Understanding climate engagement and open recognition in European higher education: A mixed-methods study across four countries

RESEARCH ARTICLE  Understanding climate engagement and open recognition in European higher education: A mixed-methods study across four countries [version 2; peer review: 3 approved] Pablo Martín-Ramos 1, Adriana Correa-Guimaraes1, Fatma Fourati-Jamoussi2, Kimberley Burcke-Couchy2, Lucio Alessandro Lo Giudice3, Barbara Tosi3, Frederico Oliveira Pinto4, Luís Veiga Martins4, Luis Manuel Navas-Gracia 1 1ETSIIAA, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, Palencia, 34004, Spain 2InTerACT (UP 2018.C102), UniLaSalle, 19 Rue Pierre Waguet, Beauvais, 60000, France 3Consorzio Scuola Comunità Impresa (CSCI), Via Francesco Sesalli 7, Novara, 28100, Italy 4Reitoria da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campus de Campolide, Lisbon, 1099-085, Portugal First published: 06 May 2025, 5:121 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.19909.1 Latest published: 28 Aug 2025, 5:121 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.19909.2 v2 Abstract Background This mixed-methods study investigates student engagement with climate issues and perceptions of open recognition systems across four European educational institutions in France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain as part of the OpenPass4Climate Erasmus+ project. Against the backdrop of the European Green Deal and UNESCO's call for transformative education, our research addresses the critical need for innovative climate education approaches that bridge knowledge and action. Methods Through a comprehensive approach combining surveys (n=630), individual interviews (n=69), national focus groups (n=45), and a transnational focus group (n=16), we examined students' climate attitudes, educational preferences, and views on digital badge systems for recognizing climate competencies. Results Results reveal a notable disconnect between strong climate concern Open Peer Review Approval Status 123 version 2 (revision) 28 Aug 2025 view view view version 1 06 May 2025 view Anh Thu Nguyen, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Canada Paul Berger, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay,, Canada 1. Gaye Defne Ceyhan , Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey 2. Ihtsham Ul Haq Padda , Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan 3. Any reports and responses or comments on the article can be found at the end of the article. Open Research Europe  Page 1 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 (mean=4.0/5) and moderate personal responsibility (3.2/5), alongside significant cross-country variations in environmental engagement, with Portuguese students consistently demonstrating the highest climate awareness and Italian students the lowest. While respondents strongly endorsed formal climate curriculum integration (4.1/5) and valued informal learning pathways (3.8/5), they reported limited participation in eco-pedagogical activities (2.3/5), highlighting an implementation gap in environmental education. Students rated their informal climate change education (3.5/5) more highly than formal training (3.2/5), suggesting untapped potential for recognition of nonformal learning experiences. Gender differences emerged consistently, with female respondents showing significantly higher environmental concern and engagement across multiple dimensions. Analysis of open badge perceptions revealed moderate familiarity but substantial interest, particularly when aligned with institutional credentialing systems and employer recognition frameworks. Conclusions Key implementation challenges identified include the need for robust quality assurance mechanisms, institutional endorsement, and enhanced digital infrastructure accessibility. These findings inform strategic recommendations for developing the European Open Badges Passport, emphasizing the importance of balancing standardization with contextual flexibility while facilitating recognition of both formal and informal climate learning across diverse higher education settings. Hintergrund Diese Mixed-Methods-Studie untersucht das Engagement von Studierenden für Klimafragen und ihre Wahrnehmung offener Anerkennungssysteme an vier europäischen Bildungseinrichtungen in Frankreich, Italien, Portugal und Spanien im Rahmen des Erasmus+- Projekts OpenPass4Climate. Vor dem Hintergrund des europäischen Green Deals und des UNESCO-Aufrufs zu transformativer Bildung befasst sich unsere Forschung mit dem kritischen Bedarf an innovativen Ansätzen zur Klimabildung, die Wissen und Handeln miteinander verbinden. Methoden Durch einen umfassenden Ansatz, der Umfragen (n=630), Einzelinterviews (n=69), nationale Fokusgruppen (n=45) und eine transnationale Fokusgruppe (n=16) kombiniert, untersuchten wir die Einstellungen der Studierenden zum Klima, ihre Bildungspräferenzen und ihre Ansichten zu digitalen Badge-Systemen zur Anerkennung Open Research Europe  Page 2 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 von Klimakompetenzen. Ergebnisse Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine bemerkenswerte Diskrepanz zwischen starker Klimabesorgnis (Mittelwert=4,0/5) und mäßiger persönlicher Verantwortung (3,2/5) sowie signifikante länderübergreifende Unterschiede im Umweltengagement, wobei portugiesische Studierende durchweg das höchste Klimabewusstsein und italienische Studierende das niedrigste aufweisen. Während die Befragten die formale Integration des Klimas in die Lehrpläne (4,1/5) nachdrücklich befürworteten und informelle Lernwege schätzten (3,8/5), berichteten sie von einer begrenzten Teilnahme an ökopädagogischen Aktivitäten (2,3/5), was eine Umsetzungslücke in der Umweltbildung verdeutlicht. Die Studierenden bewerteten