Why are we Still Afraid of Divorce?: Marriage and the Traces of Neocolonial Control in the Philippines

27# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos Article(( Why$Are$We$Still$Afraid$of$Divorce?:$Marriage$and$the$Traces$of$ Neocolonial$Control$in$the$Philippines$ Jhon%Martin%Carlos%% University(of(the(Philippines(Cebu,(Philippines( ( ( Abstract:)The(title’s(question(is(raised(on(behalf(of(the(Filipino( people(and(calls(for(the(Philippines’s(critical(self-reflection(as(to( why( the( country’s( current( sociopolitical( climate( remains( in( opposition( to( a( divorce( law.( To( truly( understand( the( fear( of( a( divorce(law,(one(would(have(to(look(into(the(very(institution(that( created( the( need( for( a( divorce( law( in( the( first( place:( marriage.( Across(different(cultures,(Stephanie(Coontz((2005)(identifies(two( commonalities( to( the( institution( of( marriage:( (1)( marriage( is( a( universal(institution,(and((2)(marriage(is(always(subject(to(some( set(of(rules.(Taken(together,(these(two(characteristics(imply(the( idea(that(marriage(has(the(potential(to(impose(a(certain(type(of( power(and(control(over(the(people(who(engage(in(it.(With(that( said,(this(paper(aims(to(explore(a(critical(theory(of(marriage(in(the( Philippines( as( a( site( of( neocolonial( power( and( control( by( examining( how( marriage( reproduces( and( enforces( certain( conditions(of(neocolonial(control.(This(paper(begins(with(a(brief( account( of( marriage( as( an( institution( and( how( the( history( of( colonization(in(the(Philippines(has(led(to(the(modern(version(of( Philippine(marriage(we(have(today.(As(a(product(of(colonization,( this( paper( argues( that( the( current( state( of( Philippine( marriage( reproduces( the( conditions( of( two( (2)( neocolonial( systems( of( control( upon( Filipinos:( (1)( Capitalism( and( (2)( Patriarchy.( Examining(this(particular(perspective(on(marriage,(as(we(will(see,( will( also( unlock( a( new( understanding( of( the( significance( of( divorce.( ( ( Keywords:(Philippine(marriage,(divorce,(neocolonialism,(capitalism,(patriarchy( ( ( ( 28# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos Introduction)) ( Earlier(this(year,(in(January(2025,(a(TikTok(video(falsely(claiming(the(legalized(status( of(divorce(in(the(Philippines(has(been(making(rounds(throughout(various(social(media( platforms(and(has(prompted(discussions(once(again(about(the(matter(of(divorce(in(the( Philippines((Rappler(2025).(A(few(months(prior(to(this(viral(post,(the(Philippine(House(of( Representatives(had(approved(the(third(and(final(reading(of(the(House(Bill(9349(entitled( “An( Act( Reinstituting( Absolute( Divorce( as( an( Alternative( Mode( for( the( Dissolution( of( Marriage”(which,(contrary(to(the(TikTok(video’s(false(claims(of(the(same(bill,(simply(sends( the(bill(to(the(Senate(for(next(process(of(review.(If(you(have(taken(the(time(to(go(through( some(form(of(credible(information(or(report(about(the(status(of(divorce(in(the(Philippines,( there(is(a(chance(that(you(may(have(learned(that(the(Philippines(remains(the(only(country( outside(of(the(Vatican(that(is(without(a(divorce(law.(Historically(speaking,(however,(divorce( is(not(necessarily(a(new(concept(that(attempts(to(penetrate(Philippine(society(for(the(first( time.(In(precolonial(Philippines,(Spanish(chroniclers(had(observed(in(the(Visayas(region( that(divorce(was(readily(initiated(among(the(Visayans((Camacho(2019).(After(a(long(absence( during(the(Spanish(colonial(period,(absolute(divorce(returned(to(the(scene(with(the(passing( of(Act(No.(2710(on(March(11,(1917,(during(the(American(colonial(period((Reyes(1953).(During( the(Japanese(occupation,(a(new(divorce(law(was(passed(in(the(form(of(Executive(Order(No.( 141,(and(it(was(not(until(the(enactment(of(the(Civil(Code(of(the(Philippines(that(absolute( divorce(was(abrogated(from(the(Philippine(laws(and(continues(to(be(absent(up(to(today.( ( By(raising(the(question(“Why(are(we(still(afraid(of(divorce?”(in(the(title,(the(paper( calls( for( the( Philippines’s( critical( self-reflection( as( to( why( the( country’s( current( sociopolitical(climate(remains(in(opposition(to(a(divorce(law(despite(the(numerous(calls(for( its(revival.