripus in the garden of the Casa di Octavius Quartio reinterprets the theatrical water design of rural villa landscapes within the urban fabric. The small nymphaeum and fountains in the Casa di Marco Lucrezio reflect the Hellenistic notion of pastoral tranquility adapted to the urban house. This demonstrates that in Pompeii, water carried both functional (cooling) and symbolic (signifying order and flow) meanings. The vegetative compositions also bear traces of typological transformation. The productive function of the hortus gardens largely disappeared in Pompeii, replaced by aesthetic concerns expressed through arranged parterres, trimmed hedges, aromatic plants and shade trees. In the Casa dei Vettii, small plots 44   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II enclosed by hedges show that vegetation became an integral component of spatial organization. In the Casa di Octavius Quartio, the dramatic arrangements formed by cypress trees and vines reflect the Hellenistic park aesthetic. These vegetative schemes represent nature as a controlled and aestheticized form, constituting one of the founding elements of the domestic microcosmos. Finally, iconographic programs constitute the strongest element distinguishing Pompeian gardens from other Roman garden types. Frescoes and mosaics created a “double-layered” landscape that united real gardens with their visual representations. The cupid frescoes in the Casa degli Amorini Dorati, pastoral scenes in the Casa di Marco Lucrezio, mythological narratives in the Casa dei Vettii and ritual scenes in the Casa di Octavius Quartio transform the gardens into not only physical but also symbolic cosmoses. In this regard, Pompeii can be evaluated as a center that adopted elements from Roman garden typologies, condensed them and constructed a far more symbolic universe (Table 2). Table 2. Comparative Analysis of Pompeian House Garden Layouts Across Four Layers House Spatial Configuration Vegetative Composition Dramaturgy of Water, Sound and Light Iconographic Program / Microcosmos Amorini Dorati Compact peristyle; atrium–tablinum axis Trimmed hedges, aromatic species Small pool, calm light–shade balance Lararium, Eastern deities, Cupid motifs. Microcosmos: religious, aesthetic Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stab. Three-sided peristyle; axial view Laurel, myrtle, pomegranate Circular pool, small nymphaeum, gentle reflections Pastoral frescoes, Narcissus myth. Microcosmos: sensory–meditative Vettii Broad peristyle, strong axiality Hedged parterres, fruit trees Fountains, niche pools, rich water design Priapus statue, mythic hemes. Microcosmos: status–display Octavius Quartio Large T-plan, twin euripi, bridges Cypress, vine pergolas, canal borders Dynamic water– light scenes, nymphaeum Mythic reliefs, shrines. Microcosmos: theatrical–villa MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION . . .   45 4. Conclusions The courtyard gardens of Pompeii, while among the most tangible and legible examples of ancient Roman garden culture, transform into unique spaces of universal meaning when evaluated through the concept of microcosmos. In ancient thought, microcosmos was conceptualized as the practice of reflecting the order of the universe within a small-scale system; the selected gardens of Pompeii constitute the spatial embodiment of this idea. Each garden reveals the aesthetic values, religious practices, social identities and philosophical orientations of the Roman world by concentrating them within the scale of the courtyard. The Casa degli Amorini Dorati, with its lararium and sacred iconography, represents a microcosmos of religious representation; here, the garden is not merely an aesthetic element but the spatial projection of domestic rituals and divine order. The Casa di Marco Lucrezio sulla Via Stabiana is based on philosophical serenity and harmony with nature; its peristyle garden, nymphaeum, pastoral frescoes and balanced spatial composition express a “meditative microcosmos” reflecting Stoic and Epicurean principles. The Casa dei Vettii, through its mythological narratives, fresco of Priapus and Dionysian figures, produces the spatial manifestation of wealth, status and social representation; in this context, the garden becomes both a tangible showcase of social identity and a visual summary of Roman elite culture. The Casa di Octavius Quartio, with its extended euripus canals, bridges and sculptures, constructs a theatrical and dynamic landscape that stages the cyclicality of nature; in this setting, water, light and motion serve as experiential components that reconstitute the rhythm of the cosmos. When compared with Roman garden typologies, the courtyard gardens of Pompeii exhibit a hybrid character that integrates the broad landscape compositions of villa gardens with the functional intimacy of the hortus within compact spaces. While villas incorporated open areas that merged with surrounding landscapes, the gardens of Pompeii reinterpreted cosmic order and social values within enclosed, wall-bounded environments. This compactness enhanced the symbolic density of the gardens, generating multilayered representations through vegetative composition, water elements and iconographic programs. For example, whereas villa gardens emphasized broad promenades and visual integration with nature, the gardens of Pompeii transformed nature and culture into an introspective cosmology through microscale staging. 46   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Within this framework, the Pompeian gardens materialize the concept of microcosmos through four layers: (i) spatial configuration reflects the principles of cosmic order; (ii) vegetative composition symbolizes the cyclicality and diversity of nature; (iii) the dramaturgy of water, sound and light stages the unity of the elements through sensory experience; and (iv) iconographic programs represent religious, aesthetic and social identities. Thus, each garden reproduces the holistic Roman world within the domestic scale as a model of the universe. In conclusion, the courtyard gardens of Pompeii are not merely extensions of the Roman garden tradition but unique representational spaces that reconstruct the Roman cosmos through the concept of microcosmos. These spaces, where nature and culture, sacredness and everyday life, aesthetics and functionality intertwine, function as dynamic micro-universes playing a crucial role in the formation of Roman identity. Therefore, Pompeii provides a significant example for understanding how the ancient world reflected the totality of the cosmos within small-scale garden settings. References Baker, P. (2022). Identifying the connection between Roman conceptions of ‘Pure Air’and physical and mental health in Pompeian gardens (c. 150 BC– AD 79): A multi-sensory approach to ancient medicine. In The Archaeology of Medicine and Healthcare (pp. 40-53). Routledge. Bartók, B. (2018). Mikrokosmos. Courier Dover Publications. Bekiroğlu, D. Z. (1992). Tarihsel süreç içerisinde su öğesinin peyzaj planlamada kullanımı, Yıldız Technical University, Master’s Thesis, Institute of Science, Istanbul Berry, J. (1998). Unpeeling Pompeii: Studies in Region I of Pompeii. Cinii Books. Carafa, P. (2009). Recent work on early Pompeii. In The world of Pompeii (pp. 105-114). Routledge. Carroll-Spillecke M. 1995. Der Garten von der Antike bis zum Mittelalter, Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt 57, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. Ciarallo 2004. Annamaria. Flora pompeiana. L’Erma di Bretschneider, Roma, 2004 Ciarallo, A. (2009). The gardens of ancient Pompeii. In II International Conference on Landscape and Urban Horticulture 881 (pp. 875-877). Cirillo, C., Scarpa, L., Bertoli, B., Acampora, G., & Russo, M. (2017). The Valorization of Urban Green between Architecture and Archaeobotany: MICROCOSMOS IN AN ANCIENT CITY: THE REPRESENTATION . . .   47 The “Park” of Octavius Quartio’s House in Pompeii. In Proceedings of the 19th IPSAPA/ISPALEM International Scientific Conference, Napoli, Italy (pp. 2-3). Cirillo, C., Scarpa, L., Acampora, G., Bertoli, B., Esposito, R., & Russo, M. (2015). Pompeii-Nature and Architecture. In Proceedings of the 19th IPSAPA/ ISPALEM International Scientific Conference, Naples, Italy (pp. 719-728). Düzenlı, T., Alpak, E. M., & Akyol, D. (2019). Peyzaj mimarlığında su öğesinin tarihsel süreçteki kullanım amaçları. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 9(1), 20-35. Erdoğan, E. (2006). Perge Arkeolojik Sit Alanı, Peyzaj Özellikleri ve Koruma Sorunları. Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(10), 36-47. Guzzo, P. G. (2009). City and country: an introduction. In The World of Pompeii (pp. 45-50). Routledge. Henderson, J. (2004). HORTVS. The Roman Book of Gardening. London/ New-York, Routledge Hughes, L. A. (2014). Sculpting Theatrical Performance at Pompeii’s Casa degli Amorini Dorati. LOGEION: A Journal of Ancient Theatre, 4, 227-47. Jashemski, W. F. (1979). The gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum and the villas destroyed by Vesuvius. Langgut, D. (2022). Prestigious early Roman gardens across the Empire: the significance of gardens and horticultural trends evidenced by pollen. Palynology, 46(4), 1-17. Ling, R. (2005). Pompeii: History, life and afterlife. Tempus Publishing Ltd. Lynch, K. (1972) What time is this place?, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Masi, A., Vignola, C., Lazzara, A., Moricca, C., Serlorenzi, M., & Ferrandes, A. F. (2024). The first extensive study of an Imperial Roman Garden in the city of Rome: the Horti Lamiani. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 33(1), 111-120. Masini, N., Sileo, M., Gizzi, F. T., De Giorgi, L., & Leucci, G. (2025). The Domus Nozze D’Argento in Pompeii: Structural Diagnosis Using Geophysical Methods. Archaeological Prospection. Murphy, C., Thompson, G., & Fuller, D. Q. (2013). Roman food refuse: urban archaeobotany in Pompeii, Regio VI, Insula 1. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 22(5), 409-419. Olgun, R., & Yılmaz, T. (2014). Aizanoi antik kentinin peyzaj planlama kapsamında korunması ve turizm potansiyelinin arttırılması. Artium, 2(2), 122133. 48   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Özünur, S. B. (2019). Makrokozmos/Mikrokozmos arayüzünde mimari tasarımın imge/atmosfer etkilerinin “mesken tutma” kavrayışı üzerinden okunması. Perihan, M., & Aşur, F. (2020). Tarihi kentsel peyzaj ve kent kimliği ilişkisi. Kent Akademisi, 13(1), 163-175. Sarkowicz, H. (2003). Bahçelerin ve Parkların Tarihi. (Çev. E. Kayaoğlu), Dost Kitabevi, Ankara. Trentin, S. (2019). Reality, artificeand changing landscapes in the house of Marcus Lucretius in Pompeii. Greece & Rome, 66(1), 71-92. URL-1 ,https://www.pompeionline.net/regione-vi/pompei-casa-degliamorini-dorati-vi-16-7#map URL-2 https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/166422148705343884/ URL-3 https://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R2/2%2002%20 02%20plan.htm URL-4 https://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R6/6%20 15%2001%20gynaeceum.htm URL-5 https://www.planetpompeii.com/en/map/the-house-of-d-octaviusquartius.html Wallace-Hadrill, A. (1994). Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Princeton University Press. Zanker, P. (1999). Pompeii: public and private life. Harvard University Press. PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS   55 Integrating art into playgrounds is increasingly recognized to foster children’s creativity, imagination, and holistic development. Research highlights that artistic and creative playgrounds not only enrich play experiences but also support cognitive, emotional, and social growth, though balancing creativity with safety standards remains a challenge. Limiting parameters such as hygiene conditions, user safety, and infection control can complicate the applicability of artistic interventions. Therefore, the integration of art into playgrounds should be considered not only as an aesthetic contribution but also as a multi-layered design problem that needs to be resolved through interdisciplinary collaboration. 4. Typologies of Play Environments and Developmental Outcomes Hospital playgrounds and interiors, especially in the hospital context, come to the fore today with holistic design approaches that contribute to the physical, psychological, and social recovery of children, support creativity and interaction with art, and make them feel safe, ergonomic, hygienic, and “homey”. In other words, playgrounds such as healthcare buildings and indoor designs are also trending towards a holistic and user-oriented healing approach. Play spaces should be considered not only as entertainment or leisure activities, but also as developmental contexts for learning, exploration, creativity, and social interaction. The quality of the experiences that children acquire through play, and therefore their relationship with the healing processes, is directly related to the cognitive, emotional, social, and physical reflections of the user, as well as the connection with creativity and art. The classification of children’s playgrounds not only reveals spatial diversity but is also important for understanding the types of experiences directly related to children’s developmental processes. Within the scope of the research, it is evident that playgrounds are predominantly viewed as a “place” through examples located outdoors. Therefore, they are considered a landscape or urban design element. Although the literature research is considered in this context, it is evident that they converge on several common approaches, particularly in the context of the causes and consequences of games for child users. For this reason, an in-depth examination was carried out on how the environment in question could be structured in the research area, which was included in the scope of interior space. In this context, playgrounds are discussed in various categories, and it is concluded that each of the typologies contributes to the developmental needs of children at different 56   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II levels. By using different design approaches, the following playgrounds can allow the creation of environments: - Nature-based Environments: Elements such as natural materials, plants, water features, and topography differences develop children’s motor skills, environmental awareness, and imagination. Nature-based playgrounds also contribute to reducing stress and increasing focus skills (Sando et al., 2023). - Risk-friendly Environments: Elements such as climbing, balancing, and height differences, which involve controlled risks, develop children’s resilience, self-confidence, and problem-solving skills. Such environments also increase opportunities for social interaction and collaboration (Sando et al., 2023; Sandseter & Sando, 2016). - Structured/Indoor Environments: Environments that are arranged indoors, are adult-supervised, and often allow for regulated play, are less spontaneous, and have more limited variety. However, academic support contributes in terms of learning, cognitive skills, and discipline development (Gaminiesfahani et al., 2020; Sandseter & Sando, 2016). - Digital/Interactive Environments: Environments where digital technologies are integrated, supported by screens, sensors, or VR/AR tools, can promote early digital literacy, audiovisual integration, and cognitive acceleration in children. However, there are also risks of distraction and overstimulation (Marsh, 2010; Yu et al., 2023). - Hybrid/Transitional Environments: Arrangements such as atriums, semi-open spaces, and inner courtyards that soften indoor-outdoor transitions support children’s emotional regulation, sense of belonging to space, and environmental awareness development (Norouzi & Garza, 2021; Moore & Cosco, 2010). - Cultural/Art-Based Environments: Playgrounds with artistic and cultural elements (ceramic panels, music corners, story walls, etc.) nurture children’s creativity, identity development, cultural belonging, and aesthetic sensitivity. It can also create healing effects (Eroğlu, 2017; Gaminiesfahani et al., 2020). Child development is achieved through observation, practical experiments, listening, and induction. These processes are important in terms of the way the young child’s brain organizes their experiences as neuronal connections. These connections are mainly in the preschool period, known as the age of play (Morris, PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS   57 2013). Therefore, playground facilities are an indispensable and compulsory need for the child who is treated in the limited hospital environment. The experience and knowledge gained through play are very decisive for the child’s later life. The design of children’s playgrounds can be evaluated as a guide by establishing a link between developmental outcomes and the typologies created (Table 1). Table 1: Typologies of Play Environments and Associated Child Developmental Outcomes (Compiled by the author). Environment Type Key Features Developmental Outcomes Reference Nature-based Complexity, variability Enhanced language, creativity, cognition, environmental awareness Prins et al. (2022); Prins et al. (2023); Sando et al., (2023); Laevers (1997) Risk-friendly Opportunities for challenge, controlled exploration opportunity Well-being, physical activity, resilience, selfconfidence, problemsolving Sando et al. (2021); Sando et al. (2023); Kennedy-Behr et al. (2015); Giske et al. (2018); Howard and McInnes (2013) Structured /Indoor Adult-led, limited variety Less spontaneous, less complex play, academic support learning Yelland (2011); Prins et al. (2022); Sandseter and Sando (2016); Spiegal et al. (2014) Digital /Interactive Sensory-rich interfaces (touchscreens, motion sensors, sound feedback), positive distractions Early digital literacy, cognitive acceleration, visual-auditory integration Yu et al. (2023); Goel et al. (2024); Jiang (2020); Mclaughlan et al. (2018) Hybrid /Transitional Semi-open spaces, atriums, inner courtyard-connection areas, soften spatial transitions Support emotional regulation, environmental awareness Moore & Cosco (2010); Mclaughlan et al. (2018); Norouzi & Garza (2021) Cultural /Art-Based Creativity and Imagination Expansion, belonging, discovery, development. Creativity, identity development, cultural belonging, aesthetic sensitivity, imagination, therapeutic benefit Ulrich (1991); Gaminiesfahani et al. (2020); Goel et al. (2024); Jiang (2020) 58   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Through art, spaces allow people to express themselves and develop their creativity (Özer Baş, Kurnalı, 2021). Children’s spaces must be safe, comfortable, and integrated with nature, allowing children to develop their creativity, imagination, and social skills. While the game is instructive for the child in itself, creating an environment designed in the context of the space will determine which aspects of its quality will have healing properties. 5. Evaluating Hospital Play Spaces through Typologies: Case Studies from Ankara Different environmental typologies used in the design of children’s playgrounds have a direct impact on children’s developmental outcomes. Research in the literature reveals that nature-based playgrounds contribute to a wide range of children’s motor skills and environmental awareness. At the same time, risk-oriented arrangements support resilience, self-confidence, and problem-solving skills. On the other hand, closed and structured spaces limit the possibility of spontaneous play and contribute to the development of cognitive skills and academic learning. While digital and interactive environments that have come to the fore in recent years support early digital literacy, hybrid and transition spaces pave the way for the development of emotional regulation and spatial belonging. Art and culture-oriented playgrounds offer important opportunities in terms of creativity, aesthetic sensitivity, and identity development. In this context, the question of what typological features hospital children’s playgrounds have and which developmental outcomes they support gains importance. Parameters from the literature, combined with observations from field investigations, allow for the identification of strengths and weaknesses of existing designs. This evaluation provides guidance both in terms of improving the design quality of playgrounds and developing improvement-oriented suggestions. As part of the research, during the field research phase of the study period (2017-2020), official permission was requested to examine the play areas in all 11 hospitals in Ankara, with a particular focus on the “Pediatric Hematology” and “Pediatric Oncology” clinics. However, only Hacettepe University Pediatric and Oncology Hospital and Gazi University Faculty of Medicine Hospital were deemed suitable for the research, as communicated in response to the official permission request. The study area comprises one enclosed children’s play area that provides long-term inpatient care in the Oncology and Hematology clinics of the specified hospitals. The research did not involve any examination PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS   59 of humans, and since no research techniques such as interviews or surveys were applied, there was no need to obtain ethical approval. The fact that only a physical examination of the space was conducted constituted one of the significant limitations of the research. Two examples of enclosed play areas were examined through objective observation and documented using photographic methods, covering various aspects of the interior space, including structural and aesthetic parameters, user flow, and the use of reinforcements. The Oncology Hospital at Hacettepe University Hospital provides service in a different structure than the building reserved for children. Hematology and Oncology units are located in different but close areas. The oncology hospital caters exclusively to patients of all ages undergoing oncology treatment. The clinic is located on the 2nd floor of the hospital. The inpatient and treatment unit reserved for the child, along with the playground, are located on the same floor and nearby. The children’s play area can be observed from outside and has a designated area for specialized staff. It features two separate table arrangements and is designed with storage areas for high traffic (Figure 1). Figure 1: Play area organization at the Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic (Personal Archive, 2019). In the Pediatric Hematology Unit at the Children’s Hospital, due to high patient density and low capacity, only “severe neutropenic” patients are treated. It was learned that the treatment of patients whose condition improved was carried out remotely. For the stated reason, there is no playground in the pediatric hematology unit. The children’s playground in the Pediatric Oncology Clinic consists of a single room. It is separated from the waiting area by a glazed partition that companions from the outside can watch. The application has a limited focus on spatial play (Figure 2). 60   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 11 Figure 1: Play area organization at the Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic (Personal Archive, 2019). In the Pediatric Hematology Unit at the Children's Hospital, due to high patient density and low capacity, only "severe neutropenic" patients are treated. It was learned that the treatment of patients whose condition improved was carried out remotely. For the stated reason, there is no playground in the pediatric hematology unit. The children's playground in the Pediatric Oncology Clinic consists of a single room. It is separated from the waiting area by a glazed partition that companions from the outside can watch. The application has a limited focus on spatial play (Figure 2). Figure 2: Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic playground area and entrance (Personal Archive, 2019). The play area features chairs, tables, portable whiteboards, and bookshelves for the use of sick children. There is no personal storage to increase a sense of belonging. The wall-to-wall hinged storage unit within the space is used by a specialist to store tools and equipment used for play (Figure 3). Figure 2: Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic playground area and entrance (Personal Archive, 2019). The play area features chairs, tables, portable whiteboards, and bookshelves for the use of sick children. There is no personal storage to increase a sense of belonging. The wall-to-wall hinged storage unit within the space is used by a specialist to store tools and equipment used for play (Figure 3). 12 Figure 3: Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic playground general storage areas and equipments (Personal Archive, 2019). At Gazi University Hospital, the Pediatric Oncology and Pediatric Hematology clinics are located on the same floor (10th floor) and close to each other. The game room provides standard service to both units and is in the same clinic as the inpatient and treatment units. The children's play area is not visible from outside, but the handwashing area is located nearby. There is a separate space for specialist staff. A large table arrangement for children of play age is noteworthy (Figure 4). Figure 4: Play area organization at the Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic (Personal Archive, 2019). In the same building, there is a separate playground for children who come for short-term treatment. Patients of the hematology and oncology clinic use the playground on their own floors only due to the risk of infection, which causes the playroom to qualitatively differ from those in other units (e.g., pediatric ward, pediatric surgery). A private organization renovated the playroom in the last quarter of 2019. A social worker is responsible for the room, and this specialist regulates the entrance-exit, number of users, and usage hours. Although the setup of the place is suitable for children of play age, it mainly covers children who can use their motor skills; it is also suitable for spatial application for school age and adolescence (Figure 5). Figure 3: Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic playground general storage areas and equipments (Personal Archive, 2019). At Gazi University Hospital, the Pediatric Oncology and Pediatric Hematology clinics are located on the same floor (10th floor) and close to each other. The game room provides standard service to both units and is in the same clinic as the inpatient and treatment units. The children’s play area is not visible from outside, but the handwashing area is located nearby. There is a separate space for specialist staff. A large table arrangement for children of play age is noteworthy (Figure 4). PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS   61 12 Figure 3: Hacettepe University Pediatric Oncology Clinic playground general storage areas and equipments (Personal Archive, 2019). At Gazi University Hospital, the Pediatric Oncology and Pediatric Hematology clinics are located on the same floor (10th floor) and close to each other. The game room provides standard service to both units and is in the same clinic as the inpatient and treatment units. The children's play area is not visible from outside, but the handwashing area is located nearby. There is a separate space for specialist staff. A large table arrangement for children of play age is noteworthy (Figure 4). Figure 4: Play area organization at the Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic (Personal Archive, 2019). In the same building, there is a separate playground for children who come for short-term treatment. Patients of the hematology and oncology clinic use the playground on their own floors only due to the risk of infection, which causes the playroom to qualitatively differ from those in other units (e.g., pediatric ward, pediatric surgery). A private organization renovated the playroom in the last quarter of 2019. A social worker is responsible for the room, and this specialist regulates the entrance-exit, number of users, and usage hours. Although the setup of the place is suitable for children of play age, it mainly covers children who can use their motor skills; it is also suitable for spatial application for school age and adolescence (Figure 5). Figure 4: Play area organization at the Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic (Personal Archive, 2019). In the same building, there is a separate playground for children who come for short-term treatment. Patients of the hematology and oncology clinic use the playground on their own floors only due to the risk of infection, which causes the playroom to qualitatively differ from those in other units (e.g., pediatric ward, pediatric surgery). A private organization renovated the playroom in the last quarter of 2019. A social worker is responsible for the room, and this specialist regulates the entrance-exit, number of users, and usage hours. Although the setup of the place is suitable for children of play age, it mainly covers children who can use their motor skills; it is also suitable for spatial application for school age and adolescence (Figure 5). 13 Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground (Personal Archive, 2019). When the child is young or unable to move independently and requires assistance, they share the room with a caregiver. Adults (excluding the specialist's area) and school-age children have access to an electronic gaming system (XBox), and ergonomically designed, industrially manufactured chairs, televisions, and TV stands are used in the playroom. The seating elements for children come in various types. For the majority of them, it has been observed that although their dimensions are not suitable, they have the capacity to accommodate an adult. In addition, the space includes roller blinds, air conditioning, an air purifier, a trash can, a bookcase, and open shelves used for storage. There is no personal storage space suitable for use by sick children (Figure 6). Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground seating elements and iequipments (Personal Archive, 2019). The spatial arrangement of playgrounds alongside inpatients and treatment units in both hospitals relates to children's treatment processes and play experiences. However, the similarity of user profiles—children undergoing long-term treatment and at high risk of infection—suggests that playgrounds are limited by strict regulations in terms of access, surveillance, and hygiene. In both playgrounds, safety and hygiene Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground (Personal Archive, 2019). 