ihre informelle Klimawandelbildung (3,5/5) höher als ihre formale Ausbildung (3,2/5), was auf ein unausgeschöpftes Potenzial für die Anerkennung nicht-formaler Lernerfahrungen hindeutet. Geschlechterunterschiede traten konsequent zutage, wobei weibliche Befragte in mehreren Dimensionen ein signifikant höheres Umweltbewusstsein und Engagement zeigten. Die Analyse der Wahrnehmung offener Badges ergab eine moderate Vertrautheit, aber ein erhebliches Interesse, insbesondere wenn sie mit institutionellen Zertifizierungssystemen und Anerkennungsrahmen von Arbeitgebern in Einklang gebracht werden. Schlussfolgerungen Zu den identifizierten Hauptherausforderungen bei der Umsetzung gehören die Notwendigkeit robuster Qualitätssicherungsmechanismen, institutioneller Unterstützung und verbesserter Zugänglichkeit digitaler Infrastrukturen. Diese Erkenntnisse liefern strategische Empfehlungen für die Entwicklung des Europäischen Open Badges Passes, wobei die Bedeutung einer ausgewogenen Standardisierung mit kontextueller Flexibilität hervorgehoben wird, während gleichzeitig die Anerkennung von formalem und informellem Klimaelernen in verschiedenen Hochschulkontexten erleichtert wird. Antecedentes Este estudio de métodos mixtos investiga la implicación de los estudiantes con los problemas climáticos y las percepciones de los sistemas de reconocimiento abierto en cuatro instituciones educativas europeas en Francia, Italia, Portugal y España como parte del proyecto Erasmus+ OpenPass4Climate. En el contexto del Pacto Verde Europeo y el llamamiento de la UNESCO para una educación Open Research Europe  Page 3 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 transformadora, nuestra investigación aborda la necesidad crítica de enfoques innovadores de educación climática que vinculen el conocimiento y la acción. Métodos A través de un enfoque integral que combina encuestas (n=630), entrevistas individuales (n=69), grupos de discusión nacionales (n=45) y un grupo de discusión transnacional (n=16), examinamos las actitudes de los estudiantes hacia el clima, sus preferencias educativas y sus opiniones sobre los sistemas de insignias digitales para el reconocimiento de competencias climáticas. Resultados Los resultados revelan una notable desconexión entre una fuerte preocupación por el clima (media=4,0/5) y una responsabilidad personal moderada (3,2/5), junto con variaciones significativas entre países en el compromiso ambiental, mostrando los estudiantes portugueses sistemáticamente la mayor concienciación climática y los estudiantes italianos la menor. Aunque los encuestados respaldaron firmemente la integración formal del clima en el plan de estudios (4,1/5) y valoraron las vías de aprendizaje informal (3,8/5), informaron de una participación limitada en actividades eco-pedagógicas (2,3/5), lo que pone de manifiesto una brecha de implementación en la educación ambiental. Los estudiantes valoraron más su educación informal sobre el cambio climático (3,5/5) que su formación formal (3,2/5), lo que sugiere un potencial sin explotar para el reconocimiento de experiencias de aprendizaje no formal. Las diferencias de género surgieron de manera consistente, mostrando las encuestadas una preocupación y compromiso ambiental significativamente mayores en múltiples dimensiones. El análisis de las percepciones sobre las insignias abiertas reveló una familiaridad moderada pero un interés sustancial, particularmente cuando están alineadas con los sistemas de acreditación institucional y los marcos de reconocimiento de los empleadores. Conclusiones Los principales desafíos de implementación identificados incluyen la necesidad de mecanismos sólidos de garantía de calidad, respaldo institucional y mejora de la accesibilidad a la infraestructura digital. Estos hallazgos informan recomendaciones estratégicas para el desarrollo del Pasaporte Europeo de Insignias Abiertas, enfatizando la importancia de equilibrar la estandarización con la flexibilidad contextual, facilitando al mismo tiempo el reconocimiento del aprendizaje climático tanto formal como informal en diversos Open Research Europe  Page 4 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 entornos de educación superior. Contexte Cette étude à méthodes mixtes examine l'engagement des étudiants envers les questions climatiques et leurs perceptions des systèmes de reconnaissance ouverts dans quatre établissements d'enseignement européens en France, Italie, Portugal et Espagne, dans le cadre du projet Erasmus+ OpenPass4Climate. Dans le contexte du Pacte vert pour l'Europe et de l'appel de l'UNESCO à une éducation transformatrice, notre recherche répond au besoin crucial d'approches innovantes en matière d'éducation au climat qui établissent un pont entre les connaissances et l'action. Méthodes Grâce à une approche complète combinant des enquêtes (n=630), des entretiens individuels (n=69), des groupes de discussion nationaux (n=45) et un groupe de discussion transnational (n=16), nous avons examiné les attitudes des étudiants face au climat, leurs préférences éducatives et leurs opinions sur les systèmes de badges numériques pour la reconnaissance des compétences climatiques. Résultats Les résultats révèlent un décalage notable entre une forte préoccupation climatique (moyenne=4,0/5) et une responsabilité personnelle modérée (3,2/5), ainsi que des variations significatives entre les pays en matière d'engagement environnemental, les étudiants portugais démontrant systématiquement la plus grande sensibilisation au climat et les étudiants italiens la plus faible. Bien que les répondants aient fortement approuvé l'intégration formelle du climat dans les programmes d'études (4,1/5) et valorisé les parcours d'apprentissage informels (3,8/5), ils ont signalé une participation limitée aux activités éco-pédagogiques (2,3/5), mettant en évidence un écart de mise en œuvre dans l'éducation environnementale. Les étudiants ont évalué leur éducation informelle sur le changement climatique (3,5/5) plus favorablement que leur formation formelle (3,2/5), suggérant un potentiel inexploité pour la reconnaissance des expériences d'apprentissage non formelles. Des différences de genre ont émergé de façon constante, les répondantes montrant une préoccupation et un engagement environnementaux significativement plus élevés dans de multiples dimensions. L'analyse des perceptions des badges ouverts a révélé une familiarité modérée mais un intérêt substantiel, particulièrement lorsqu'ils sont alignés avec les systèmes d'accréditation institutionnels et les cadres de reconnaissance des employeurs. Open Research Europe  Page 5 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Conclusions Les principaux défis de mise en œuvre identifiés comprennent la nécessité de mécanismes d'assurance qualité robustes, d'approbation institutionnelle et d'amélioration de l'accessibilité des infrastructures numériques. Ces résultats éclairent les recommandations stratégiques pour le développement du Passeport Européen des Badges Ouverts, soulignant l'importance d'équilibrer la standardisation avec la flexibilité contextuelle tout en facilitant la reconnaissance des apprentissages climatiques formels et informels dans divers contextes d'enseignement supérieur. Contesto Questo studio a metodi misti indaga il coinvolgimento degli studenti nelle questioni climatiche e le percezioni dei sistemi di riconoscimento aperto in quattro istituzioni educative europee in Francia, Italia, Portogallo e Spagna come parte del progetto Erasmus+ OpenPass4Climate. Nel contesto del Green Deal europeo e dell'appello dell'UNESCO per un'educazione trasformativa, la nostra ricerca affronta la necessità critica di approcci innovativi all'educazione climatica che colmino il divario tra conoscenza e azione. Metodi Attraverso un approccio completo che combina sondaggi (n=630), interviste individuali (n=69), focus group nazionali (n=45) e un focus group transnazionale (n=16), abbiamo esaminato gli atteggiamenti degli studenti verso il clima, le loro preferenze educative e le loro opinioni sui sistemi di badge digitali per il riconoscimento delle competenze climatiche. Risultati I risultati rivelano una notevole disconnessione tra una forte preoccupazione per il clima (media=4,0/5) e una moderata responsabilità personale (3,2/5), insieme a significative variazioni tra i paesi nell'impegno ambientale, con gli studenti portoghesi che dimostrano costantemente la più alta consapevolezza climatica e gli studenti italiani la più bassa. Mentre i rispondenti hanno fortemente sostenuto l'integrazione formale del clima nei programmi di studio (4,1/5) e hanno valorizzato i percorsi di apprendimento informale (3,8/5), hanno riportato una partecipazione limitata alle attività ecopedagogiche (2,3/5), evidenziando un divario di implementazione nell'educazione ambientale. Gli studenti hanno valutato la loro educazione informale sul cambiamento climatico (3,5/5) più Open Research Europe  Page 6 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 positivamente della formazione formale (3,2/5), suggerendo un potenziale non sfruttato per il riconoscimento delle esperienze di apprendimento non formale. Le differenze di genere sono emerse costantemente, con le rispondenti femmine che mostrano una preoccupazione e un impegno ambientale significativamente più elevati in più dimensioni. L'analisi delle percezioni dei badge aperti ha rivelato una familiarità moderata ma un interesse sostanziale, particolarmente quando allineati con i sistemi di accreditamento istituzionale e i quadri di riconoscimento dei datori di lavoro. Conclusioni Le principali sfide di implementazione identificate includono la necessità di solidi meccanismi di garanzia della qualità, supporto istituzionale e una migliore accessibilità dell'infrastruttura digitale. Questi risultati informano raccomandazioni strategiche per lo sviluppo del Passaporto Europeo dei Badge Aperti, sottolineando l'importanza di bilanciare la standardizzazione con la flessibilità contestuale, facilitando al contempo il riconoscimento dell'apprendimento climatico sia formale che informale in diversi contesti di istruzione superiore. Plain language summary Our research investigated how university students across four European countries (France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain) think about and engage with climate change issues, and what they think about using digital badges to recognize climate-related learning. We collected information through an online survey of 630 students, individual interviews with 69 participants, group discussions in each country, and an international group discussion. The study revealed important insights about students' perspectives on climate change and environmental education. While students expressed strong concern about climate change, they felt only moderately responsible for taking action themselves. We found notable differences across demographics and countries: female students and those in advanced degree programs showed higher environmental awareness, and Portuguese students consistently demonstrated the highest climate awareness, while Italian students showed the lowest. Although students valued both formal education and informal learning about climate issues, they reported low participation in actual environmental activities. When it came to recognition of climate-related learning through digital badges, students showed moderate interest but expressed concerns about how employers would view these credentials. These findings are significant because they help us understand how to better engage students in climate