(For(the(most(part,(the(continued(absence(of(a(new(divorce(law(is(attributed(to( the(country’s(deep(ties(to(Catholic(beliefs(and(traditions.(A(majority(of(the(protests(against( the(legalization(of(divorce(in(the(Philippines(revolve(around(the(significance(and(sanctity( of(marriage(as(something(indissoluble(that(is(mediated(by(God,(rather(than(arguing(the( problematic(effects(of(divorce((Aspinwall(2024).(This(approach(to(the(matter(is,(of(course,( understandable(since(the(very(reason(behind(the(existence(of(divorce(is(brought(about(by( the(existence(of(marriage,(specifically(the(problems(within(it.(Following(this(line(of(thought,( one( can( investigate( and( understand( the( country’s( strong( resistance( against( divorce( by( critically( examining( the( current( state( and( nature( of( the( country’s( socio-economic( institution(of(marriage.(The(question(to(be(asked(in(this(discussion(is:(What(is(it(about( marriage,(particularly(marriage(in(the(Philippines,(that(makes(people(put(up(such(a(strong( resistance( against( divorce?( In( the( attempt( to( answer( this( question,( this( paper( aims( to( explore(a(critical(theory(of(marriage(in(the(Philippines(as(a(site(of(neocolonial(power(and( control(by(examining(how(marriage(arrangements(enforce(neocolonial(systems(of(control( upon(the(people.(Aside(from(the(most(apparent(reason(of(religious(influence((specifically( Catholic)(on(Philippine(marriage,(this(critical(examination(focuses(on(how(the(country’s( 29# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos institution(of(marriage(enforces(two(neocolonial(systems(of(control,(namely,(capitalism(and( patriarchy.1( ( Before( proceeding( with( the( examination( of( how( Philippine( marriage( enforces( neocolonial(systems(of(control,(a(few(foundational(points(must(be(established.(First,(we( have(to(understand(what(marriage(is.(Clarifying(common(concerns,(such(as(regarding(the( nature(of(marriage((whether(it(be(a(legal(arrangement(or(a(holy(sacrament)(or(the(reasons( for(engaging(in(marriage,(would(help(establish(a(common(idea(of(marriage(as(the(starting( point(for(this(discussion.(Second,(a(brief(history(of(marriage(in(the(country(would(be(helpful( in( showing( that( the( current( version( of( Philippine( marriage( is( actually( a( product( of( colonization.(This( makes(it( easier( to( understand( that,(being( a(product( of(colonization,( marriage(has(the(potential(to(also(function(in(a(way(that(maintains(neocolonial(systems(of( control(over(the(Filipino(people.(Lastly,(there(is(also(a(need(to(establish(the(idea(that(the( neocolonial(systems(of(control(that(this(discussion(proposes(are(indeed(foreign(systems( that( have( been,( in( one( way( or( another,( integrated( into( Philippine( society.( Once( these( foundational( points( have( been( established,( the( discussion( will( proceed( to( how( such( neocolonial( systems( of( control( are( manifested( within( marriage( arrangements( in( the( Philippines.(With(that(said,(let(us(begin(establishing(the(foundations(with(an(account(of( marriage(by(historian(Stephanie(Coontz.(( ( ( An)Account)of)Marriage) ( In(Stephanie(Coontz’s(Marriage,(A(History((2005),(she(provides(a(historical(account( of(marriage(as(a(social(invention(unique(to( human( beings.(There( are(over(hundreds(of( theories,(stories,(and(even(myths(surrounding(the(invention(of(marriage(and(what(society( was(like(before(the(invention(of(this(social(arrangement.(In(the(Blackfoot(tale(of(Piegan( Blackfoot( Indians,( men( and( women( of( ancient( Piegans( did( not( live( together( with( a( significant(difference(with(regard(to(their(living(conditions.(Women(were(believed(to(have( lived(in(better(conditions,(such(as(having(lodges(for(shelter(and(being(knowledgeable(in( matters(involving(homemaking(and(food-gathering,(which(paints(the(picture(of(women( being(highly(self-sustainable.(Men,(on(the(other(hand,(were(very(poor(with(no(lodges(and( 1!While!I!acknowledge!the!ongoing!debates!and!discussions!about!the!other!kind!of!