How is trans prejudice an impact of neo-colonialism in India, and how does the narrative of Shikhandi of the Mahabharata challenge the cultural imperialism brought about by neo-colonialism?

International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 101 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17502451 How is trans prejudice an impact of neo-colonialism in India, and how does the narrative of Shikhandi of the Mahabharata challenge the cultural imperialism brought about by neo-colonialism? Siddhi Nagda Student, Grade 12, A Levels, Don Bosco International School ABSTRACT In the midst of the allegations that genderfluidity is a modern and Western trend, this paper sheds light on various pre-colonial cultures that celebrate the trans community. It mainly focuses on ancient India and explores Neo-Colonialism in various forms as an answer to the question ―Where does modern-day transphobia in India arise from if it was never a part of Indian culture to begin with?‖ It further expands on the reasons for prejudice through judicial, cultural, and socioeconomic brainwashing and how it continues to have an impact in modern India despite 78 years of independence. Due to centuries of brainwashing, society has become desensitised to the blatant hatred and crime against the queer community. The paper thus delves into the importance of bringing back old narratives, which are a vital part of Indian culture, and interpreting them in a trans-positive light to challenge the ideals of neocolonialism. It expands on the attempts to reverse the impacts of cultural imperialism through important literary texts to embed the acceptance of gender fluidity. Shikhandi, one of the most essential transgender characters of the Mahabharata, has been used as a medium to symbolise modern-day prejudice, acceptance, and its impacts. Furthermore, his narrative shows the pre-colonial celebration of gender fluidity. This character has gained significant popularity amongst queer youth as the metaphors in his story resonate with the struggles of said youth. In summary, the paper discusses how Neo-colonialism has created modern-day prejudice, continues to affect us, and how that framework can be challenged by reclaiming our trans positive culture. Keywords: Neo-colonialism, transprejudice, India, Shikhandi International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 102 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.13880395 Introduction In the face of anti-trans animosity, people across the gender spectrum are fighting for equity and protection of rights, underscoring a crucial reminder: being genderfluid is not merely a modern trend. Several ancient cultures worldwide not only include but also celebrate genderfluid identities in their folklore and mythology as an important part of society. North American tribes refer to ―two spirits‖—those with both male and female attributes— who are closer to the spirit world; Chinese Taoist myths have among their eight immortals Lan Caihe of ambiguous sexuality. Even the affluent Norse tapestry of mythology represents the existence of gender fluidity through the various transformations of Loki, the god of mischief. 1 Queer stories are also deep-rooted in Hindu architecture, occult, culture, medical texts, and mythological narratives since time immemorial, as opposed to modern conventions of its rigidity. The Meenakshi temple at Madurai has several carvings that break the gender conventions of society, like an image of a woman with a beard and breasts. The Vedas describe three genders: purusha-prakriti (male), stri-prakriti (female), and tritiya-prakriti (third gender). The Vedas also write that there are no accidents or errors that occur in nature. Everything, including the third gender, has a purpose. 2 The acceptance of gender-fluid identities in these important pieces of literature and architecture opposes the claim that trans prejudice is supported in Indian culture. Furthermore, gender-fluid identities in India are manifested in forms of communities. Precolonial India celebrated gender non-conforming individuals and put them on a divine pedestal, and even today, these communities are recognized. Hijras, Kothis, Aravanis, Jogappas, or Shiv-Shakthis are groups or tribes of transgenders and/or intersex people who are an important part of history and culture in India. Transgenders also formed an essential 1 Devdutt Pattanaik. Shikhandi and Other Tales They Don’t Tell You. New Delhi, Zubaan And Penguin Books India, 2014. 2 Paddy, Krishnan. ―The Third Gender in the Vedas and the Puranas.‖ Gold Coast Hindu, 18 Apr. 2020, goldcoasthindu.wordpress.com/2020/04/18/the-third-gender-in-the-vedas-and-thepuranas/. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 103 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17502451 part of the Mughal courts as performers and artists. This raises the question, ―Where does modern-day transphobia in India arise from if it was never a part of Indian culture to begin with?‖ This paper aims to explore Neo-Colonialism in various forms as an answer to this question. It further expands on the reasons for prejudice through judicial, cultural, and socioeconomic brainwashing and how it continues to have an impact in modern India despite 78 years of independence. The paper also delves into the importance of bringing back old narratives, which are a vital part of Indian culture, and interpreting them in a trans-positive light to challenge the ideals of neo-colonialism. Shikhandi, one of the most essential transgender characters of the Mahabharata, has been used as a medium to symbolise modern-day prejudice, acceptance, and its impacts as experienced by the queer youth. In summary, the paper not only aims to answer the research question, but also simultaneously urges the reader to question prejudices backed by ―religious and cultural‖ norms. Research Methodology Writing this paper involved recognizing it as a primarily qualitative study dealing with ―inductive reasoning and subjective, open-ended approaches. 