education and action. The research provides valuable insights for developing the European Open Badges Passport, a system that will recognize both formal and informal Open Research Europe  Page 7 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Corresponding author: Pablo Martín-Ramos ([email protected]) Author roles: Martín-Ramos P: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing; Correa-Guimaraes A: Investigation, Validation; Fourati-Jamoussi F: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation; Burcke-Couchy K: Investigation, Project Administration; Lo Giudice LA: Formal Analysis, Investigation; Tosi B: Investigation, Project Administration; Oliveira Pinto F: Formal Analysis, Investigation; Veiga Martins L: Investigation, Project Administration; Navas-Gracia LM: Investigation, Project Administration Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The project has received funding from the European Union through the Erasmus+ program, KA220-HED Cooperation partnerships in higher education, under grant agreement No. 2022-1-FR01-KA220-HED-000089354 (Impact evaluation of eco-pedagogy towards Individual and Collective Engagement through the implementation of a European Open Badges Passport for Climate and Planet [OpenPass4Climate]). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2025 Martín-Ramos P et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite this article: Martín-Ramos P, Correa-Guimaraes A, Fourati-Jamoussi F et al. Understanding climate engagement and open recognition in European higher education: A mixed-methods study across four countries [version 2; peer review: 3 approved] Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.19909.2 First published: 06 May 2025, 5:121 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.19909.1 climate learning achievements. Our results suggest that effective climate education needs to bridge the gap between awareness and action, while recognition systems must balance standardization across Europe with flexibility for local needs. The findings emphasize the importance of ensuring digital badges are credible and valued by employers, while making climate education more accessible through both traditional and innovative learning approaches. These insights will directly inform how European universities approach climate education and recognize students' environmental competencies in the coming years. Keywords Digital credentials, Educational policy, Environmental competencies, European Green Deal, Informal learning, Micro-credentials, Sustainability literacy, Value-action gap This article is included in the Erasmus+ gateway. Open Research Europe  Page 8 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Introduction The fight against climate change is a cornerstone of the European Union (EU) Erasmus+ program, with education recognized as a vital tool in confronting this global challenge (European Commission, 2021a). The environmental crisis confronting humanity today transcends scientific boundaries, encompassing profound social and political dimensions (Vare & Scott, 2007). As we approach the mid-2020s, the urgency of climate change and the associated loss of biodiversity necessitate an educational response, yet many schools and systems grapple with effective strategies (UNESCO, 2021). Research consistently shows that merely imparting knowledge about environmental issues is insufficient to spur meaningful change; shifts in attitudes and perceptions of the natural world are essential to catalyzing behavioral transformation (Ajzen, 1991; Bamberg & Möser, 2007; Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002). The European Union has responded decisively through initiatives such as the European Green Deal, launched in 2019, which outlines a roadmap for sustainable development (European Commission, 2019). Moreover, its commitment has been further reinforced by policy recommendations that stress the importance of education for environmental sustainability and advocate for incorporating youth perspectives in tackling climate and biodiversity challenges—most notably, the Council Recommendation on Learning for the Green Transition and Sustainable Development (Council of the European Union, 2022a) and the Council of Europe Recommendation on Young People and Climate Action (Council of Europe, 2024). Complementing these efforts, the European Commission’s sustainability competence (GreenComp) framework provides a structured approach to fostering sustainability competencies across educational contexts (Bianchi et al., 2022). Within this framework, the OpenPass4Climate project emerges as an innovative initiative under the Erasmus+ program, introducing an open recognition alliance system to enhance climate education. By leveraging Open Badges and the OpenPass4Climate platform, the project aims to elevate climate-related activities from awareness to actionable commitment and justice. It seeks to evaluate the tangible impacts of these efforts on advancing climate justice and to identify mechanisms that accelerate the adoption of positive behaviors. A core objective is the creation of a lifelong, portable OpenPass4Climate system, empowering individuals to engage actively in climate initiatives. To ensure the system’s efficacy, work package 3 (WP3) focused on understanding students’ engagement with climate issues, assessing key climate commitments, and exploring perceptions of both implicit and explicit recognition mechanisms. This comprehensive study spanned four European countries (France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain) and employed multiple research methods: an online survey, one-to-one interviews, national focus groups, and a transnational focus group. These efforts provide insights into youth perceptions of climate change, educational