“marriage”!between!Marxism!and! Feminism!(Hartmann!2020)!and!considering!that!this!paper!also!brings!these!two!traditions!under!the!same!topic,!I!will! refrain!from!delving!into!issues!regarding!their!reconciliation!for!two!reasons.!First,!bringing!up!this!concern!between! Marxism!and!Feminism,!which!has!been!a!substantial!topic!for!years,!risks!sidetracking!this!paper!from!its!main!topic! on!marriage!and!divorce!in!the!Philippines.!Second,!I!believe!tackling!capitalism!and!patriarchy!separately!allows!us!to! cover!more!ground!and!depth!for!the!discussion.!Although!much!of!the!issues!raised!in!this!paper’s!arguments!are! intersectional!in!that!we!cannot!completely!solve!such!issues!just!by!looking!at!it!from!one!angle!(e.g.,!sex,!class,!race,! etc.),!each!issue!does!present!itself!to!be!categorized!more!under!one!aspect!than!the!other.!For!example,!a!general! discussion!on!slavery!is!for!the!most!part!and!at!its!forefront!a!matter!of!racism!but!also!presents!underlying!issues!on! sex!and!class!oppression!(History!2025).!Treating!the!issues!under!capitalism!and!patriarchy!separately!allows!us!to! address!these!concerns!with!appropriate!depth!and!focus.! 30# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos no(knowledge(of(skills(and(crafts(that(aid(in(their(survival.(In(this(arrangement,(it(was(the( men(who(needed(marriage(and(would(wait(patiently(for(women(who(would(choose(them( as(their(husbands(and(allow(the(men(in(need(to(live(with(them.(Another(perspective(on(the( invention(of(marriage,(known(as(the(protective(theory(of(marriage,(proposes(that(marriage( was(invented(for(the(protection(of(women.(This(theory,(now(known(to(be(a(widespread( myth(relying(on(the(false(naturalness(of(male(dominance,(proposes(that(women(and(infants( in(early(societies(need(the(protective(and(providing(characters(of(men(in(order(to(survive.( Even(when(one(takes(a(religious(perspective(on(the(origins(of(marriage,(it(was(not(until(the( 13th(century(that(the(Catholic(Church(began(to(formally(regulate(marriage(and(declare(it(a( holy( sacrament( (Coontz( 2016).( Prior( to( that,( the( Catholic( Church,( which( now( holds( marriage(with(such(high(regard(and(divine(significance(that(it(has(become(the(strongest( resistance(against(divorce,(barely(had(any(interest(in(marriage(as(an(institution(and(believed( it(to(be(primarily(a(civil(matter.( ( ( Among(these(three(and(all(other(available(theories(or(stories(on(the(origins(and( invention( of( marriage,( one( particular( characteristic( of( marriage( maintains( throughout( every( interpretation.( That( is,( the( idea( of( marriage( as( an( institution( that( is( socially( constructed(to(serve(a(particular(need.(Similar(to(the(discussions(on(the(origins(of(marriage( as(an(institution,(the(characteristics(of(marriage(also(vary(widely(across(different(cultures( and( traditions.( One( particular( misconception( about( marriage( is( the( idea( that( everyone( marries(in(the(name(of(love.(Unfortunately,(to(the(dismay(of(romantics,(love(has(rarely(been( seen( as( the( main( reason( for( marriage.( In( some( cultures,( love( has( been( seen( to( be( incompatible(with(marriage,(and(in(others,(marrying(for(reasons(of(love(has(even(been(seen( as(a(threat(to(social(order.(Aside(from(the(fact(that(not(all(marriages(are(done(in(the(name( of(love,(Coontz((as(summarized(by(Halwani(2018)(lists(other(examples(to(highlight(how( marriage(as(an(institution(differs(in(terms(of(practice,(participants,(and(even(reasons(for( engaging(in(marriage,(such(as(follows:( ( 1.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(cohabitation(of(the(spouses.( 2.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(the(economic(cooperation(of(the(spouses.( 3.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(a(man(and(a(woman.( 4.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(another(human(being(as(a(spouse.( 5.(Marriage(does(not(involve(being(married(to(only(one(spouse(at(a(time.( 6.( Marriage( does( not( always( involve( the( regulation( of( property( and( inheritance( rights.( 7.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(the(reproduction(and(rearing(of(children.