62   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II When the child is young or unable to move independently and requires assistance, they share the room with a caregiver. Adults (excluding the specialist’s area) and school-age children have access to an electronic gaming system (XBox), and ergonomically designed, industrially manufactured chairs, televisions, and TV stands are used in the playroom. The seating elements for children come in various types. For the majority of them, it has been observed that although their dimensions are not suitable, they have the capacity to accommodate an adult. In addition, the space includes roller blinds, air conditioning, an air purifier, a trash can, a bookcase, and open shelves used for storage. There is no personal storage space suitable for use by sick children (Figure 6). 13 Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground (Personal Archive, 2019). When the child is young or unable to move independently and requires assistance, they share the room with a caregiver. Adults (excluding the specialist's area) and school-age children have access to an electronic gaming system (XBox), and ergonomically designed, industrially manufactured chairs, televisions, and TV stands are used in the playroom. The seating elements for children come in various types. For the majority of them, it has been observed that although their dimensions are not suitable, they have the capacity to accommodate an adult. In addition, the space includes roller blinds, air conditioning, an air purifier, a trash can, a bookcase, and open shelves used for storage. There is no personal storage space suitable for use by sick children (Figure 6). Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground seating elements and iequipments (Personal Archive, 2019). The spatial arrangement of playgrounds alongside inpatients and treatment units in both hospitals relates to children's treatment processes and play experiences. However, the similarity of user profiles—children undergoing long-term treatment and at high risk of infection—suggests that playgrounds are limited by strict regulations in terms of access, surveillance, and hygiene. In both playgrounds, safety and hygiene Figure 5: Gazi University Pediatrics Oncology and Hematology Clinic playground seating elements and iequipments (Personal Archive, 2019). The spatial arrangement of playgrounds alongside inpatients and treatment units in both hospitals relates to children’s treatment processes and play experiences. However, the similarity of user profiles—children undergoing long-term treatment and at high risk of infection—suggests that playgrounds are limited by strict regulations in terms of access, surveillance, and hygiene. In both playgrounds, safety and hygiene concerns stand out as the determining factor in the spatial design. The rooms are locked by their supervisors during working hours, and there are access restrictions due to the risk of infection. The comparative table below (Table 2) presents both playgrounds on the axis of typological parameters (environment type, key features, and expected developmental outcomes) defined in Table 1. The table reveals the concrete manifestations of each typology in the field and the spatial data identified. In the table below, both hospital playgrounds are classified and analyzed according to these parameters (Table 2). PLAY AND HEALING IN HOSPITAL: DESIGNING CHILDREN’S PLAYGROUNDS   63 Table 2. Comparative Evaluation of Two Hospital Play Spaces in Ankara Based on Environment Typologies (Compiled by the author). Environment Type Hacettepe University Hospital Gazi University Hospital Observation /Analysis Nature-based -Plants in front of windows, limited use of natural light Missing or insufficient natural elements Risk-friendly Completely securityoriented, no risk factors Completely securityoriented, no risk factors Controlled risk deficiency limits children’s motor and self-confidence development Structured /Indoor Indoor playroom, adult supervision intensive, academic supportive Indoor playroom, adult supervision intensive, academic supportive Overstructured environment, limited possibility of spontaneous play Digital/ Interactive - Leveraging digital technologies for game diversity The approach to digital interaction elements varies Hybrid /Transitional - - Internal-external integration has not been achieved Cultural /Art-Based Art-oriented elements are two-dimensional, no cultural qualities Art-oriented elements are two-dimensional, original local applications that will encourage imagination Weak focus on art and creativity, no cultural impact Based on the defined playground typologies (Table 1), two hospital children’s playgrounds examined in Ankara are evaluated comparatively. The aim is to reveal the application forms of these typologies in the field; to show what typological features each space has, which developmental outcomes these features correspond to, and in what respects they require improvement. The study, especially the evaluation, was designed to provide a direct basis for design proposals through the mutual reading of field data with a literature-based theoretical framework and was carried out with limited use of artificial intelligence within the framework of universal ethical rules. In this context, for both field investigations, it is seen that 64   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II spatial arrangements have a spatial approach as they are primarily based on controlled, supervised, and low-risk use. 6. Conclusion Playgrounds in children’s hospitals are not just units that entertain; they are also considered critical spatial components that support children’s cognitive, emotional, and social development. Play serves as a fundamental tool for children to interact with the environment, cope with stress, and make sense of the hospital experience. In this context, the typological diversity of playgrounds and their relationship with developmental outcomes is an important indicator that determines the healing potential of the space. The study comparatively evaluates playgrounds within two pediatric hospitals in Ankara in the context of six basic environmental typologies. The free play capacity is limited, with both playgrounds providing only basic movement space. In addition, it is seen that the playgrounds in both areas are very limited in terms of nature-based play parameters. While a completely security-oriented approach is adopted in Hacettepe, a limited relationship with the external environment is established through window plants in Gazi. The lack of natural elements indicates that environmental contributions supporting children’s calming, attention gathering, and emotional regulation processes are insufficient. Risk-friendly games and melanoma prevention practices are not utilized in either hospital. The absence of controlled risk elements has a limiting effect on children’s motor skills and self-confidence development. This situation reveals that playgrounds should be designed not only with a focus on safety but also in a way that balances developmental risks. Structured/indoor playgrounds are available in both hospitals; However, the lack of diversification of areas restricts children’s access to different types of play. The intensity of adult supervision limits children’s opportunities to engage in independent play and develop social interaction. In addition, digital and interactive game opportunities are only available within the premises of Gazi University. It is important to include it spatially in the fiction, especially in terms of cognitive flexibility, attention span, and self-efficacy development. In terms of hybrid/transitional playgrounds, the spatial threshold definitions between the Hacettepe University playground and clinical functions are more clearly constructed. This facilitates children’s emotional adaptation. Gazi 71 CHAPTER IV SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL PROGRESS IN DESIGN STUDIO: A LEARNING-BY-COMPETING CASE Pınar DİNÇ KALAYCI (Prof.Dr.). Faculty of Architecture, Gazi University E-mail: [email protected]; pinarpinar[email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-1932-9477 1. Introduction Being the core course in architectural education, the design studio embodies diverse parameters and variables, some of which come from historical background and some from the current circumstances. Indeed, global/national issues requiring urgent responses from all professions force studios to be more sensitive in character and sensible in their proposed solutions. The climate crisis and the natural disasters the earth has been facing, immigration and poverty, and their consequences that societies have long been fighting against are the main issues directly related to design studios nowadays. Therefore, focusing on the old canons, form-finding exercises, repetition of existing typologies, and other conventional ways of studio practices are on the way to being replaced by the pedagogies that result in well-tuned responses to problems. Studio teachers and students are expected to collaborate actively, and institutional values are expected to reform their content according to the global/national educational requirements. New design pedagogies are needed that can act as an antidote and go beyond the conventional attitudes of institutions, as crises, disasters, and rapid change intensify their effects on societies and environments. This paper considers the design studio as an experiential milieu that cultivates contexts and subjects. Future architects will be on duty to propose innovative solutions 72   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II to newly emerging issues, including those we do not know yet. The paper introduces the dynamics that shape the design of design studios, as it provides insight into a specific pedagogy, learning by competing. The Spring 2023–24 studio practice is detailed and assessed through the lens of sustainability and educational impact. 2. Theoretical Foundations 2.1. Internationally recognized expectations from studios The accreditation and validation institutes, e.g., NAAB, RIBA, ARB, and CACB; the bodies supporting architectural education, such as EAAE; the international UNESCO-UIA Charter for Architectural Education; the regulatory boards and ministries of nations; the individual academic institutions; the national-professional bodies like chambers of architects of countries; and even specific academic journals all outline the qualifications essential for architects to practice the profession (NAAB, 2025; RIBA, 2024; ARB, 2025; CACB, n.d.; EAAE, n.d.; UNESCO, 2025). Among the qualities, there are those that underline the positively impacting power of the designed environments. The 7th item of the General Considerations in the UNESCI-UIA Charter, for instance, is devoted to the 17 United Nations Sustainability Goals (SDGs), as it expects future architects to design decent, healthy, just, safe, equitable, accessible, sustainable, inclusive, and resilient environments. In the same document, knowledge of materials, infrastructure, technology, ecology, aesthetics, economy, renewable resources, heritage, and cultural values is given priority. In the Objectives of Architectural Education section (the 2nd item of the Charter), several issues are related to architectural design, thus to design studios, e.g., the aesthetic and technical requirements, relations with arts, urban and structural design skills, and user requirements as the fundamental objectives and the design-related capabilities include imagination, creativity, innovation, information gathering, critical judgment, three-dimensional thinking, experimenting with design theories, working on different scales, and integrating knowledge into design solutions (UNESCO, 2025). Therefore, the design studio is expected to be the core of the curriculum (CACB, n.d.), and its cultivating power is gaining strategic importance. What to cultivate and how to harvest needs special consideration. 2.2. Design Studio: A Multifaceted Phenomenon The formation of design studios has always been a core issue in architectural design education, and besides the traditionally continued pedagogies, post- SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   73 pandemic times have raised new learning settings (Salama & Crosby, 2020). As mentioned in the internationally recognized expectations, sustainability-based curricula have been reported to become a quality criterion in general validation and accreditation of institutes (Burton & Salama, 2023), leaving almost no place for counterargument. On the other hand, being more problematic, including computers and online teaching, raises diverse arguments that still need experience and progress. For instance, remote conducting in online studios has been presented as an issue claimed to negatively affect verbal communication in studios, requiring the development of specific online education tools (Ozorhon & Lekesiz, 2021). Similarly, peer interaction, tutor-student dynamics, and productivity were reported to decline in the online studio, and there appeared to be a need for extra time and effort beyond the scheduled studio hours to adapt to new conditions (Murray & Oldfield, 2023). Instructional design principles and processes for online studios have been proposed and discussed as possible solutions in one study (Khan & Thilagam, 2022). Another study focused on the educational situations, inquiring about the relationships between knowledge, computers, and teacher/learner actors (Rahmane, Harkat & Abbaoui, 2022). Global differences have been reported in handling technological issues in design studios despite the common aim of architectural education, which is progress in knowledge and skills (Saghafi & Crowther, 2021). Other research also indicates that from master to apprentice, transmissionfocused mode teaching in design studios has started to be replaced with pluralism and emancipation. Thus, pluriversal studios have been encouraged (Gray, 2022). The newly emerged need for non-conventional design studios that use digital tools, online platforms, and real-world contexts simultaneously and in relation has been underlined (Hettithanthri & Hansen, 2022). In contrast, movement exercises have been experimented with for rearranging design processes to integrate human-centered, emotionally connected practices alongside digital technology (Sinnamon & Miller, 2022). Blended e-learning based on cloud technology and its applications (Mohammed, 2017) has already been a pre-pandemic issue, as artificial intelligence, Generative AI, and its use in design studios have newly gained momentum and started to give early insights about experiments (Fleischmann, 2024), including the experiences that combine sustainability and AI-driven design (Lila & Zigure, 2023). Though scholar references can be multiplied, one can claim that the involvement of sustainability, teachers’ and students’ renewed positions in 74   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II hybrid education, AI use in the studio, and the conventional human-centered approaches used towards the intensive use of digital technology constitute the multifaceted structure of design studios nowadays. Studios must recalibrate these dynamics and develop pedagogies to rebalance future human-environment relationships. 