preferences, and attitudes toward open recognition systems, informing the co-design of an effective Open Badge system. This article details the research methodology, presents findings from all study components, analyzes results within the context of contemporary European environmental and educational frameworks, and offers recommendations for the OpenPass4Climate system’s implementation. The findings aim to support the development of student-centered curricula and flexible learning pathways that bridge knowledge and action, fostering a generation of environmentally conscious citizens. This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews relevant literature on climate education and open recognition systems, identifying key gaps this study addresses. Section 3 details our mixed-methods methodology across four European countries. Section 4 presents quantitative survey results and qualitative findings from interviews and focus groups. Section 5 discusses these findings in relation to existing literature and policy Amendments from Version 1 This revised version incorporates substantial improvements following peer review. Major changes include: (1) Enhanced Introduction with a paper structure outline for improved navigation and full spelling of acronyms at first use. (2) Addition of a Literature Review section positioning our empirical study within existing research on climate education and digital credentialing, explicitly stating three unique contributions: empirical assessment across European contexts, examining the climate education-digital credentialing intersection from student perspectives, and identifying implementation barriers through mixed-methods evidence. (3) Significant expansion of the Methods section with theoretical justification for our mixed-methods design, detailed theoretical frameworks underlying each survey construct, comprehensive data collection procedures including recruitment processes and sampling strategies, and a new subsection on “Methodological limitations and mitigation strategies” transparently addressing sampling constraints, translation challenges, and analytical decisions. (4) Clarified quantitative analysis explanation regarding nonparametric methods and interpretation of mean ranks as effect indicators. (5) Strengthened Discussion section with enhanced literature integration, clearer explanation of Likert-Eurobarometer comparisons, expanded analysis of educational effects on climate concern, and better contextualization of national variations. (6) Explicit acknowledgment in Limitations of the absence of political engagement measures, recognizing the importance of collective action alongside individual behavioral changes in climate movements. (7) Standardization of terminology throughout. These revisions strengthen the manuscript’s theoretical grounding, methodological transparency, and contribution to understanding how open recognition systems can support climate education in European higher education. The core findings and conclusions remain unchanged, but their presentation, contextualization, and scholarly positioning have been substantially enhanced to better serve readers and advance the field. Any further responses from the reviewers can be found at the end of the article REVISED Page 9 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 These findings provided insights for developing the badge system’s design and implementation strategy while highlighting important considerations for ensuring its effectiveness and credibility. Discussion The multi-method approach of this study provides robust insights into youth climate attitudes, educational preferences, and perceptions of open recognition systems. Building on prior European research, such as the Special Eurobarometer 501 (European Commission, 2020a) and 538 (European Commission, 2023), the findings reveal both encouraging trends and persistent challenges in climate education and competency development, particularly within educational contexts and among younger populations. When comparing our Likert scale means (1–5) with Eurobarometer percentage data, we interpret scores above 4.0 as indicating that approximately 80% of respondents lean toward agreement (since 4.0 represents the “agree” point on our scale), while scores around 3.0 suggest neutral or mixed responses. This interpretation allows approximate comparison with Eurobarometer’s binary percentage findings, though we acknowledge these are different measurement approaches. Furthermore, our student sample represents a specific subpopulation (younger, currently engaged in education) and comparisons with general population surveys should be understood as exploratory rather than definitive. The methodological approach of interpreting Likert means as probability distributions follows established psychometric conventions (Norman, 2010). This enables meaningful comparison with binary response formats while acknowledging inherent measurement differences. Our approach aligns with recommendations for cross-survey comparisons in environmental attitude research (Dunlap et al., 2000). Environmental attitudes and climate awareness Concerning the first construct on ‘Climate change views’, a comparison of our survey results with the Eurobarometer findings reveals important insights into youth climate attitudes within the broader European context. Our student respondents demonstrated high climate concern (Q1, mean=4.0/5), which aligns with but intensifies the general public sentiment captured in Eurobarometer 538 (QC2, ‘How serious a problem do you think climate change is at this moment?’), where 77% of EU citizens view climate change as a very serious problem. Country-specific trends (Portugal, 4.48 > France, 4.11 > Spain, 3.91 > Italy, 3.76) were quite consistent with those