( 8.(Marriage(is(not(always(intended(to(be(forever.( 9.(Marriage(does(not(always(involve(a(non-related(spouse.( 10.(Marriage(is(not(always(regulated(by(the(state.( ( ( Despite(these(differences,(Coontz(identifies(two(commonalities(throughout(all(these( versions(of(marriage.(The(first(of(which(is(that(marriage(is(a(universal(institution((Halwani( 31# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos 2018).(Regardless(of(the(differences(in(practice,(participants,(and(reasons,(each(society(has( or(has(had(a(form(of(marriage(as(a(highly(significant(institution.(A(second(commonality(is( that(marriage(is(always(subject(to(some(laws,(whether(it(be(a(form(of(contract(agreed(upon( by(the(people(engaging(in(marriage(or(the(laws(and(traditions(imposed(upon(marriage(by( the(government,(religion,(or(other(forms(of(cultural(and(societal(authority.(With(these(two( commonalities,(we(can(now(come(up(with(a(working(definition(of(marriage(as(a(universal( institution(that(is(subject(to(some(laws(of(the(state(or(culture.(However,(to(further(narrow( down(the(definition(insofar(as(our(discussion(is(only(concerned(with(marriages(involving( people,(the(definition(of(marriage(will(now(be:(A(universal(institution(that(involves(a(legal( arrangement(between(people(that(is(subject(to(laws(of(state(or(culture.(( ( ( With(a(working(definition(of(marriage,(the(next(task(is(to(examine(the(history(of( marriage(in(the(Philippines.(By(visiting(the(history(of(Philippine(marriage,(we(can(trace( back(the(origin( of(modern(Philippine(marriage( to(the(Spanish(colonial(period,( with(an( emphasis(on(the(religious(transformation(of(Filipino(society.( ( ( Philippine)Marriage:)Before)and)After)the)Church) ) ( Assistant(Professor(Olivia(Habana((2014)(of(Ateneo(de(Manila(University(notes(that( marriage(practices,(as(first(encountered(by(Spanish(religious(chroniclers,(quickly(attracted( their(attention(for(two(reasons.(The(first(reason(is(that(marriage(was(seen(as(the(basis(of( most(social(relations.(The(second(and(perhaps(more(obvious(one(is(that(Philippine(marriage( and(its(practices,(prior(to(the(arrival(of(Spanish(influence,(were(vastly(different(from(what( the(Spanish(chroniclers(were(accustomed(to.(( ( In(matters(of(courtship,(the(giving(of(dowry(was(practiced,(with(the(bride(and(her( family(being(on(the(receiving(end,(which(contrasts(with(Western(traditions(wherein(the( brides(is(tasked(to(prepare(the(dowry.(In(Western(versions,(the(dowry(that(women(prepared( was(seen(as(a(property(to(be(given(to(and(enjoyed(by(the(husband,(while(our(ancestral( version(of(it(sees(the(dowry(being(enjoyed(not(only(by(the(bride(but(also(her(kin(group.( While(this(“reversed”(practice(of(dowry-giving(was(negatively(perceived(by(the(Spanish( missionaries( as( the( “buying( of( a( bride,”( the( practice( is( properly( understood( as( the( recognition(of(the(woman’s(social(status(and(individual(worth.(Another(aspect(of(marriage( that(drew(the(passionate(decries(of(Spanish(missionaries(is(how(easy(it(was(for(married( couples(to(annul(or(dissolve(their(marriages(with(the(help(of(relatives(from(both(parties(and( elders(as(mediators(of(the(affairs.(In(the(case(of(divorce,(the(dowry(is(either(returned(to(the( husband(or(is(retained(for(the(wife(and(her(parents(if(the(divorce(is(caused(by(the(husband’s( fault.(Property(acquired(in(common(was(divided(equally,(while(gains(or(income(acquired( individually( without( participation( from( the( spouse( remain( in( the( ownership( of( the( appropriate(spouse.(As(for(the(process(or(solemnization(of(marriage(itself,(it(consisted(in( 32# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos the( mutual( agreement( of( both( concerned( parties,( the( giving( of( dowry,( and( a( day-long( celebration(of(the(occasion((Morga(1609).(( ( ( Along(with(the(religious(colonization,(Spanish(missionaries(noted(that(their(first( task(in(the(country(was(to(disentangle(marriages(for(the(newly(baptized(and(the(soon-tobe(baptized(to(ensure(their(accordance(with(Catholic(doctrine.(The(evangelization(also( brought(major(changes(to(the(institution(of(marriage(in(the(Philippines.