'Sun' in Caucasian languages

『地理言語学研究』 | Studies in Geolinguistics 5, 2025 32 Research article ‘Sun’ in Caucasian languages SUZUKI, Hiroyuki Kyoto University Abstract: This article presents a linguistic map of the word form for ‘sun’ in Caucasian languages—Kartvelian, Abkhazo-Adyghean, and Nakho-Daghestanian—using the mapping system of the Linguistic atlas of Afro-Eurasia (LAAEA). Each language group has its own type of word forms. It is noteworthy that languages of the Daghestanian subgroup in the northern half of the Daghestanian-speaking area, employ a form close to that of the Nakh subgroup. Keywords: Caucasian languages; lexical form; linguistic map 1. Introduction Following the research outcomes of Linguistic atlas of Asia and Africa (LAAA; Suzuki et al. 2022, 2023, Fukushima et al. 2023), this article aims to supplement the data for ‘sun’ of the Caucasian languages, which were not included in the preceding project’s outcome Linguistic atlas of Asia (LAA; Endo et al. 2021). This study offers supplementary insights for future research. The target language groups include Kartvelian, Abkhazo-Adyghean, and NakhoDaghestanian,1 and the data are from 42 geographical locations in total. Refer to Figure 1 for the distribution of each language group and location. The principal source of the data is Klimov and Khalilov (2003), and materials are also collected from Yanagisawa (2010, 2013; Abkhaz), Daniel et al. (2019; Mehweb), Forker (2020; Sanzhi Dargwa), and Schreur (2025; Tsova-Tush). SUZUKI, Hiroyuki. 2025. ‘Sun’ in Caucasian languages. Studies in Geolinguistics 5: 32–37. doi: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17479467  The work was supported by the ILCAA Joint Research Project ‘Studies in Afro-Eurasian Geolinguistics’ and JSPS KAKENHI Grant Nos. JP24H23937 and JP25K04040. 1 Other ways of the spelling is also used. For example, Polinsky (2020) uses Abkhaz-Adygean and Nakh-Dagestanian. SUZUKI, H.: ‘Sun’ in Caucasian languages 33 2. Classification of the word forms with maps Seven types are distinguished for the word for ‘sun’ in the target languages. Type BR-Q has four subtypes. Type MZ mze, bža, mžora-bžora, mәž Type MR a-mra, mara Type ML miɬi, miɬe, milh, mĩɬi, mĩhi Type MX malχ, matχ, matx Type B-R-Q BQ: baq’, buq, boq, bẹʁ BRQ: barʁ, barħi, berħi, barq, bari VRQ: wirɨʁ, viraʁ RQ: raʁ, riʁ Type TQ dɣә, tɨʁә, dɨʁә Type NQ ɨnq’ The /m/-/b/ variant is attested in Laz (Kartvelian; Type MZ). This variant is a lexical phenomenon, not a phonological issue. Notably, most underlisted types include an initial consonant with a labial feature: /m/, /b/, or /w/ and their second or third wordmedial consonant is either colonal (l, ɬ, r) or dorsal-glottal (q, χ, ʁ, ħ, h). Two minor types are TQ an NQ, in which, however, contains a dorsal-glottal sound (q, ɣ, ʁ). Regardless of language group, word forms are closely related to the aforementioned sound forms. Neither calques nor borrowings are attested.2 Figure 1 further distinguishes the language groups by adding K- (Kartvelian), A- (Abkhazo-Adyghean), or D- (Nakho-Daghestanian) before a type. For instance, K-MZ denotes “Type MZ in Kartvelian”. Each of KAand Dis distinguished by a colour (Kartvelian in green, Abkhazo-Adyghean in orange, and Nakho-Daghestanian in black), 2 Fukushima (2025) presents an example in which Noghai, a Turkic language spoken in the Caucasus, uses a word form for ‘sun’ containing the morpheme ‘eye’. However, no similar morphological features are attested in the target languages here. 『地理言語学研究』 | Studies in Geolinguistics 5 34 and each type is differentiated by a form of symbols in Table 1. The symbol configuration reflects the proximity of word forms in this analysis: squares indicate an initial /m/ (as well as /b/), lines correspond to Type B-R-Q. The circle shape constitutes an isolation in the word form. Table 1 Legend of Figure 1, classified by symbols. K-MZ D-BQ A-MR D-BRQ D-ML D-VRQ D-MX D-RQ A-TQ D-NQ Fig. 1 Word forms for ‘sun’, classified by types. Concerning the word form for ‘sun’, each language group has its own form and does not share a common form beyond the groups, as shown in Figure 1. 