obtained in the Eurobarometer 538 (Portugal, 89% > Spain, 86% > France, 85% > Italy, 83%), with Portugal and Italy ranking first and last, respectively. This pattern of heightened concern among students compared to the general population aligns with literature documenting the relationship between educational attainment and environmental awareness. Meyer (2015) found that each additional year of education increases climate concern, while Poortinga et al. (2019) identified longer formal education as a strong predictor of climate action readiness. Our findings extend this work by demonstrating that this educational effect persists even within student populations, with Master’s students showing significantly higher engagement than undergraduate peers. The OpenPass4Climate survey (Q2) provided unique insight into students’ strong belief in human responsibility for climate change (4.4/5 overall, with Portugal’s highest at 4.8/5), a perspective not directly measured in the Eurobarometer surveys. When examining individual roles in tackling climate change (Q3), student respondents showed a stronger belief in individual impact (3.7/5) compared to the relatively low percentages in Eurobarometer 538 (QC3, ‘In your opinion, who within the EU is responsible for tackling climate change?’), in which only 35% of respondents (EU27-average) felt personally responsible for tackling climate change. This suggests that students may feel more empowered than the general population. Interestingly, Portugal showed the highest belief in our survey (3.98/5), and lower than the EU27 average (28%) in the Eurobarometer, while Italy showed the lowest belief in both surveys (3.57/5 and 20%, respectively). Our students’ strong endorsement of government intervention (4.4/5) substantially exceeds Eurobarometer 538’s (QC3) finding that only 56% of EU citizens primarily assign responsibility to governments. This generational difference aligns with Han and Ahn’s (2020) analysis of youth climate movements, which identified a fundamental shift from individual responsibility narratives toward demands for systemic change. The Fridays for Future movement exemplifies this transition, with young people explicitly rejecting individualized solutions in favor of structural transformation. This also connects with strong support for coordinated intervention, with Eurobarometer 501 (QA8) showing that 70% of the respondents favor joint EU decision-making on environmental issues. As for country differences, Portuguese students’ strong support in our survey (4.63/5) contrasts with the lower support in Eurobarometer 538’s QC3 (47% and 52% for national governments and the EU, respectively), while Italy’s lowest scores in both surveys are consistent. With regard to the ‘Environmental values and identity’ construct, the relationship between environmental values and actions revealed interesting patterns across surveys. Younger populations demonstrated heightened endorsement of environmental protection (Q5, 4.5/5) compared to national averages: in Eurobarometer 501 (QA1, ‘How important is protecting the environment to you personally?’), only 53% (EU-27 average value) of the respondents chose ‘very important’. The highest score among Portuguese students (4.75/5) aligns with the results from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2023 survey, where Portugal ranked better (522±2.6) than Italy (517±3.7) and France (511±4.3) in terms of ‘Students Value Environmental Preservation’ (von Davier et al., 2024). However, despite strong endorsement of environmental protection, alignment between values and actions was moderate Page 16 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 (Q7, 3.6/5), highlighting a ‘value-action gap’ (Uitto et al., 2015). This phenomenon is well-documented, with Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) identifying its roots in psychological barriers (e.g., perceived lack of efficacy), structural constraints (limited sustainable options), and social factors (conflicting norms). Our qualitative data enrich this framework: students explicitly articulated feeling “overwhelmed” by the magnitude of climate change while questioning whether “small actions even matter”, classic symptoms of psychological distance and efficacy doubts (Gifford, 2011). This disconnect finds parallels in broader European data. For instance, in Eurobarometer 538 (QC5, ‘Have you personally taken any action to fight climate change over the past six months?’), only 63% of the respondents said ‘yes’, with concrete actions varying significantly (QC6). Similarly, in Eurobarometer 501 (QA9), 67% of the respondents recognized that they were not doing enough as citizens to protect the environment. Interestingly, Italy’s highest action-value alignment in our survey (3.71/5) contrasts with its lowest value in Eurobarometer 538 (52%), suggesting that this gap may be narrowing among the country’s more environmentally aware youth populations. For the ‘Personal responsibility and emotional responses’ construct, a dimension not covered in the Eurobarometer surveys, our survey shows students felt only moderately responsible for reducing the negative effects of climate change (Q8, 3.2/5), with a lower value than the one indicated above for Q3 on how much individuals can make a difference in addressing climate change (3.7/5). This further supports that they predominantly place the onus for climate action on governments while underestimating potential individual responsibility and contributions. Regarding the hopefulness about the future of the environment (Q9), they were mostly pessimistic (2.6/5). This prevailing sense of hopelessness about the environment’s future is consistent with their perception of those in leadership positions within their countries, who they consider can make a