(Among(the(biggest( changes( brought( by( the( Spanish( evangelization( are( the( indissolubility( of( marriage,( the( transfer(of(authority(in(solemnizing(marriages(to(the(religious(officials,(and(stricter(rules(to( avoid(instances(of(polygamy((Camacho(2019).(Although(these(early(years(of(the(Spanish( colonial(period(are(long(gone,(the(version(of(marriage(that(the(Philippines(has(today(still( very(much(reflects(Catholic(values(that(were(first(established(during(that(period.(Philippine( marriage(today(still(acknowledges(priests(or(religious(officials(as(among(the(people(who( may( solemnize( or( conduct( marriage( ceremonies( (Official( Gazette( 1987).( Although( the( number( of( church-officiated( marriages( only( comprises( 54.9%( of( the( total( registered( marriages(in(2022,(with(32.8%(being(specifically(Roman(Catholic,(the(laws(and(customs( being(followed(remain(in(line(with(Catholic(doctrines((Philippine(Statistics(Authority(2023).( Among(such(doctrines(are(the(prohibition(of(divorce(or(absolute(dissolution(of(marriage,( polygamous(marriages((except(for(Islamic(Filipino(communities),(and(the(absence(of(samesex(marriages.(( ( ( This( comparison( between( the( characteristics( of( marriage( prior( to( the( Spanish( colonization( and( now( shows( how( the( influence( of( the( Spanish( evangelization( and( the( Catholic(church( have( really(penetrated( the(country’s( institution(of( marriage.(Thus,( the( marriage(that(the(country(has(today(is(a(product,(albeit(a(more(modernized(one,(of(the( Spanish(colonization.(This(brings(us(to(the(main(question(of(marriage(in(this(discussion:( How(does(Philippine(marriage(maintain(itself(as(a(site(of(neocolonial(systems(of(control?( As(we(will(see(in(the(following(sections,(the(argument(to(be(raised(is(that(the(country’s( practice(of(marriage(reproduces(conditions(of(neocolonial(power(that(maintain(marriage(as( a(site(of(neocolonial(control.(This(paper’s(arguments(begin(with(a(critical(examination(of( how(Philippine(marriage(reproduces(the(conditions(of(capitalism(as(a(neocolonial(system( of(control.( ( ( Marriage)within)Capitalism) ) ( Capitalism(is(generally(understood(as(an(economic(system(succeeding(feudalism,( characterized( by( private( ownership( of( the( means( of( production( with( private( owners( (capitalists)(employing(workers(who(receive(wages(in(exchange(for(labor((Liberto(2025).( Under(Marxism,(based(on(the(works(of(German(philosopher(Karl(Marx,(capitalism(is(viewed( as(an(economic(system(that(specifically(sees(the(capitalists(exploit(the(working(class(of( society(with(the(aim(of(maximizing(the(owners’(profits.(One(significant(characteristic(of( 33# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos capitalism,(which(is(important(for(this(discussion,(is(its(power(to(commodify(almost,(if(not,( everything(available(for(us(humans(in(the(capitalists’(search(for(more(profitable(avenues( (Hall(2024).(However,(in(order(to(establish(capitalism(as(one(of(the(neocolonial(modes(of( power(and(control(within(Philippine(marriage,(an(argument(on(capitalism’s(original(foreign( nature(to(us(Filipinos(is(an(important(matter(to(emphasize.( ( ( Benjamin(Velasco((2023)(traces(the(first(stirrings(of(capitalist(development(during( the(final(years(of(the(Spanish(colonial(period,(and(the(succeeding(events,(such(as(engaging( in(world(trade(and(the(later(American(colonial(period,(had(only(further(strengthened(this( development.(Thus,(he(states(that(the(development(of(capitalism(and(the(growth(of(the( working( class( in( the( Philippines( have( been( largely( determined( by( colonialism( and( neocolonialism.( The( growth( of( the( working( class( in( the( Philippines( also( implies( the( existence(and(growth(of(the(ruling(class,(which(is(brought(about(by(the(capitalist(society( that(the(colonizers(have(introduced(to(us.(Prior(to(the(changes(in(marriage(brought(about( by( the( Spanish( colonial( period,( the( economic( arrangements( among( our( ancestral( communities( ranged( from( being( communal( to( being( an( Asiatic( form( of( feudalism( (Constantino(1975,( 30).