3. Geographical distribution and interpretation As illustrated in Figure 1, the geographical distribution of the ten types is represented. Type MZ characterises the forms in Kartvelian, while Types MR and TQ are attested SUZUKI, H.: ‘Sun’ in Caucasian languages 35 in Abkhazo-Adyghean. The remaining types occurred in Nakho-Daghestanian. Despite variability, sound correspondence can be identified—particularly between Types MZ and MR, between Types ML and MX, and between the subtypes of Type B-R-Q. The phonetic distinctions between types MZ and MR are characterised by the presence of either /z/, /ž/, or /r/ in the second consonant. The phonetic realisation of /r/ in a-mra is unclear. However, /r/ can also be pronounced as fricatives in the close articulatory position, such as [ʒ] and [ʐ]. Should further analogous sound correspondences be identified between Kartvelian /ž/ or /z/ and Abkhazo-Adyghean /r/, this would provide more evidence to support the correlation of Type MZ with Type MR for ‘sun’. Additionally, the labial sound of the first consonant is interchangeable in Laz. While this phenomenon is specific to the word for ‘sun’, connections can be made between the /m/-form and /b/ forms in other types, particularly Subtype BRQ under Type B-R-Q. Nevertheless, the distribution of Subtype BRQ presents a considerable challenge in relation to its relationship with Type MZ. Types ML and MX are distributed in a geographically continuous region (Nakh languages and Daghestanian language spoken in the Nakh’s vicinity), and appear to be related through their second consonants /ɬ/, /h/, /lχ/, and /tχ/. These can be correlated with one another, referring to a phenomenon in Tibeto-Burman languages, in which a denti-alveolar voiceless lateral /l / (including a phonetic realisation of [ɬ]) corresponds to a uvular fricative /χ/ (Suzuki and Tashi Nyima 2019; see also Tournadre and Suzuki 2023 for Tibetic languages). Although both types also differ in their vowels (ML for /i/ and MX for /a/), this difference is also found in Type B-R-Q between BRQ and VRQ. It is essential to look for additional parallel examples which could provide further support for the hypothesis that these two sound features are congruent. Type B-R-Q is distributed in the southern part of the Daghestanian-speaking region. The present hypothesis posits that this type comprises four subtypes with varying consonant patterns, presumably derived from a proto-form “B-R-Q”, consisting of three consonants B (b, w, v), R (r), and Q (q, ʁ, ħ). Subtypes BQ and RQ appear to be more recent than BRQ and VRQ, based on the number of syllables. However, BRQ and VRQ, are distributed in the central part of the Daghestanian-speaking region. Due to the unclear migration history of the area, it is uncertain whether the central distribution area of the BRQ and VRQ represents the historical core language area. Therefore, the absence of an ABA (concentric) distribution cannot yet be considered anomalous. Type NQ is an exceptional form that is attested in a single language (Khinarug). From a geographical perspective, it is hypothesised that NQ is associated with Type BR-Q, particularly BQ and VRQ. Presumably, the initial labial sound could have been omitted in ɨnq’, the NQ form, and the last uvular sound is a retention of the proto-form 『地理言語学研究』 | Studies in Geolinguistics 5 36 B-R-Q. Although no nasal consonant was identified in the present analysis, other phonological features suggest a possible relationship with VRQ. In summary, each language group has its own type of word forms. It is noteworthy that languages of the Daghestanian subgroup in the northern half of the Daghestanianspeaking area employ a form close to that of the Nakh subgroup. References Daniel, Michael, Nina Dobrushina, and Dmitry Ganenkov (eds.) (2019) The Mehweb language: Essays on phonology, morphology and syntax. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3374730 Endo, Mitsuaki, Makoto Minegishi, Satoko Shirai, Hiroyuki Suzuki, and Keita Kurabe (2021) Linguistic atlas of Asia. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo. Forker, Diana (2020) A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3339225 Fukushima, Chitsuko (2025) Kooiki gengotizu wo doo yomu ka 広域言語地図をどう読むか [How to interpret macro-ranged linguistic maps]. Paper presented at the 7th annual meeting of Geolinguistic Society of Japan. 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SUZUKI, H.: ‘Sun’ in Caucasian languages 37 Publication history Date received: 10 July 2025 Date accepted: 6 September 2025