difference, as indifferent to environmental issues (see below). Analysis of the ‘Social norms’ construct reveals that respondents in our survey considered that people in their social circle cared less than them about the environment and climate change (Q10, 2.9/10 vs. Q5, 4.5/5), which does not align with the actual perception in their countries according to Eurobarometer 538 QC2 (83 to 89% of respondents considered climate change a very serious problem). Their view on how much people in positions of responsibility (national government, regional government) in their country care and take action to protect the environment and climate change yielded a very low value (Q11, 2.3/5). This aligns with Eurobarometer 538 (QC7), in which 67% (EU27-average) of the respondents believed their governments are not doing enough, and with Eurobarometer 501 (QA9), in which 72% and 68% of the respondents considered that their national governments and the EU were not doing enough to protect the environment. As for other aspects not analyzed in the Eurobarometer surveys, gender differences emerged in our survey, with female respondents consistently scoring higher on environmental values, aligning with established research (McCright, 2010; McCright & Xiao, 2014; Zelezny et al., 2000), though Portugal’s uniformly high scores suggest cultural and educational contexts may mitigate such disparities. The educational level also emerged as a significant factor in environmental engagement. Master’s students showed the highest rates of climate awareness and advocacy, which aligns with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) analysis of how specialized education enhances pro-environmental behavior, particularly among Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) graduates (Nair-Bedouelle, 2021). Eco-pedagogical activities, learning interests, and training preferences Results from the ‘Eco-pedagogical activities’ construct indicate that students rated their informal climate change education (Q13, 3.5/5) more highly than their formal training (Q12, 3.2/5). This preference for informal learning sources mirrors Eurobarometer 501’s QA4 findings, where respondents primarily relied on television news (66%) and the internet (38%) for environmental information rather than formal educational channels. The higher scores for perceived climate change training in France (Q12, 3.51/5; Q13, 3.66/5), with Portugal ranking second, do not align with the results from the TIMSS 2023 survey where Portugal ranked better (520±2.9) than Italy (504±3.8) and France (492±3.6) in terms of ‘Average Environmental Knowledge’ score (von Davier et al., 2024). Despite high interest in climate-related learning (Q15, 3.8/5), participation in eco-pedagogical activities was low (Q14, 2.3/5). This participation gap mirrors the findings from Eurobarometer 501, in which eco-pedagogical activities (e.g., attending a workshop about environmental issues or a collective beach or park cleanup) showed consistently low engagement rates across member states (7% EU-27 average). Moreover, in Eurobarometer 501’s QA10, providing more information and education was only chosen as an effective way of tackling environmental issues by 24% of the respondents. This dramatic difference between our students’ valuation of educational interventions, particularly their strong support for formal curriculum integration (Q16, 4.1/5) and informal pathways (Q17, 3.8/5), and the general population’s skepticism reveals a critical perception gap. Monroe et al. (2019) suggest this reflects experiential differences: those currently in education systems better understand pedagogical potential, while older generations may view education through outdated transmissive models that indeed show limited effectiveness for behavior change. This interpretation is supported by research showing that effective climate change education relies on active, participatory, and personally relevant strategies rather than traditional information transmission approaches. National focus groups underscored these preferences, with students advocating for hybrid learning models that combine theoretical knowledge with practical, community-based activities. Page 17 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 This aligns with the European Commission’s emphasis on flexible learning pathways (European Commission, 2021a) and the GreenComp framework’s call for holistic sustainability education that fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration (Bianchi et al., 2022). Open recognition systems: bridging theory and practice The identified value-action gap suggests that recognition systems could incentivize action, even though the initial survey showed that students only moderately valued recognition for completing climate-related learning activities (Q18, 3.5/5) and showed even less interest in open badges as a motivation tool to learn about climate-related topics (Q19, 3.2/5). As subsequently evidenced during the one-to-one interviews and national focus groups, this was partly due to the students’ limited understanding of the open badges system and its value for recognizing and showcasing climate-related learning achievements (underscoring the need for targeted awareness campaigns and educational initiatives regarding its purpose and applications) and partly due to real-world applicability concerns, a notion supported by the transnational focus group’s emphasis on quality assurance, institutional credibility, and alignment with existing qualification frameworks. Participants expressed concerns about employer recognition of badges, technological barriers (e.g., lack of access to digital platforms in rural areas), and the risk of superficial learning if badges are awarded without rigorous assessment. These challenges resonate