(There(have( also(been( accounts(of(a( system(of(landholding( that( allowed( for( public( and( private( lands( (Agoncillo( 1990,( 49).( As( such,( there( were( lands( considered(as(public(property(that(could(be(used(freely(by(anybody,(and(there(were(also( lands(considered(to(be(the(private(preserve(of(the(nobles(and(datus.(Precolonial(Filipino( society(was(also(observed(to(lack(labor-exploitative(characteristics,(which(are(apparent(in( capitalist( societies.( For( example,( Filipinos( were( observed( to( be( disinclined( towards( accumulating(riches,(and(the(means(to(systematically(exploit(the(labor(of(others(were(not( available(yet((Constantino(1975,(30-31).(In(other(words,(there(were(no(exploitative(capitalists( during(that(time(who(would(have(transformed(precolonial(Filipino(society(into(a(capitalist( one.( Naturally,( a( socio-economic( arrangement( that( is( neither( labor-exploitative( nor( obsessed(with(accumulating(riches(is(exhibited(in(marriage(and(familial(arrangements.(This( is(due(to(the(precolonial(community(essentially(being(structured(like(an(extended(family( with(most(of(the(community(members(being(related(by(blood(or(marriage((Constantino( 1975,(28).(In(showing(how(Philippine(marriage(reproduces(conditions(of(capitalist(power( and( control,( this( section( will( look( into( two( specific( cases,( with( the( first( being( the( commodification(of(the(institution(of(marriage.( ( ( Marriage(has(always(involved(a(form(of(economic(transaction((e.g.,(dowry(giving),( and( one( of( the( more( common( reasons( for( engaging( in( marriage( is( to( pool( economic( resources( and( forge( economic( ties.( What( has( not( always( been( the( case( is( the( commodification(of(the(aspects(of(marriage.(Before(the(pandemic(shook(up(the(world’s( economy,(various(reports(noted(the(optimistic(growth(of(the(country’s(wedding(industry,( which(was(projected(to(grow(into(a(billion-peso(industry(with(weddings(costing(around( PHP( 300,000( up( to( as( high( as( PHP( 1,000,000( or( even( higher( for( the( wealthy( Filipino( (Bellosillo(2016;(Gatdula(2014).(In(relation(to(this,(a(2018(report(by(the(Philippine(Statistics( Authority(highlights(that(there(has(been(a(decline(in(the(number(of(marriages(from(2008( 34# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos to( 2017,( with( 40%( of( the( total( marriages( in( 2017( being( civil( ceremonies( due( to( their( significantly(lower(cost((Takumi(2018).(More( recently,(a(survey(about(church(weddings( conducted(by(Radio(Veritas(reports(that(32%(of(the(respondents(identify(the(costs(of(a( wedding(as(the(biggest(obstacle(to(doing(a(church(wedding((Macairan(2023).(On(another( perspective,(a(recent(study(conducted(by(the(Commission(on(Population(and(Development( (CPD)(reports(a(rising(trend(in(cohabitation(or(“live-in(arrangements”(as(the(more(practical( and( beneficial( arrangement( in( pursuing( family( and( marital( goals( (Gasgonia( 2025).( For( reference,( the( 2022( National( Demographic( and( Health( Survey( also( indicated( that( the( number(of(women(aged(15-49(engaged(in(live-in(arrangements(has(risen(from(5%(in(1993(to( 19%(in(2022.(As(expected,(most(of(the(reasons(for(such(a(trend(are(economic,(with(one( explicitly(stating(the(expense(of(formal(marriage.(The(said(study(by(the(CPD(also(highlights( how(social(media(further(amplifies(the(already(troublesome(perception(of(marriage(as(being( expensive(through(engaging(contents(that(showcase(ideal(or(dream(marriages((Recuenco( 2025).(It(also(does(not(help(that(the(Philippines(currently(ranks(#4(globally(in(terms(of( social(media(use,(logging(more(than(3(hours(on(social(media(per(day((Ayeng(2025).( ( While(people(may(perceive(the(shift(to(civil(ceremonies(and(live-in(arrangements(as( taking(a(stand(against(the(commodification(of(traditional(marriage,(the(hands(of(capitalism( have(nonetheless(already(taken(ahold(of(marriage(as(manifested(in(how(Filipinos(currently( perceive(it.(Traditional(marriage(is(now(perceived(as(an(expensive(ambition(rather(than(a( basic(institution(at(the(core(of(society.