2.3. Design Competitions as/in the Studio Curricula One of the latest practices in architectural design studios is relating it to design competitions. Several pedagogic advantages and disadvantages have been reported for the practices based on participating in design competitions, redefining the studio as a place where students prepare their semester work as a competition submission project. Using competitions in design studios has been valued as the practices vary. Competitions have been considered valuable tools for developing the integration of theory and practice, innovation and entrepreneurship, and inviting interdisciplinary knowledge to the studio (Sun & Yang, 2022). Competition projects have been considered creative works that enhance student portfolios and assist individuals in finding jobs (Boake, 2011). Participating in professional competitions in collaboration with teachers, practicing architects, and students, called cooperative pedagogy, was presented as a way of stepping beyond the established office-classroom distinction in architectural design education (Ortiz, 2020). Students forming teams to submit a design to a competition were reported to face various challenges in educational assessment. However, they also gained various qualitative and comprehensive design experiences (Betz, 2007). Similarly, enhancing intergroup collaboration in a business-like design studio participating in a competition has been considered a necessity (Mattioli, Figoli & Wilhelm, 2023) for a class of graduate students. Competition-studio integration also varies in content. Specific concerns, such as sustainable manufacturing, were taught in a design studio participating in a competition, and parameters like the site, environment, ecology, and energy consumption were integrated into students’ thinking, drawing, modeling, and presenting (Yang et al., 2023). Similarly, humanitarian architecture was the topic of one student design competition, and the disciplinary outcome was discussed (Martins et al., 2021), underlining the intellectual richness of student design competitions from which solutions to real-world problems could have been derived. SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   75 Overall, the people who participated in design competitions during their education were reported to have positive opinions of the lived experience; they gained new perspectives, developed teamwork and time management skills, improved presentation abilities, and prepared themselves for professional challenges as participation boosted their self-confidence and the institutional reputation (Gunagama & Pratiwi, 2020). Therefore, learning by competing needs reconsideration and more experiential insight. 2.4. The Case-Study: An investigation into how sustainability and progress are shaped and realized within a learning-by-competing studio model As indicated in international and professional expectations and the multifaceted current position of the design studio, building new niches becomes inevitable. The present study focuses on a new design studio set-up based on learning-by-competing, making competing obligatory for undergraduate students. Sustainability is arranged as content in the new set-up, and student progress is the pedagogical objective. Whether newly experienced or traditionally ongoing, all pedagogies are subject to criticism and analysis, as this study gives an insight into the practice and how it is evaluated. The study conceptualizes the outcomes of the learning-by-doing studio experience around two issues: (i) the social and environmental sustainability issues addressed in/through the specific studio and (ii) student’s skills and competencies that displayed progress in/through the studio (Fig.1). The twoway structure was tested separately as qualitative and quantitative techniques revealed the different layers of the gain. Figure 1. Sustainability and progress through the lens of learning-bycompeting pedagogy, the inquiry model based on briefs, projects, and student judgment This study develops an evaluation for the specific studio pedagogy around the following research questions: RQ(1): What are the environmental and social sustainability aspects addressed through architecture competitions for students and solved through their designs? RQ(2): Which professional skills and competencies do students possibly cultivate during/after a learning-by-competing studio? 3. Methodology 3.1. Research Strategy The research is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative inquiry. It focuses on a single semester experience of a studio, provides insight into its pedagogical approach, and tests its cultivation capacity regarding environments and students. The social and environmental concerns embodied by competition documents (briefs and designs) were searched through content analyses. The student’s responses to the lived experience were obtained through a questionnaire. All inquiries were run six months after the experience; after emotional responses were expected to have settled down to a degree, critical thinking was scheduled to be at the utmost level. Both qualitative and quantitative inquiries were run by the author. 3.2. Setting and Participants The case study focuses on the competition-based practice, learningby-competing, run in the 2023-24 Spring semester in StudioThinkImagine Figure 1. Sustainability and progress through the lens of learning-by-competing pedagogy, the inquiry model based on briefs, projects, and student judgment 76   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II This study develops an evaluation for the specific studio pedagogy around the following research questions: RQ(1): What are the environmental and social sustainability aspects addressed through architecture competitions for students and solved through their designs? RQ(2): Which professional skills and competencies do students possibly cultivate during/after a learning-by-competing studio? 3. Methodology 3.1. Research Strategy The research is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative inquiry. It focuses on a single semester experience of a studio, provides insight into its pedagogical approach, and tests its cultivation capacity regarding environments and students. The social and environmental concerns embodied by competition documents (briefs and designs) were searched through content analyses. The student’s responses to the lived experience were obtained through a questionnaire. All inquiries were run six months after the experience; after emotional responses were expected to have settled down to a degree, critical thinking was scheduled to be at the utmost level. Both qualitative and quantitative inquiries were run by the author. 3.2. Setting and Participants The case study focuses on the competition-based practice, learning-bycompeting, run in the 2023-24 Spring semester in StudioThinkImagine (STI), a design studio in the Faculty of Architecture, Gazi University, Turkey. The institution’s past success participating in professional architectural design competitions between the 1960s and 2000s was studied qualitatively and archived (Dinç, 2009; Dinç Kalaycı, 2023). Therefore, the competition-based studio was not a coincidence for the institute; instead, it was a revitalization of a pedagogical approach that was transferred to the current studio. Prof. Dr Pınar Dinç Kalaycı designed the original STI pedagogy in 2014 and started the Choose & Compete theme in the 2020-21 winter semester when online education was started. Since then, students have received over 60 awards from competitions, including Uni.xyz, Archiol, Inspirelli, and TerraViva. The main characteristics of STI are its intensive content, the sequential activities for design development, and presentation skills. SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   77 The studio has been utilizing a unique syllabus for 10 semesters (Fig. 2). In this approach, each student chooses a competition, receives the approval of studio tutors in terms of competition’s suitability to the student’s educational level, and all designs are developed in an intensive schedule that consists of several activities run after the other, each focuses on skills and content. Research, face-to-face and online presentations, model making, discussions, juries, table and panel critics, notable critics by invited professionals, and midterm and final exhibitions form the content of the education. Six senior tutors guide all activities, as the studio considers critical thinking and exploration core. In the 2023-24 spring semester, STI hosted 42 students and worked for eight competitions. Of the 42 students, 29 completed the semester and submitted their designs. Eight designs received awards, and nine were shortlisted; nearly half of the students received success, whereas one-third gave up, whether at the beginning of the semester or in the following phases. The highly demanding process was thought to be the main reason for the withdrawals. Figure 2. The typical timeline of the competition-based studio 3.3. Data Collection Only four out of the eight competitions were analyzed in this study. They were Home 2124 Archiol, 2024); A Place to Eat (uni.xyz, 2024.a); Experiential Educational Building (uni.xyz, 2024.b), and Coalesce Interior Design Competition (uni.xyz, 2024.c). Briefs, introduction texts, and pictures published by the competition organizers were collected in individual files, ready for content analysis. The submission materials of the eight awarded designs were also collected in separate folders, each containing the original sheets, text, and visuals as they appear on the competition site. The analysed winning projects were Noa-I-Home, second prize; Co-World, honourable mention; Nomad Station, honourable mention; Self-Healing House, honourable mention; Eat & Rest, winner; Bazeero, People’s Choice; The Yard, People’s Choice; and Co-Biophilic, People’s Choice. A 5-point Likert Scale questionnaire as a critical reflection tool was conducted to measure how students evaluate the lived experience six months after gaining critical distance from the intensity of the actual process. For preparing the questionnaires, the literature measured studio success was reviewed and adapted to the learning-by-competing experience with the following content: Creativity (Khamcharoen et al., 2022; Park and Lee, DESIGN DEVELOPMENT (4-11 WEEKS) •SITE ANALYSIS •SITE PLAN •PLANS AND SECTIONS •MODELS •3D •CRITIC(AL) WEEK PRESENTATION - SUBMISSION (12-14 WEEKS) •BOARD DESIGN •LAST CORRECTIONS •LATE CRITICS •PECHA KUCHA PRESENTATION •BOARD AND REPORT PREPARATION •SUBMISSION PREPERATION - INITIATION (1-3 WEEKS) •CHOOSING THE COMPETITION •UNDERSTANDING THE BRIEF •RESEARCH •SITE SELECTION (IF REQUIRED) AND ANALYSIS •HANDS-ON-WORK MODELLING •THE MODEL AND THE THING •GENERATIVE AI USE •CONCEPT FINDING Figure 2. The typical timeline of the competition-based studio 78   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 3.3. Data Collection Only four out of the eight competitions were analyzed in this study. They were Home 2124 Archiol, 2024); A Place to Eat (uni.xyz, 2024.a); Experiential Educational Building (uni.xyz, 2024.b), and Coalesce Interior Design Competition (uni.xyz, 2024.c). Briefs, introduction texts, and pictures published by the competition organizers were collected in individual files, ready for content analysis. The submission materials of the eight awarded designs were also collected in separate folders, each containing the original sheets, text, and visuals as they appear on the competition site. The analysed winning projects were Noa-I-Home, second prize; Co-World, honourable mention; Nomad Station, honourable mention; Self-Healing House, honourable mention; Eat & Rest, winner; Bazeero, People’s Choice; The Yard, People’s Choice; and Co-Biophilic, People’s Choice. A 5-point Likert Scale questionnaire as a critical reflection tool was conducted to measure how students evaluate the lived experience six months after gaining critical distance from the intensity of the actual process. For preparing the questionnaires, the literature measured studio success was reviewed and adapted to the learning-by-competing experience with the following content: Creativity (Khamcharoen et al., 2022; Park and Lee, 2022), skills (Soliman, 2017), process (Khan & Kiazi, 2024), and critical thinking (Avsec and Jagiełło-Kowalczyk, 2021), as it also measured the pedagogic aura of the studio (Davidovitch and Casakin, 2015; McLaughlan and Chatterjee, 2020) as an experience. 3.4. Data Analysis The qualitative analysis was conducted to discover the social and environmental issues concerning sustainability while simultaneously identifying the skills and competencies contributing to students’ professional growth. Since the inquiry was related to completed competitions, data was collected directly from related websites. All briefs and design boards were saved in separate files and uploaded into NVivo 14, and nodes were assigned for issues/skills. Nodes for sustainability issues were determined as they appeared in briefs (inductive coding), whereas the educational issues were selected from international professional expectations (deductive coding). The studio tutor / the author of the paper determined all nodes and assigned data to the relevant codes. Coding was completed in an updating process that required three overall readings of all data as node definitions became more precise each time, and saturation was reached. SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   79 Coding at three times increased reflexivity; prejudices of the researcher were eroded, and the codebook was fixed. The final version of nodes and definitions enhanced reliability. The final codebook clarified the themes that address briefs and designs in combination, as it also provided consistency, transparency, and scalability. NVivo’s cluster analysis function generated a theme/subtheme tree highlighting the key characteristics fostered by learning-by-competing. Returned questionnaires (n=16) were analysed through Excel to visualize how students judge the specific studio pedagogy in developing their creativity, skills, critical thinking, process, and the aura of the studio. 