3 . Furthermore, I classified the ―neo-colonialism theory‖ study as conceptual research and the study of ―Shikhandi‘s narrative‖ as literary analysis research. The use of quantitative secondary data gathered from judicial articles, government statements, and census studies adds credibility to the study. I have effectively taken the six important steps to conduct a literature review by deciding my objectives, gathering potential sources, screening through them, assessing their quality, extracting the required data, and finally analysing & synthesizing it. 4 One advantage of using this method was that it could help draw a clear and comprehensive picture of the chosen topic and simultaneously create a new body of knowledge to enrich the field of study. However, 3 The Study Space. ―Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies.‖ Thestudyspace.com. The Study Space, 2024. Web. 30 June 2024. 4 Paré, Guy, and Spyros Kitsiou. ―Methods for Literature Reviews.‖ National Library of Medicine, University of Victoria, 27 Feb. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK481583/. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 104 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.13880395 the heavy reliance on secondary data can be a limitation, as biases can be created based on the selection and interpretation of the sources. 5 The possible limitations of the subjectivity of interpretations are acknowledged drawback in this paper and are mitigated by using plausible reasoning and credible cited sources. This research was conducted in an environment free of stigma, which provided me with an unbiased platform to put forth my perspective openly. Acknowledging the privilege of not having to face blatant discrimination and ostracization faced by a marginalised community helped me to carry out a report balanced with pathos and logos. The lack of experience with the first-hand impact of neo-colonialism makes conducting a qualitative study based on the same more challenging. However, these challenges are considered, and the topic is approached with a blend of critical thinking and empathy. In that case, a literature review proves to be the most appropriate research methodology. Keeping these factors in mind, I have focused on presenting an unbiased answer to the research question. Neo-Colonialism as a Reason for Trans-Prejudice and Its Impacts Post-colonial studies have shown extensively that despite achieving independence, the influences of colonialism are still very much present in the social and political realities of most former colonies. 6 This manifests itself as neocolonialism, which is essentially a subtle propagation of socioeconomic and political activity by former colonial rulers aimed at reinforcing capitalism, neoliberal globalization, and the cultural subjugation of their former colonies. Although today, queer identities are labelled as a ‗Western concept,‘ the reality is that transphobia is the Western concept backed by ideals of the ‗binary.‘ Most pre-colonial societies, including India, did not understand gender as a binary, nor did they necessarily correlate genitalia to a fixed gender identity or expression, unlike their European colonists. 5 Rahman, M. ―Advantages and Disadvantages of Literature Review.‖ Howandwhat, 2022, www.howandwhat.net/advantages-disadvantages-literature-review/. 6 Kaur, Inderpreet. “Has India Been Neo-Colonised Again Even after Two Centuries of Being Colonised?” ~ 26 ~ International Journal of Political Science and Governance, vol. 3, no. 2, 2021, pp. 26–30, www.journalofpoliticalscience.com/uploads/archives/3-2-3-155.pdf. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 105 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17502451 The roots of prejudice started when the British colonizers invaded India on August 24, 1608. The colonising nations established a cultural, political, and legal system based on the reproduction-oriented cis-heteronormative family, with no room for any gender or sexuality outside of these norms. 7 Socio-Economic Genderfluid communities, to date, play an essential role in the culture of India and are called to bless divine unions. However, they live in a poverty-stricken state and are considered inferior. During the pre-colonial time, they were allowed to live in dignity and were provided alms for their services, but they were not allowed to participate in trade. In a modern-day capitalist society, neocolonialism has its repercussions, as everyone's earnings are dependent on trade-related activities. These communities are still barred from equal opportunities to participate in trade. Thus, no law denies them their dignity, but society has taken away their means of earning a living. This ostracization acts as one of the primary reasons for the extreme poverty inflicted upon queer communities. Furthermore, the socio-economic discrimination ranges from impediments in accessing education, employment, and healthcare to extortion, harassment, arbitrary arrests, and sexual violence. 