(With(that(said,(it(would(be(important(to(clarify(that( the(primary(problem(of(the(commodification(of(Philippine(marriage(is(not(that(it(is(always( expensive.( As( mentioned,( affordable( options( are( available( such( as( civil( ceremonies( or( simple(weddings.(Rather,(the(problem(is(specifically(that(the(current(perception(of(marriage( among(Filipinos(is(that(it(is(an(expensive(tradition(when(it(does(not(have(to(be.( ( (Another(way(that(Philippine(marriage(reproduces(capitalist(power(and(control(is( through(the(promotion(of(a(ruling-class(ideology.(The(notion(of(a(ruling(class,(a(term(highly( associated(with( Karl(Marx(and( Friedrich(Engels((2016),( refers(to(the( social(class(that( is( economically(dominant,(owns( the(means(of(production,( and(is(the( ruling(material(and( intellectual(force(in(society.(The(ruling(class(also(has(the(power(to(dictate(and(shape(the( values(that(society(holds(in(such(a(way(that(reproduces(the(conditions(of(their(rule.(In( adopting(this(idea(and(appropriating(it(to(the(arrangements(of(marriage,(the(“ruling(class”( in(such(a(scenario(would(refer(to(the(spouse(who(is(depended(upon(for(economic(matters( (e.g.,(breadwinner)(and(has(a(powerful(influence(on(household(decisions.(Engels((1902)(had( already(seen(this(perspective(of(a(ruling(class(within(monogamous(marriage(in(his(book( The(Origin(of(the(Family,(Private(Property(and(the(State.(In(this(anthropological(work,(he( presents(an(idea(he(shared(with(Marx,(which(is(that(“the(first(division(of(labor(is(that(of( man(and(wife(in(breeding(children”((79).((He(adds(to(this(thought(by(saying(that(“the(first( class(antagonism(appearing(in(history(coincides(with(the(development(of(the(antagonism( of(man(and(wife(in(monogamy,(and(the(first(class(oppression(with(that(of(the(female(by(the( male(sex.”(Within(the(context(of(a(society(that(designates(the(male(as(the(hunter,(gatherer,( 35# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos or(provider,(he(is(then(automatically(in(a(position(to(be(the(breadwinner(and(thus(the( economically( superior( spouse( in( the( marriage.( As( a( result,( within( the( marriage,( Engels( states:(“he(is(the(bourgeois,(the(woman(represents(the(proletariat”((89).(Expanding(on(this( idea,(Annette(Kuhn( (2013)(focuses(on(how(a( marriage(contract(resembles( a(contract(of( employment( in( the( sense( that( the( husband( gains( the( right( of( control( over( the( wife’s( domestic(labor,(whether(to(support(his(own(labor(or(to(bear(and(care(for(his(children((5658).( Of( course,( there( are( differences,( such( as( the( fact( that( the( wife( cannot( change( her( employer((unless(divorce(is(available(and(applicable)(and(is(unpaid(for(her(domestic(labor.( While(it(is(not(the(case(for(all(wives(to(be(fully(engaged(in(domestic(labor,(Kuhn(argues(that( so(long(as(marriage(exists(partly(as(a(labor(contract,(the(domestic(labor(provided(serves(as( the(basis(of(class((and(sex)(oppression(within(a(capitalist(society.( ( One(of(the(ways(that(a(ruling(class(ideology2(is(produced(by(contemporary(Filipino( marriage(arrangements(is(in(how(the(economically(superior(spouse((e.g.,(by(means(of(salary,( net( worth,( or( family( background)( is( seen( to( have( a( stronger( influence( in( household( decision-making.(In(a(study(on(the(roles(and(involvements(of(Filipino(husbands(and(wives( in(household(decision-making,(a(wife’s(unemployment(is(seen(to(contribute(to(a(decrease( in(her(decision-making(involvement,(especially(on(matters(of(children’s(school,(household( budget,( family( finance( and( investments,( family( health,( and( family( planning( practices( (David(1994).(Although(it(is(also(common(among(Filipino(couples(for(the(male(breadwinner( to(surrender(his(earnings(and(responsibility(to(manage(household(finances(to(the(wife,(I( believe( this( actually( emphasizes( the( economically( superior( spouse’s( control( over( the( decision-making(processes((Declaro-Ruedas(and(Guico(2023).(The(breadwinner(does(not( actually(“surrender”(their(earnings(and(power(of(financial(management(to(the(spouse,(but( rather( shows( the( breadwinner’s( power( in( dictating( who( gets( to( manage( the( household( finances.