4. Results 4.1. Quantitative View: Student Judgments Positive student scores were a prerequisite for the subsequent qualitative inquiry, as an experience that failed to raise a positive perception of students in terms of progress would be considered meaningless, regardless of any awards received. Of the 29 students who completed the semester, 16 responded to the questionnaires. Respondents were 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year students; most had neither been in this studio before nor received an award. Figure 3 displays scorings collected under four headings; creativity (Mean=4.36; SD=0.54), critical thinking (Mean=4.55; SD=0.47), design and analytical skills (Mean=4.48; SD=0.40) and the process (Mean=4.30; SD=0.50). The mean score for all scoring was 4.43, indicating high satisfaction among participants with the competing studio. Students felt they could not make multiple designs during the studio, reducing the perceived creativity. In contrast, they gave the highest score for the studio experience, allowing them to produce solutions beyond the known. The least scored critical thinking item was clearly explaining and defending one’s design proposal. In contrast, the highest was understanding the competition brief and transforming it into a design. Among the design and analytic skills, participants scored time management and developing economic proposal skills as the lowest, whereas understanding user needs as the highest. Among the studio process steps, the effect of monitoring others’ designs in the studio received the lowest score, whereas table/online 1-1 critics received the highest (Figure 3). High values indicated students’ total satisfaction from the lived experience and learning-by-competing, encouraging further inquiry. 80   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Figure 3. Participants’ scorings concerning the gained creativity, critical thinking, design-analytic skills, and the effectiveness of the studio process steps. Figure 3. Participants’ scorings concerning the gained creativity, critical thinking, design-analytic skills, and the effectiveness of the studio process steps. SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   87 participants to demonstrate specific skills, and the design boards showcased a wide variety of those skills. Deepening-Consolidation Internal and mutual relationships between the environmental/social and pedagogical progress issues were statistically more significant (Jaccard’s Coefficient=1). Overall design quality and coworking were coded identically (Jaccard’s Coefficient = 1.00); the reuse theme raised a thorough definition/ understanding of the problem and design response. In contrast with this full match, some issues displayed fewer and still significant relationships (Jaccard’s Coefficient = 0.66-0.50; considered meaningful, as - ≥ 0.50) each implying meaningful internal and mutual links between sustainability and progress: • Technology was related to modular design and innovation, implying that innovation might have been expected and obtained through modularity and technology. Innovation was also associated with concept, suggesting it was not only introduced and/or solved as a matter of technology but also of design concept. • Lighting was related to coworking and overall design, implying that lighting might have been treated (both by briefs and designs) as the key issue in obtaining an overall design quality for the coworking setting. • Articulation was related to circulation, programming, concept, and use of materials and construction, implying articulation was not only conventionally defined and/or obtained through layout but also innovatively through fabrication. • Professionalization was related to change and portfolio, implying that developing designs that respond to social and environmental changes positively impact portfolio building and professionalization. • Knowledge was related to daily life, implying that most expected and/ or obtained knowledge-building in these competitions was centred around the daily life of societies and social sustainability. • Flexibility was related to connectivity and inclusion, implying that flexible design was expected and/or obtained for reaching connectivity and inclusion, which are social sustainability issues. Meaningful links were found to be more strongly established within sustainability-related issues than those concerning pedagogical progress. This 88   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II suggests that competitions do not focus solely on isolated sustainability topics but instead foster an atmosphere where various adjacent issues are activated through holistic definitions and integrated solutions. The only mutual relationship between the sustainability and pedagogic issues was between the changes of societies and environments and the progress in portfolio and professionalization, which underlines the main gain from learning-by-competing experience, professionalization through developing a portfolio dealing with/responding to social and environmental changes. 5. Discussion In line with previous literature, the learning-by-competing studio has demonstrated a measurable impact on students’ progress, as it also fulfilled the expectations of the recognized bodies. Internally, the 2023–24/Spring semester experience data reveal that students perceived progress in creativity, critical thinking, process management, and competencies. This aligns with the established framework (Park and Lee, 2022) that confirmed that creative thinking and innovation are most effectively cultivated in studio environments where real-world problems and competitionbased learning intersect. Similarly, the argument that competition studios act as a catalyst for bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and professional practice (Sun and Yang, 2022) was also mirrored through the students’ increased capacity to translate abstract briefs into contextually grounded, innovative solutions, which were measured through qualitative and quantitative approaches of the current study. The literature further supports the pivotal role of competition in nurturing transferable professional skills: Enhancements in time management and self-confidence (Gunagama and Pratiwi, 2020), identifying academic social climate as a decisive factor in student engagement and identity formation (Davidovitch and Casakin, 2015) and the long term benefits of immersive, collaborative studio cultures (Mattioli et al., 2023) were all supported through the obtained studio “aura”—marked by intellectual rigor, collegial support, and sustained motivation. The emphasis on sustainability and social engagement in the focused studio directly answers the priorities and necessities mentioned in the UNESCOUIA Charter for Architectural Education (2025), RIBA (2024), NAAB (2025), and individuals (for instance, Burton & Salama, 2023), who are advocating a curriculum that embeds environmental and societal responsibility at their core. Deepening-consolidating results of the present study also suggest that learning- SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL . . .   89 by-competing offers studios a robust and long-lasting model for achieving the holistic educational objectives, i.e., providing professional progress and supporting social/environmental sustainability, endorsed by leading professional bodies. This study also substantiates the argument that learning-by-competing is congruent with the pluriversal (Gray, 2020) and non-conventional (Hettithanthri & Hansen, 2022) pursuits through being effective in the holistic development of architecture students. 6. Conclusion The study revealed the environmental/social aspects and the student skills/ competencies that the learning-by-competing experience activated. Findings indicate that each competition focuses on specific environmental/social challenges and looks for an intensive use of skills/competencies that result in an innovative solution displayed through well-crafted design boards. Each competition is a call for activating collective thinking on sustainability-related challenges, as each proposal is an attempt at a creative/innovative answer that honours not only societies and environments but also the designer as creator. Considering a very limited number of competitions, award-winning designs, and survey participants, this study reveals that the innovative drive of competitions affects students’ professional development by providing experiential insight into the existing conditions, transformations, specific challenges, and the design solutions that sensitively address all. Therefore, the study encourages using competitions in studio curricula and launching competitions on the newly emerging challenges. Design and assessment through competitions require more intercultural/global scale interactions since the expectations for studios are universal, and the multifaceted nature of the studio facilitates diverse collaborations. This study supports the high student motivation and high positive outcomes for learning-by-competing. Acknowledgements The author wishes to express sincere gratitude to the StudioThinkImagine teaching team of the 2023–24 Spring semester, including Assoc. Prof. Dr. Can Güngör (Vice-Coordinator of the studio); part-time instructors Dr. Göksu Günay Öğüt, Hamiyet Gökmen Balcı (M.Arch), and İnci Shoainia (M.Arch); and Research Assistant Özge Zenter (M.Arch). 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July 2023). 95 CHAPTER V SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING THE SOUNDSCAPES OF THE RUHR REGION Şeyma SEYREK (Dr., Lecturer), Hitit University, E-mail: seymaseyr[email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-9971-1096 “The unique soundmark deserves to make history as surely as a Beethoven symphony.” Murray Schafer 1. Introduction Heritage assessments have traditionally focused on visual elements, which are permanent and easily identifiable features of a site, enabling clear discussions about their significance. However, the assessment and documentation of intangible and non-visual aspects of heritage, such as sound, have been less common in current practices, though these elements are increasingly gaining attention in academic research (Parker, Spennemann, & Bond, 2024). Sounds, along with smell, touch, and visual imagery, play a crucial role in linking us to our personal and collective histories through memory, bridging both time and space (Drozdzewski, Nardi, & Waterton, 2016). Despite the importance of these sensory elements, sound in particular remains an often overlooked component of heritage, even though it is fundamental to how we perceive, interpret, and engage with the built environment (Gamal Said & Elghawaby, 2025). The concept of soundscape, initially rooted in music and acoustic ecology, has expanded into various disciplines, including acoustics, architecture, environmental health, psychology, sociology, and urban studies (Kang, et al., 2016; Truax, 2001). This multidisciplinary approach emphasizes the need for a 96   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II holistic understanding of sound perception and experience. While soundscape research began in the late 1960s, it has gained significant attention in recent decades, particularly in the fields of community noise and environmental acoustics, with increasing interest from both policymakers and practitioners. Soundscape research holds immense potential for promoting public health, improving quality of life, and expressing the cultural uniqueness and diversity of cities. Rather than focusing solely on quiet areas, soundscape studies are increasingly concerned with regions where noise is used as a resource (Kang, et al., 2016). Building on this broad interdisciplinary foundation, recent scholarship has begun to extend soundscape research into the field of heritage studies, recognising sounds not only as environmental or social phenomena but also as integral elements of cultural memory and identity. One of the foundational concepts in soundscape research is Schafer’s “soundmarks”, which provides a framework for identifying and preserving significant sounds that define a place, distinguishing them from background noise and guiding conservation efforts (Schafer, 1997). These soundmarks become essential in recognizing the cultural significance of sound beyond personal preferences, as sounds begin to be acknowledged as part of heritage (Gamal Said & Elghawaby, 2025). Research has highlighted soundscapes such as metro signals in Mexico, the call to prayer and ferries in Istanbul, and the sounds of water and birds in a Chinese garden, all of which contribute to unique intangible heritage, deeply integrated with cities and deserving of preservation (Giuffre & Sharp, 2014; Yelmi, 2016). Despite the growing interest, the study of soundscapes in relation to cultural heritage remains a relatively underexplored field, especially in terms of industrial heritage and its role in urban memory. While much research and policy focus on noise control in urban areas, the preservation of original, positive soundscapes is increasingly recognized as an effective approach to enhancing the sound environment in cities. However, sensory elements like sound remain relatively neglected despite their significance in national legislation and international agreements (Parker & Spennemann, 2022). The limited number of studies addressing soundscapes in a historical or cultural heritage context further highlights this gap (Parker & Spennemann, 2022). This study aims to investigate the soundscape of industrial sites as a part of heritage and its critical role in urban memory, focusing on the Ruhr region as a case study. It seeks to underline the importance of soundscape as an oftenoverlooked component of industrial heritage, emphasising the preservation SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING . . .   103 practices, as it preserves not only the physical fabric of industrial sites but also the intangible memories and experiences that define a community’s historical identity. The theoretical insights outlined above directly inform the analysis of the Ruhr, one of the few regions where industrial soundscapes have been systematically documented, offering a unique opportunity to explore their role in heritage and memory. 4. Case Study: The Ruhr 4.1. Methodological Approach and Selection of the Ruhr This study employs a case study approach, selecting the Ruhr as one of the few regions where industrial soundscapes have been systematically documented (Schmidt, 2022). The primary observational material derives from a field visit to the Ruhr Museum, located at the UNESCO World Heritage Zollverein Coal Mine, in 2022. During this visit, interactive installations, particularly the “sound showers”, were systematically examined and documented through field notes and photographs. To complement these empirical observations, the research also engaged with archival collections such as the Ruhr Sound Archive and a wide range of secondary literature on industrial soundscapes. Analytical emphasis was placed on Schafer’s concept of “soundmarks,” which provided a framework for identifying significant industrial sounds and assessing their role in cultural memory. This triangulated design, combining direct observation with archival and published sources, ensures both empirical grounding and theoretical depth while situating the Ruhr case within broader debates on sound, memory, and heritage. 4.2. Transformation of the Ruhr Soundscape The Ruhr’s industrial identity is not only conveyed through its distinctive sounds but also through its powerful visual landmarks. The iconic winding tower of the Zollverein Coal Mine, now inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has become a central symbol of this identity (Figure 2). While the tower embodies the tangible remains of the coal and steel era, its former acoustic environment, once filled with sirens, hammers, and the hum of machinery, represents the intangible counterpart that is now largely absent due to deindustrialisation. Placing visual and auditory dimensions side by side underlines the importance of a holistic approach to industrial heritage, where soundscapes are preserved alongside architecture and material artefacts. 