8 All of which stems from a place of prejudice that turns into blatant rage and hatred. The lack of equality and equity forces many to drop out of schools and universities and forces some to earn a livelihood through sex work or begging, making them likely to fall prey to legal complications. This seems to be an impact of the cis-heteronormative superiority complex ingrained in the minds of Indians by the Colonialists through several generations. Anything that challenged the European idea of the normal and the binary was termed uncivilised and inferior. These ideals set out the idea that fundamental human rights, such as education and healthcare, shouldn't be made easily and economically accessible to gender7 “OHCHR | Call for Inputs: Report on Colonialism and Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.” OHCHR, 2023, www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2023/call-inputs-reportcolonialism-and-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity. Accessed 21 July 2025. 8 Banerjie, Ajita. ―Trans*Forming the Constitution.‖ Himal Southasian, 1 June 2018, www.himalmag.com/comment/transforming-the-constitution-transgender-persons-protectionrights-bill. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 106 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.13880395 fluid individuals, as it would be a waste of resources. The once highly respected communities were pushed to the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder and have fought to climb back up since, with little impact. This discriminatory socioeconomic system not only affects the transgender community but also affects the country‘s macroeconomics as a whole. Much like the economic drain colonialism caused, the costs of trans prejudice are still inflicted on the Indian GDP. According to a 2011 census, 46% of people who marked the ―other‖ gender option were literate compared to 74% of the remaining population. 9 This, in turn, does not give them equal opportunities to find jobs requiring higher skill sets. It causes the size of the skilled labour market to significantly reduce, and the unemployment rate also sees an increase. Even the educated transgender individuals seem to have a hard time finding job opportunities. 96% of all transgender people are still denied jobs based on their gender identity alone. And more than half of all transgender folks make less than ₹5,000 a month, as found by A National Human Rights Commission survey in 2018. 10 If these neo-colonialist prejudices were eradicated, the community could be a valuable asset to the economy and reduce society's costs. One report indicates that sensitising people about transgender and others who don‘t conform to societal gender constructs, and sexuality could alone save India some $32 billion. 11 Neo-colonialism through socio-economic discrimination ensures that the country continues to incur economic costs and is bound by regressive ideals that hinder growth and development in the economy. Judicial System 9 ―The Third Gender and the Economy.‖ Finshots, 7 July 2022, finshots.in/archive/the-thirdgender-and-the-economy/. 10 ―The Third Gender and the Economy.‖ Finshots, 7 July 2022, finshots.in/archive/the-thirdgender-and-the-economy/. 11 ―The Third Gender and the Economy.‖ Finshots, 7 July 2022, finshots.in/archive/the-thirdgender-and-the-economy/. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 107 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17502451 The infamous ‗section 377‘ of the IPC (Indian Penal Code), enforced under British colonial rule in 1864, criminalised any nonprocreative sexualities and has been used for several decades since as a catalyst for trans-prejudice. Another lesser-known legislation that came about under the colonial rule in India was the ‗The Criminal Tribes Act 1871‘, which branded certain marginalised groups as ―criminal‖ and called for strict surveillance of these groups and their actions. The freedom of movement and the right to expression were not only taken away but were also subjected to harsh punishment, combined with the right to arrest without a warrant. Whether or not transgender individuals had committed any crimes, they were criminalised for trying to have any basic human rights or freedoms. The Criminal Tribes Act 1871 was repealed in 1949. However, Section 377 remained on the statute books until 2018. Other criminal legislations with provisions similar to the Criminal Tribes Act 1871 were retained, showing the neo-colonialist repercussions of these laws. The Andhra Pradesh (Telangana Area) Eunuchs Act 1329F and Section 36A of the Karnataka Police Act 1963 are examples. Both these legislations contain language identical to the Criminal Tribes Act, stating that the government shall maintain a register of all ‗eunuchs‘ who are reasonably suspected of committing unnatural offences or abetting the commission of the said offences. 12 Additionally, despite the recent removal of these regulations, the presumption of criminality of the trans community has persisted. The community members are not considered eligible to have the same rights as other working citizens. Although Article 14 of the Indian Constitution reads: The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. 13 Often, dehumanizing arguments are used that transgender persons cannot be classified as either male or female and, therefore, do not fall into a protected category. While the country attained sovereignty in 1947, it seems to have remained trapped by the ideologies of the colonialists for more than seven decades. 12 377 - Written Arguments.docx. ―377 - Written Arguments.docx.‖ Google Docs. N.p., 2019. Web. 14 Aug. 2024. 13 377 - Written Arguments.docx. ―377 - Written Arguments.docx.‖ Google Docs. N.p., 2019. Web. 14 Aug. 2024. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 108 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.13880395 In recent years, new bills that have been proposed to ‗protect‘ the rights of the trans community are tainted with regressive ideals set by the invaders. On 25th November 2019, the Rajya Sabha passed the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill 2019, despite urges from the opposition party members to send the bill to a committee for further scrutiny. Since its introduction in 2016, the legislation has come under heavy criticism from transgender rights activists. 14 This bill provides clauses for the protection of the genderfluid community, but it has several legal loopholes, leaving room for prejudice-based misinterpretation. It prohibits prejudice against transgender persons in educational institutions, government establishments, real estate purchasing, and healthcare services. However, it fails to define what constitutes prejudice and any specific legal penalties. While the right to self-identity is ―granted,‖ the bill goes against the nature of gender fluidity by imposing administrative requirements such as identity certificates. In a developing nation like India, where paperwork takes years to go through, and the administrative departments are inefficient in approving certificates, legally, the right to self-identity would still be denied to queer individuals, making them subject to criminalization. IndiaSpend reported on 20 June 2022 that out of the 9,064 applications, 22% are still pending, and 13% are marked ―not eligible‖. And within the remaining lot, 16.5% have been in limbo for 7–12 months. This is despite the Transgender Act mandating the issuance of such cards within 30 days. 15 Furthermore, in case of any applications for a gender reassignment surgery, the district magistrate must examine exactly how ―correct‖ the medical certificate issued by the chief medical officer or medical superintendent is. This certificate is granted after a thorough exam 14 Lalwani, Vijayta. ―What next for Transgender People, as India Clears a Bill That Activists Call ―Murder of Gender Justice‖?‖ Quartz, 27 Nov. 2019, qz.com/india/1756897/indiastransgender-rights-bill-disappoints-the-lgbtq-community. 15 Bansal, Vandana. ―Why Only 236 Trans Person Victims of Crimes Were Recorded in India in 2020.‖ Www.indiaspend.com, 23 June 2022, www.indiaspend.com/gendercheck/why-only236-trans-person-victims-of-crimes-were-recorded-in-india-in-2020-823034. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 109 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.17502451 from a board of mental health professionals and a multidisciplinary gender identity clinic. Several people have described the examinations as causing more gender dysphoria. One of the main objections to the bill is that it only allows the certificate holder to identify as a ―transgender‖ individual till they undergo a sex change surgery and apply for another certificate. In conclusion, it does not recognise the right to identify one‘s gender unless the physical proof of said identity conforms to the preset rigid gender norms. The bills and laws passed to help the condition of transgender individuals also don't provide any reservations in education or employment on the grounds of equity. The laws seem to have underlying neo-colonialist tones of trans prejudice and ostracization. The ―protection‖ of trans rights is subject only within the bounds of what is considered ―normal‖ enough for society to accept. Much like the ideals of normalcy that the British brought about, the uncertainty of gender fluidity instills fear in a predominantly heteronormative environment, leading to the need to control and push down the community. The Framework It is vital to note that this cultural imperialism was not only imposed on Indian citizens but was subtly propagated by missionaries and government officials who deemed gender fluidity unnatural and uncivilised. Thus, the colonizers not only implemented systems against the queer community but also successfully brainwashed the coming generations to support and carry out those systems. Their means of doing this was through the education system and the literature consumed in academia. Hence, it becomes highly crucial to re-establish the authentic Indian culture and the acceptance and celebration it had for the queer communities. This can be done by allowing gender-fluid narratives from important cultural texts such as the Mahabharata to resurface without the rigidity of a neo-colonialist mindset. A character like Shikhandi, who played one of the most vital roles in the Mahabharata war and whose story resonates with trans youth, can act as a catalyst for challenging age-old neo-colonial frameworks. His narrative can be interpreted in an unbiased light to show the various symbolisms of modern-day trans prejudice and the impact of tolerance and acceptance. Thus, this character, among several others like Ila, Mohini, and Bahuchara, has been chosen to show the futility of Trans Prejudice. International Journal of Research (IJR) e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Vol. 12 Issue 13 October 2025 Received: 12 October 2025 116 Revised: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 30 October 2025 Copyright  authors 2025 DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.5281/ZENODO.13880395 OHCHR. Independent Expert on Protection against Violence and Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (IE SOGI) Call for Inputs: Report on Colonialism and Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (SOGI). 2023. Web. 30 July 2024. Paré, Guy, and Spyros Kitsiou. ―Chapter 9 Methods for Literature Reviews.‖ Nih.gov. University of Victoria, 27 Feb. 2017. Web. 30 June 2024. 377 - Written Arguments.docx. ―377 - Written Arguments.docx.‖ Google Docs. N.p., 2019. Web. 14 Aug. 2024.