(The(wife’s(false(sense(of(power(and(control(over(household(financial(decisionmaking( is( emphasized( in( the( common( scenario( of( a( breadwinning( husband’s( being( dishonest(in(turning(over(their(income((Tsai(2016).(This(prevalent(behavior,(known(as(kupit(( in(Tagalog,(refers(to(dishonest(actions(by(the( breadwinning(husband(such(as(declaring( “ghost( expenses”( or( refusing( to( fully( declare( the( total( income( earned( (e.g.,( unexpected( bonuses).( Being( the( designated( financial( decision( maker,( it( is( usually( the( wife( who( is( blamed(for(the(financial(difficulties(that(arise(from(cases(of(kupit.3(What(is(worse(is(that,( while(being(designated(as(the(financial(manager(only(provides(a(false(sense(of(control,(a( limited( study( by( Tsai( reveals( that( such( designation( also( increases( the( woman’s( risk( of( experiencing(intimate(partner(violence((IPV)(if(the(husband(is(not(in(agreement(with(the( wife’s(financial(decisions.( ( 2!It!is!also!important!to!clarify!here!that!when!I!use!the!term!“ruling!class!ideology,”!I!am!not!necessarily! referring!to!the!ideologies!promoted!by!the!ruling!class!but!rather!the!ideology!that!a!ruling!class!exists.! 3!Commonly!used!to!mean!“stealing!in!small!amounts,”!kupit!also!gains!another!meaning!when!used!in!this! scenario!(Tsai!2016).! 42# Carlos Aguipo'Global'South'Journal#vol.#4,#2025,#27-47# # ISSN$2984-8342$ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17275569$ ©$Jhon$Martin$Carlos institutions(will(not(be(the(ones(conducting(the(process(of(divorce,(as(such(a(law(is(against( the(generally(Christian(belief(in(the(sanctity(of(marriage.(What(this(implies(is(that(not(only( do(they(weaken(their(religious(influence(over(the(indissolubility(of(marriage,(but(they(are( also( unable( to( extend( their( control( as( to( how( the( divorce( is( being( implemented( or( solemnized(and(how(it(influences(marriage(arrangements(in(the(country.( ( Now,(we(finally(go(back(to(the(question:(Why(are(we(still(afraid(of(divorce?(We(fear( divorce(because(it(disrupts(the(power(dynamics(that(have(been(in(play(in(the(country(ever( since(the(Spanish(colonial(period.(Whether(it(be(patriarchal,(capitalist,(or(even(religious( interests,(politicians(and(powerful(people(cater(to(these(interests(in(exchange(for(an(ounce( of(power(and(control(that(these(systems(have(not(only(over(the(institution(of(marriage(but( also( over( other( significant( institutions( in( the( country.( Divorce( brings( with( it( a( social,( political,(and(economic(force(that(radically(shakes(these(systems(and(the(status(quo(as(it( targets( the( very( institution( that( creates( the( basic( unit( of( society:( the( Filipino( family.( Throughout(all(the(years(wherein(a(divorce(bill(is(in(the(works,(the(heavy(question(that( frames(the(discussions(surrounding(it(was(never(about(whether(Filipinos(need(a(divorce( law.(Rather,(it(has(always(been(about(who(or(what(is(stopping(its(legislation( ( ( References) ( Abad,(Michelle.(2023.(“IN(NUMBERS:(State(of(Filipino(Women(in(2022.”(Rappler,(March( 10.(https://www.rappler.com/philippines/numbers-state-filipino-women-2022/.( Agoncillo,(Teodoro.(1990.(History!of!the!Filipino!People.(8th(ed.(Quezon(City:(GP(Press.( Aspinwall,( Nick.( 2024.( “‘We( Are( Not( Criminals’:( Philippines( Considers( Making( Divorce( Legal.”(Al! Jazeera,( July( 5.(https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/5/we-are-notcriminals-philippines-considers-making-divorce-legal.( Ayeng,( Raffy.( 2025.( “Pinoys( Remain( #1( Internet( Users( Globally,( Says( Digital( 2025( Report.”(Daily! Tribune,( February( 26.(https://tribune.net.ph/2025/02/26/pinoysremain-1-internet-users-globally-says-digital-2025-report.( Bellosillo,( Vince.( 2016.( “Wedding( Industry( Thrives( in( the( Philippines.”(SunStar,( August( 26.(https://www.sunstar.com.ph/more-articles/wedding-industry-thrives-in-thephilippines.( Blanco,( Dennis.( 2025.( “Divorce( and( Annulment( of( Marriage( in( the( Philippines:( A( Comparative( Analysis( and( Synthesis.”(UP! CIDS! Policy! Brief! 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