104   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Figure 2. Zollverein Coal Mine winding tower, symbol of the Ruhr’s industrial identity (photo by the author, 2022) The relationship between sound and memory is particularly evident in the context of industrial heritage, where soundscapes once shaped the everyday lives, identities, and rhythms of working communities. In regions such as the Ruhr, the acoustic environment, comprising factory whistles, machinery clatters, and industrial hums, formed a unique sonic memory landscape that deeply influenced both individual recollection and collective identity. As these sounds gradually fade due to deindustrialisation and urban transformation, their loss also disrupts the continuity of memory tied to place. Unlike static material remains, sound evokes emotional and temporal layers of the past, reactivating cultural memory in an immediate and affective way. Recognising industrial sounds as “soundmarks” allows for the preservation of not only visual and material elements of heritage but also the auditory experiences that shape people’s connection to place and history, especially in the adaptive reuse and interpretation of post-industrial landscapes like the Ruhr. The soundscape of the Ruhr (Table 1) has undergone a profound transformation, with once-characteristic industrial sounds such as hissing, pounding, hammering, grinding, and the rhythmic clatter of factory trains largely disappearing. A very important pioneering study on the soundscape of industrial heritage sites in the field was carried out by Schmidt et al. Today, abandoned industrial zones and disused railway corridors are marked by natural sounds, signalling ecological regeneration and the quieter rhythms of postindustrial landscapes. These changing sounds are particularly valuable due to SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING . . .   105 their endangered nature, as they represent a crucial aspect of cultural heritage (Schmidt, 2022). Table 1. Transformation of the Ruhr Soundscape across Periods Period / Phase Dominant Sounds Characteristic Relation to Memory Social Impact Industrial Era (pre-1970s) Factory whistles, hammering, grinding, furnaces, trains Loud, rhythmic, mechanical, communitywide Formed collective sonic memory; everyday rhythms anchored identity (soundmarks) Strengthened community cohesion and industrial pride; reinforced workbased rhythms of daily life Deindustrialisation (1970s–2010s) Gradual silencing of machinery; abandoned sites Loss of industrial soundscape; emergence of silence and ecological sounds Created a memory void; disrupted continuity of place-based remembrance Social dislocation; weakening of community identity; nostalgia and heritage activism emerging Post-Industrial Era (2018– present) Road traffic, aircraft noise, natural sounds (birds, wind) Dominated by transport noise; natural sounds reclaim spaces Memory shifts from industrial past to ecological regeneration; contested identity between nostalgia and present urban life Rising environmental awareness; re-framing identity around heritage tourism and ecological narratives As Table 1 illustrates, the Ruhr’s soundscape not only underwent an environmental transformation but also reshaped the region’s memory landscape and cultural identity. Over generations, the industrial soundscape shaped the sensory experiences of local inhabitants. However, since the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the region’s soundscape has shifted dramatically. Industrial plants, once central to the community’s acoustic environment, have been decommissioned. The distinctive sounds of blast furnaces, rolling mills, and ironworks, which once defined the rhythm of work and life, have been replaced 106   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II by the constant hum of road traffic and aircraft noise, which now dominate the acoustic background. The closure of the last coal mine in 2018 marked the end of the region’s industrial era, further cementing the transformation of the soundscape (Schmidt, 2022; Bijsterveld, Jacobs, Aalbers, & Fickers, 2013) . 4.3. Musealisation and Interpretation of Industrial Soundscapes The soundscape of the Ruhr, shaped by heavy industry, has evolved significantly over the past several decades. Recorded sounds from this industrial heritage include the hum of pumps, the rhythmic strikes of hammers, the whirr of milling machines, steam engines, shipyards at the Duisburg Harbor, rolling mills, coking plants, blast furnaces, mining hammers, signals, and bells. These sounds have been categorized into themes such as “work,” “leisure,” “machines,” “people,” and “nature.” The documented diversity of these sounds reflects a wide range of social, technical, cultural, and scientific interests related to the industrial soundscape of the Ruhr region (Schmidt, 2022). As industrial culture in the Ruhr transitioned into the post-industrial era, these sounds have come to symbolize a significant chapter in the region’s history. The musealization of industrial society has required new methods of representation, and while artefacts, documents, photos, posters, and films are widely acknowledged, the history of industrial soundscapes remains relatively underexplored.The Sound Archive of the Ruhr serves as a vital resource in preserving and sharing these historical sounds, now accessible in major museums throughout the Ruhr region. The development of recording technologies in the late 20th century has played a crucial role in this preservation by allowing transient moments to be captured and replayed. This ability to revisit sounds that were once fleeting has removed the need for original sound sources to be physically present, creating new opportunities for the documentation and study of industrial soundscapes (Cortez, 2022). In recent decades, sound has gained increased prominence in exhibitions, with its role in narrative, music, and ambiance becoming more prevalent. Museums, particularly, have integrated recorded sound and music to create immersive atmospheres, reconstruct historical soundscapes, preserve lost sounds, and offer interactive auditory experiences (Bijsterveld, Jacobs, Aalbers, & Fickers, 2013). The evolving nature of museum conceptions, which began in the 1980s, challenges the traditional visual focus of exhibitions and promotes new, innovative practices that embrace sensory engagement (Cortez, 2022). One such example is the Ruhr Museum, located within the UNESCO World SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING . . .   107 Heritage Zollverein Coal Mine, Shaft XII, in Essen. The museum utilizes interactive sound installations, where visitors can trigger recordings of miningrelated sounds by positioning themselves beneath sound showers (Figure 3). As they move between these spots or adjust their positions, visitors contribute to the creation of a personalized soundscape that reflects the mining industry’s acoustic environment (Bijsterveld, Jacobs, Aalbers, & Fickers, 2013). This innovative approach helps visitors reconnect with the region’s industrial heritage by allowing them to engage with its sounds directly, providing a deeper, more immersive experience of the past. Figure 3. The installation of the “sound shower” at the Ruhr Museum (photos by the author, September 2022) 5. Conclusions Sound constitutes a vital dimension of heritage, shaping both individual recollections and collective memory. Unlike material remains, sound evokes immediate emotional and temporal associations that reconnect communities to their past. This study has examined the role of industrial soundscapes in the Ruhr region, demonstrating that sound must be regarded not merely as background noise but as a significant cultural resource. The findings emphasise two interconnected aspects: first, the contribution of industrial sounds to the reinforcement of collective memory; and second, the necessity of recognising sound as an inseparable element of industrial heritage. With regard to collective memory, the preservation of industrial soundscapes provides an indispensable means of sustaining links between people and place. The sonic environment of the Ruhr—once dominated by whistles, 108   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II hammering, and machinery—shaped the rhythms of life, work, and community identity. As these sounds disappeared with deindustrialisation, they left behind a profound void in cultural memory. Yet, through documentation, recording, and musealization, these sonic traces can be reactivated, offering communities the opportunity to revisit and reinterpret their past. Interactive practices such as the sound showers at the Ruhr Museum illustrate how industrial sounds can be transformed into heritage resources, enabling visitors to engage not only intellectually but also sensorially with the industrial experience. By evoking collective memories through sound, heritage practitioners provide a bridge between lived experiences and contemporary cultural identity. Equally important is the recognition of sound as a core component of industrial heritage itself. International frameworks such as the ICOMOS–TICCIH Principles and the Taipei Declaration affirm that industrial heritage encompasses both tangible structures and intangible practices. Sound, as a defining feature of industrial environments, represents a heritage asset on par with buildings, tools, and artefacts. Factory sirens, steam engines, and the rhythmic pounding of steel are not accidental by-products of industry but cultural markers that testify to human labour, technological development, and social transformation. To exclude sound from heritage assessment would therefore mean overlooking a dimension that profoundly shaped industrial modernity and its enduring cultural narratives. The Ruhr case study demonstrates that integrating sound into heritage practice is both feasible and beneficial. Through systematic documentation, curated sound archives, and immersive exhibitions, the region has pioneered innovative methods for presenting auditory heritage. These practices reveal the capacity of soundscapes to enrich the interpretation of industrial sites, transform public engagement, and foster a multisensory understanding of history. They also highlight the importance of developing policies that support the preservation of disappearing soundmarks and encourage cross-disciplinary collaboration between heritage professionals, urban planners, acoustic experts, and local communities. Ultimately, the preservation of industrial soundscapes is not a peripheral task but a fundamental responsibility of heritage conservation. By embracing sound alongside material remains, heritage studies can move towards a more inclusive and holistic framework that reflects the full sensory experience of the past. For the Ruhr and similar post-industrial regions, safeguarding auditory heritage strengthens cultural continuity, deepens collective memory, and ensures SOUND, MEMORY, AND INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: PRESERVING . . .   109 that future generations will not only see but also hear the echoes of industrial life. 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International Journal of Heritage Studies, 22(4), 302-311. doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2016.1138237 Zhao, S. (2017). Aural Landscape as an Intangible Heritage in Chinese Classical Gardens. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 37(3), 242–249. doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2016.1268770 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   119 victims to maintain their existing social and economic ties (Vural Arslan & Gülay, 2023). Collective housing developments, often implemented by TOKİ in Türkiye, are planned as residential settlements near disaster-affected areas, equipped with infrastructure and services (A. Yılmaz, 2022). 2.3. The Concept and Criteria of Sustainability Sustainability is recognized as a multidisciplinary concept aimed at addressing complex challenges such as environmental degradation, resource depletion, and social inequality faced by modern societies. The concept emerged as a global agenda in the 20th century following the recognition of the adverse environmental impacts of industrialization. Sustainability is grounded in the principle of utilizing natural resources to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Pınarcıoğlu & Kanbak, 2020). Beyond preserving ecological balance, this concept adopts a holistic approach that encompasses economic stability, social justice, and cultural continuity. Sustainability is defined as the capacity of a society, ecosystem, or any ongoing system to maintain its functions without depleting its primary resources or becoming overburdened (Bedur, 2011). It has been described as an environmentally conscious worldview that promotes the rational use of environmental values and natural resources in a manner that avoids wastefulness, while ensuring economic development that considers the rights of both present and future generations (Meydan Yıldız & Aslanoğlu, 2023). In the 1987 Brundtland Report, sustainable development was defined as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,” thereby facilitating the global adoption of this concept (Pınarcıoğlu & Kanbak, 2020). Sustainability is examined across three primary dimensions: environmental, economic, and social. These components are illustrated in Figure 4 Environmental sustainability focuses on the conservation of natural resources, the maintenance of biodiversity, and the regeneration of ecosystems. Economic sustainability aims to enhance income and employment generation capacities. Social sustainability supports the establishment of a robust civil society by ensuring access to health, education, equality, and societal participation (Tufan & Özel, 2018). 120   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Figure 4. Components of sustainability 2.3.1. The Sustainability Criteria Sustainability is evaluated within the framework of the interaction between its environmental, economic, and social dimensions. These dimensions play a determining role in the design, production, and use of structures (Tufan & Özel, 2018). Based on data derived from the literature, environmental, economic, and social sustainability criteria have been systematically compiled. These criteria, summarized below, are intended for use in evaluating post-disaster housing solutions in Türkiye. Environmental Sustainability Criteria (Karaalioğlu, 2024; Karakoç, 2022; Mehdizade, 2024; Oğurlu, 2024; Tufan & Özel, 2018): • Harmony with nature • Impact on the atmosphere and air quality • Contribution to indoor air quality • Conservation of non-renewable resources and energy efficiency • Impact on landscape, topography, soil, and water resources • Prevention of harmful waste and gas emissions • Raw material sourcing and transformation capacity • Protection of biodiversity and vegetation • Reduction of pollution sources and pollutants • Efficiency in energy, water, and material use • Mitigation of the effects of natural hazards AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   121 Economic Sustainability Criteria (Karakoç, 2022; Oğurlu, 2024; Tufan & Özel, 2018): • Raw material sourcing and material production potential • Optimization of building life cycle costs • Energy and resource efficiency • Creation of new market opportunities • Support for local activities and autonomy • Recycling and waste management • Reduction of operational costs • Enhancement of property value and revenue • Improvement of employee productivity and satisfaction Social Sustainability Criteria (Karakoç, 2022; Oğurlu, 2024; Tufan & Özel, 2018): • Sociological compatibility • Structural safety and user comfort • Enhancement of community quality of life • Promotion of social solidarity • Preservation of cultural landscape and heritage • Recognition of spiritual values • Development of innovative and creative solutions • Equal access to key services • Intergenerational equity • A relational system valuing diverse cultures • Citizen political participation • Strengthening the sense of community • Reduction of societal infrastructure tensions • Contribution to overall quality of life In the context of post-disaster housing solutions, the environmental, economic, and social sustainability criteria outlined above, widely accepted in the construction sector, have been identified as necessary for determining priority criteria for disaster victims. 122   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 3. Material and method The methodology of the study is based on a mixed-methods research approach. Information regarding disasters, post-disaster architectural approaches, and sustainability has been gathered through a literature review. Based on this information, sustainability criteria for disaster victims have been defined, and an evaluation framework has been established. Temporary and permanent housing solutions constructed in Türkiye following disasters have been examined using the case study method. These structures have been evaluated through qualitative data collection and observation methods, utilizing information and visuals available in the literature. The findings obtained have been analyzed in accordance with environmental, social, and economic sustainability criteria. The material of the study consists of temporary and permanent housing solutions constructed in Türkiye post-disaster, as presented in Table 2 and Table 3. 3.1. Sustainability Criteria for Structures for Disaster Victims The sustainability criteria for structures in post-disaster housing solutions in Türkiye have been evaluated based on studies in the literature. Yılmaz (S. Yılmaz, 2021), examined the sustainability of temporary housing units postdisaster, while Süzer and Yamaçlı (Süzer & Yamaçlı, 2024), identified criteria for the design of sustainable temporary housing post-disaster. Drawing on the criteria outlined in these studies and the sustainability criteria summarized within the scope of this study, environmental, economic, and social sustainability criteria have been defined in the context of structures for disaster victims. These criteria, along with questions designed to facilitate the evaluation of the structures, are presented below: Environmental: • Resource Consumption: Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? • Pollution: Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? • Solid Waste: Has waste management been effectively implemented? • Reusability: Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? Social: • Health: Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   123 • Well-being: Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? • Culture: Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? Economic: • Procurement Cost: Have construction costs been optimized? • Maintenance Cost: Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Within the framework of these defined criteria, temporary and permanent housing solutions constructed in Türkiye post-disaster have been examined. The sustainability metrics of the structures have been evaluated in terms of their environmental, social, and economic dimensions, and the sustainability of each structure for disaster victims has been analyzed based on the responses to these criteria. The methodology for examining the structures in the context of sustainability is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Examining buildings in the context of sustainability YES PARTIALLY NO Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? NO. NAME: VISUAL Location: Date: Disaster Type: Building Material: NOTES SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? 124   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 3.2. Housing Examples In Türkiye, temporary and permanent housing solutions have been developed to address the basic shelter needs of disaster victims following disasters. These solutions have been categorized and examined based on data available in the literature. To meet post-disaster housing needs, tent and container solutions have primarily been implemented, alongside prefabricated structures. Permanent housing solutions, on the other hand, have been designed to address the long-term needs of disaster victims. These solutions have typically been realized as reinforced concrete collective housing projects by state institutions such as TOKİ. Information regarding the structure names and publication titles for examples of temporary and permanent housing solutions in Türkiye, as documented in the literature, is presented in Table 2 and Table 3. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   125 Table 2. Examples of Temporary Structures in Türkiye Post-Disaster as Documented in the Literature No Structure Name Publication Title 11939 Erzincan Earthquake Tent Settlement Evaluation of the Environmental, Economic and Social Sustainability of Post-Disaster Temporary Sheltering 2 Polyurethane Igloos Used in the 1970 Kütahya-Gediz Earthquake Comparative Analysis of Temporary Disaster Housing Used in the World and in Türkiye and a Model Proposal 3Kiremitocağı Temporary Housing Settlement Sustainable Temporary Housing Design After Disasters: Analysis and Proposals 4Kaynaşlı Paper Tube Temporary Houses Sustainable Temporary Housing Design After Disasters: Analysis and Proposals 5Van – Erciş Earthquake Tent Settlement Comparative Analysis of Temporary Disaster Housing Used in the World and in Türkiye and a Model Proposal 6Van Container Settlement Evaluation of the Environmental, Economic and Social Sustainability of Post-Disaster Temporary Sheltering 7Elazığ - Sivrice Earthquake Tent Settlement Comparative Analysis of Temporary Disaster Housing Used in the World and in Türkiye and a Model Proposal 8Elazığ - Sivrice Earthquake Container Settlement Comparative Analysis of Temporary Disaster Housing Used in the World and in Türkiye and a Model Proposal 9İzmir Earthquake Container Settlement Evaluation of the Environmental, Economic and Social Sustainability of Post-Disaster Temporary Sheltering 10 Hatay Tent Settlement Sustainable Temporary Housing Design After Disasters: Analysis and Proposals 11 Gaziantep İslahiye Bus Terminal Tent Camp Sustainable Temporary Housing Design After Disasters: Analysis and Proposals 12 Gaziantep İslahiye Kalyon Container Camp Sustainable Temporary Housing Design After Disasters: Analysis and Proposals 13 Kahramanmaraş Karacasu Container Camp Field Report on the ‘February 6’ Earthquake 126   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 14 Nurdağı Tent Camp Post-Disaster Temporary Shelter Applications After the February 6, 2023 Earthquake – The Case of Gaziantep Nurdağı 15 Tent Camp Established by the South Korean Government in Nurdağı Post-Disaster Temporary Shelter Applications After the February 6, 2023 Earthquake – The Case of Gaziantep Nurdağı 16 Nurdağı Container Camp Post-Disaster Temporary Shelter Applications After the February 6, 2023 Earthquake – The Case of Gaziantep Nurdağı 17 Nurdağı Prefabricated Structures Post-Disaster Temporary Shelter Applications After the February 6, 2023 Earthquake – The Case of Gaziantep Nurdağı 18 Sarıçam Refugee Accommodation Center Post-Disaster Temporary Shelter Applications After the February 6, 2023 Earthquake – The Case of Gaziantep Nurdağı Table 3. Examples of Permanent Structures in Türkiye Post-Disaster as Documented in the Literature No Structure Name Publication Title 1Post-1992 Erzincan Earthquake KEYY Houses Examination of Sustainable Building Design in PostDisaster Permanent Housing Practices in SakaryaFerizli District 2Post-1992 Erzincan Earthquake Housing Examination of Social Sustainability in PostEarthquake Permanent Housing Settlements: The Case of Erciş District, Van Province 31998 Adana Earthquake Housing Examination of Sustainable Building Design in PostDisaster Permanent Housing Practices in SakaryaFerizli District 4Düzce Permanent Housing A Flexible, Adaptable, and Sustainable Model Proposal Integrated with Advanced Technologies for Post-Disaster Permanent Housing 5Ferizli District Permanent Housing Examination of Sustainable Building Design in PostDisaster Permanent Housing Practices in SakaryaFerizli District 6Beyciler Houses Participatory Approach in Post-Disaster Permanent Housing 7Gölyaka İmece Houses Participatory Approach in Post-Disaster Permanent Housing AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   127 8Post-2003 Bingöl Earthquake Housing A Flexible, Adaptable, and Sustainable Model Proposal Integrated with Advanced Technologies for Post-Disaster Permanent Housing 9Erciş Permanent Housing Examination of Social Sustainability in PostEarthquake Permanent Housing Settlements: The Case of Erciş District, Van Province 10 Elazığ Bizmişen Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 11 Elazığ Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 12 Malatya Doğanyol Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 13 Şanlıurfa Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 14 Malatya Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 15 Hatay İskenderun Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 16 Osmaniye Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 17 Kahramanmaraş Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 18 Hatay Payas Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 19 Diyarbakır Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 20 Kilis Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 21 Adana Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 22 Gaziantep İslahiye Disaster Housing TOKİ Institutional Profile 23 Gaziantep Atalar Village Reconstruction and Development Report of the Kahramanmaraş and Hatay Earthquakes 24 Adıyaman İndere Earthquake Housing Reconstruction and Development Report of the Kahramanmaraş and Hatay Earthquakes 4. Findings and Discussion Post-disaster housing solutions constructed in Türkiye have been comprehensively evaluated from a sustainability perspective, considering environmental, social, and economic criteria. These evaluations have been 128   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II conducted using examination tables developed in accordance with the specified methodology. The structures in question have been analyzed to assess their compliance with sustainability criteria in meeting the needs of disaster victims. 4.1. Examination of Housing Units In Türkiye, temporary housing solutions have primarily been employed to rapidly address the shelter needs of disaster victims following disasters. Although these temporary housing units have been designed to meet the basic needs of victims, they have often been found inadequate in providing sufficient comfort for long-term use. Following the mitigation of destruction and damage caused by disasters, permanent housing solutions that respond to victims’ needs and provide adequate comfort conditions have been prioritized. In this context, temporary and permanent housing units constructed in Türkiye post-disaster have been examined based on data available in the literature, evaluated within the framework of environmental, social, and economic sustainability criteria. 4.1.1. Temporary Housing Solutions Temporary housing units have been evaluated in terms of environmental, social, and economic sustainability criteria based on information available in the literature. The examinations include details such as the name, location, construction date, and relevant disaster for each structure, presented in tables. The compliance of these structures with sustainability criteria has been analyzed, and their suitability for disaster victims has been assessed based on responses to the established criteria. These structures have been systematically examined from Table 4 to Table 12 within the framework outlined in Table 1. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   135 Table 10. Examining temporary structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability7 (Giyik, 2024; Kimura, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? NO 14 NAME: Nurdağı Tent City VISUAL Location: Gaziantep - Nurdağı Date: 2023 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Fabric, Nylon, Metal Frame NOTES The February 6, 2023 earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş caused great destruction and loss of life in the Nurdağı district of Gaziantep. Although Nurdağı Tent City was established to provide emergency shelter for disaster victims, it has serious deficiencies in terms of heating, hygiene, security and long-term living conditions. Inadequate thermal insulation in cold weather conditions has increased the risk of disease, and the lack of basic infrastructure services has been a challenge for disaster victims. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? PARTIALLY Location: Kahramanmaraş Karacasu Date: 2023 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Metal Frame, Sandwich Panel NOTES The earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş on February 6, 2023 caused great destruction in the Karacasu region and left thousands of people homeless. Karacasu Container City was established to meet the emergency shelter needs of disaster victims. Although the use of metal skeleton and sandwich panels increases the durability of the structure, the containers have deficiencies in terms of thermal insulation, ventilation and long-term living comfort. Limited social spaces have made social interaction difficult. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? NAME: Kahramanmaraş Karacasu Container City VISUAL NO. 13 136   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Table 11. Examining temporary structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability8 (Giyik, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          PARTIALLY 16 NAME: Nurdagi Container City VISUAL Location: Gaziantep - Nurdağı Date: 2023 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Metal Frame, Sandwich Panel NOTES The earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş on February 6, 2023 caused serious destruction in the Nurdagi district of Gaziantep, and many people faced the need for shelter. Although Nurdagi Container City has offered a safe shelter solution for disaster victims with its fast installation, the inadequacy of the containers in terms of thermal insulation and ventilation makes life difficult in extremely hot weather conditions in summer and cold weather conditions in winter. The lack of infrastructure and social areas negatively affects the quality of life of disaster victims. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? NO NAME: The tent city established by the South Korean state in Nurdağı VISUAL Location: Gaziantep Date: 2023 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Fabric, Nylon, Metal Frame NOTES The earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş on February 6, 2023 caused heavy destruction in the Nurdağı district of Gaziantep, and thousands of people faced the need for shelter. It is a tent city established by the South Korean state. Tent-based shelter solutions are insufficient in terms of long-term living conditions. Thermal insulation and safety deficiencies continue, NO. 15 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   137 Table 12. Examining temporary structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability9 (Giyik, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? PARTIALLY NAME: Nurdagi Prefabricated Buildings VISUAL Location: Gaziantep - Nurdağı Date: 2023 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Metal Frame, Sandwich Panel NOTES After the earthquakes centered in Kahramanmaraş on February 6, 2023, prefabricated buildings were established in the Nurdagi district of Gaziantep to meet the need for rapid shelter. Although these structures can offer larger space compared to containers, they have limited advantages in terms of thermal insulation, durability, and longevity. In addition, the lack of social spaces and their inadequacy in terms of cultural compatibility cause disaster victims to not be able to fully ensure their quality of life. It is not considered sufficient as a long-term solution, as the need for maintenance may increase over time. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? Metal Frame, Sandwich Panel NOTES Sarıçam Refugee Accommodation Center was established in 2017 for refugees who took refuge in Turkey due to the Syrian Civil War. Container structures are suitable for temporary shelter and basic infrastructure, health and education services are provided. However, it has limitations in terms of socio-cultural integration and living conditions in the long run. Although energy and waste management are partially effective, environmental sustainability has not been fully achieved. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? PARTIALLY NO. 17 18 NAME: Sarıçam Refugee Accommodation Center VISUAL Location: Adana Date: 2017 Disaster Type: Civil war Building Material: 138   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II 4.1.2. Permanent Housing Solutions Permanent housing units have been evaluated in terms of environmental, social, and economic sustainability criteria based on data available in the literature. Details such as the name, location, construction date, and associated disaster for each structure have been presented in tables, and the compliance of these structures with sustainability criteria has been analyzed. Additionally, the suitability of these structures for disaster victims has been assessed based on responses to the established criteria. The structures in question have been systematically examined from Table 13 to Table 25 within the framework outlined in Table 1. Table 13. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability1 (Bedur, 2011) YES PARTIALLY NO          Post-1992 Erzincan Earthquake KEYY Houses Brick Location: Erzincan Date:1992 Disaster Type: Earthquake After the 1992 Erzincan Earthquake, KEYY (Self-Built Aid) Houses offered an economical and feasible solution to enable disaster victims to have housing quickly. However, environmental impacts, waste management, and the use of recyclable materials are limited in the construction process. Although the comfort and participation of disaster victims has been ensured, cultural needs have not been fully taken into account. Although construction costs have been optimized to a certain extent, long-term maintenance costs have not been considered. NAME: VISUAL Building Material: NOTES Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? NO 1 Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? NO. ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   139 Table 14. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability2 (Bedur, 2011; Ulutaş, 2019) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 2 3 NAME: Post-1992 Erzincan Earthquake Housing VISUAL Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? PARTIALLY Location: Erzincan Date:1992 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Although the houses after the 1992 Erzincan Earthquake are an important step in terms of rapid housing production and safe construction, they contain various deficiencies in terms of social and environmental sustainability. While the residences met the basic shelter needs of the disaster victims, they did not provide long-term comfort due to the uniform and small-scale design. In addition, the establishment of rural settlements on agricultural land has negatively affected the local economy. These houses, which cannot fully adapt to the cultural and social structure, do not offer a sustainable solution for disaster victims. ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? NAME: 1998 Adana Earthquake Housing VISUAL Location: Adana Date:1998 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES The houses built after the 1998 Adana Earthquake were financed with a World Bank loan within the scope of the TEFER project and were completed quickly. Different applications have been made in urban and rural areas, but social and cultural harmony has not been achieved due to standard housing designs. Resource consumption has not been minimized, environmental impacts have only been partially taken into account. Long-term maintenance costs are high and do not offer a sustainable solution. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? PARTIALLY Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS 140   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Table 15. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability3 (Bedur, 2011; Mehdizade, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 4 5 NAME: Ferizli District Permanent Housing VISUAL Location: Sakarya - Ferizli Date:1999 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Ferizli District Permanent Residences were built on solid ground after the 1999 Marmara Earthquake and aimed to create a safe settlement area outside the disaster area. However, due to its distance from the city center, transportation and infrastructure problems have arisen. From the point of view of social sustainability, the comfort and social integration of disaster victims have not been adequately ensured. In the long run, the increase in the need for maintenance and repair has negatively affected economic sustainability. NAME: Düzce Permanent Housing VISUAL Location: Düzce Date:2003 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Düzce Permanent Residences were built to meet the shelter needs of disaster victims after the 1999 Düzce Earthquake. However, its location far from the city center has caused serious problems in transportation infrastructure. The materials and construction techniques used in the construction process have led to wear and tear of the buildings and high maintenance costs over time. There are deficiencies in terms of social and economic sustainability, and there are problems especially in terms of long-term resilience. ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   141 Table 16. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability4 (Çetindaş, 2019) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 6 7 NAME: Beyciler Houses VISUAL Location: Düzce - Beyciler Date:1999 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Mixed (Reinforced Concrete and Brick) NOTES Beyciler Houses were built to provide permanent shelter to disaster victims after the 1999 Marmara Earthquake. The layout plan was designed to strengthen neighborhood relations, and the flexible planning of the houses encouraged the participation of users. However, the scale of the project has been insufficient to meet the housing need in the region. Although economic sustainability was supported by the inclusion of disaster victims in the process, community solidarity weakened after social organizations withdrew their support. ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? NAME: Gölyaka İmece Houses VISUAL Location: Düzce - Gölyaka Date:2001 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Brick NOTES Gölyaka Imece Houses were built with the direct participation of disaster victims and have been a project that strengthens community solidarity and co-production culture. The construction of dwellings on individual plots ensured the preservation of social ties but limited the integration of infrastructure and services. Although costs have been reduced during the construction process, not enough measures have been taken in terms of long-term maintenance and environmental impacts. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? 142   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Table 17. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability5 (Mehdizade, 2024; Ulutaş, 2019) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 8 9 NAME: Post-2003 Bingöl Earthquake Housing VISUAL Location: Bingöl Date:2003 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES The houses built after the 2003 Bingöl Earthquake were built using modern construction techniques and contain significant improvements in terms of earthquake resistance. However, factors such as limited community participation in the project process, limited use of local materials and insufficient observance of cultural appropriateness have led to some difficulties in terms of social and economic sustainability. Although residential access to infrastructure and services has been largely ensured, there are some shortcomings in terms of longterm use. ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Erciş Permanent Residences were built by TOKI for rapid shelter after the disaster. However, the location of the houses in areas far from the city center has created incompatibility with the existing settlement structure and negatively affected social sustainability. Although the structures are built in reinforced concrete, the lack of use of local materials is a negative factor in terms of environmental sustainability. In addition, the participation of disaster victims in the project process was limited, and cultural and spatial habits were not sufficiently taken into account. Although social reinforcement areas have been added, the residences have some limitations in terms of flexibility and adaptability. ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? PARTIALLY ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? NAME: Erciş Permanent Housing VISUAL Location: Van Erciş Date:2012 Disaster Type: Earthquake AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF POST-DISASTER . . .   143 Table 18. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability6 (TOKİ, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 10 11 NAME: Elazığ Bizmişen Disaster Housing VISUAL Location: Elâzığ Date:2021 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Elâzığ Bizmişen Disaster Houses were built by TOKI after the 2020 Elazig Earthquake. Although it was built to be earthquake resistant, it has received criticism about site selection and spatial arrangements. While its distance from the city center makes social and economic integration difficult, the fact that the housing typology is not compatible with the traditional living habits of the region has partially reduced user satisfaction. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? PARTIALLY SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? PARTIALLY NAME: Elazığ Disaster Housing VISUAL Location: Elâzığ Date:2021 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Elazig Disaster Housing was built by TOKI to provide emergency shelter after the 2020 Elazig Earthquake. The building is designed to meet the health and infrastructure needs of post-disaster disaster victims, but there are significant deficiencies in terms of environmental sustainability. Environmental impacts were kept to a minimum during the construction phase, but the use of recyclable materials and waste management could have been implemented more effectively. The solutions offered by the building in terms of cultural adaptation are limited and the long-term living conditions of the disaster victims are not taken into account. 144   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN ARCHITECTURE 2025 - II Table 19. Examining permanent structures in Türkiye in the context of sustainability7 (TOKİ, 2024) YES PARTIALLY NO          YES PARTIALLY NO          NO. 12 13 SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims? PARTIALLY Location: Şanlıurfa Date:2024 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Şanlıurfa Disaster Housing was built by TOKI. It was started to be built in order to quickly meet the shelter needs of disaster victims. Although the structures are safe in terms of durability, the necessary precautions have not been taken regarding environmental impacts and the use of recyclable materials is limited. Although health and infrastructure needs have been met, deficiencies have been observed in addressing the cultural needs of disaster victims. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? PARTIALLY NAME: Şanlıurfa Disaster Housing VISUAL NAME: Malatya Doğanyol Disaster Housing VISUAL Location: Malatya Date:2021 Disaster Type: Earthquake Building Material: Reinforced concrete NOTES Malatya Doğanyol Disaster Housing, built by TOKI after the 2020 Elazig earthquake, offers a safe living space with its earthquake-resistant reinforced concrete structures. However, the fact that the residential areas are far from the social infrastructure and that limited measures are taken on environmental sustainability do not make the project fully sustainable. Disaster housing in Doğanyol was not damaged in the February 6 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA OF BUILDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL Has resource consumption been minimized during construction? Have environmental impacts been mitigated during the construction process? Has waste management been effectively implemented? Have building materials been selected to be recyclable or reusable? SOCIAL Does the structure meet health and infrastructure requirements? Does the structure provide adequate living comfort for disaster victims? Does the structure align with the cultural needs of disaster victims? ECONOMIC Have construction costs been optimized? Have the maintenance costs of the structure been minimized? Are these structures sustainable for disaster victims?