with broader EU competency framework efforts (European Commission: Joint Research Centre, 2025) and UNESCO’s call for transformative education that fosters deep, meaningful engagement (UNESCO, 2021). On the question of employability (Q20, 3/5), the survey’s neutral perception contrasts with evidence from the World Economic Forum’s 2023 Future of Jobs Report, which indicates growing employer recognition of sustainability-focused credentials (Di Battista et al., 2023). This discrepancy aligns with critiques of poor institutional communication about credential portability (Oliver, 2022). However, Portuguese students were more optimistic (3.5/5), which may be tentatively attributed to Portugal’s comprehensive digital education strategy, particularly the Digital Transition Action Plan (PDE) adopted in 2020, which the European Schoolnet highlighted as a transformative System Change Case Study (Wastiau et al., 2024). This initiative, complemented by the National Digital Skills Initiative e.2030 (INCoDe.2030) and the Portuguese government’s strategic funding of Universidade Aberta, has created an integrated approach to digital micro-credentials and open education for certifying competencies (Griffiths et al., 2024). Such coordinated national efforts align with and advance broader EU initiatives to embed Open Badges in educational frameworks (Council of the European Union, 2022b; EQAR, 2023). Addressing these concerns will require careful design, ensuring that badges are credible, user-friendly, and integrated with existing educational and professional frameworks. For example, badges could be aligned with the European Qualifications Framework (European Commission, 2018) to enhance their recognition across borders. The European Council’s emphasis on wholeinstitution approaches (Council of the European Union, 2022a) provides a supportive context for such developments, encouraging universities to adopt open recognition systems as part of their sustainability strategies. Policy implications The research findings advocate for coordinated policy interventions across European, national, and institutional levels to advance climate education and open recognition systems. Each level presents distinct challenges and opportunities that must be addressed through carefully crafted policy frameworks. At the European level, the European Union must establish comprehensive frameworks that balance standardization with national adaptability. This requires developing quality assurance mechanisms for open badge systems that set minimum standards while allowing flexibility for national and regional adaptation (Council of the European Union, 2022b). These mechanisms should ensure alignment with existing European qualification frameworks (European Commission, 2018) while supporting accessibility through multilingual resources and platforms. The EU must also provide funding for digital infrastructure, particularly in underserved regions, and establish standardized protocols for badge portability across member states. Integration with broader EU initiatives is crucial, including alignment with European Green Deal educational objectives (European Commission, 2019) and coordination with the Digital Education Action Plan implementation to support crossborder recognition of climate-related credentials. National-level policy development should focus on the systemic integration of climate education and recognition within existing educational frameworks. Curriculum development requires thoughtful integration of climate competencies into national frameworks, with consideration given to increasing mandatory climate education hours (UNESCO, 2022). Additionally, assessment frameworks must evolve to recognize both formal and informal learning pathways. Teacher preparation represents another crucial area for national policy intervention, as highlighted by Redman et al. (2018). Countries should establish systematic professional development programs and create support networks for teaching staff, providing necessary resources for eco-pedagogical activities. Recognition systems at the national level must create clear pathways for validating informal learning and establish mechanisms for incorporating open badges into national qualification systems, with quality assurance processes aligned with EU standards (European Commission: Joint Research Centre, 2025). At the institutional level, educational organizations require policy support for implementing comprehensive approaches to climate education and recognition (Breiting et al., 2005; Higgs & McMillan, 2006; Leal-Filho et al., 2021b; Mathar, 2015). Organizational strategy should embrace whole-institution approaches to climate education while establishing partnerships with environmental organizations (UNESCO, 2021). Institutions must develop clear policies for recognizing external learning and integrating sustainability across academic Page 18 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 programs. Infrastructure development demands significant attention, with investments needed in digital platforms for badge issuance and verification, alongside technical support systems for users. Quality assurance at the institutional level requires robust assessment criteria and verification processes for badge issuance, supported by careful documentation of learning outcomes. These policy recommendations align with key EU frameworks, including the European Skills Agenda’s emphasis on transversal skills recognition (European Commission, 2020b), the Digital Education Action Plan’s promotion of innovative learning tools (European Commission, 2021b), and the European Green Deal’s focus on environmental sustainability education (European Commission, 2019). Successful implementation requires careful attention to several critical factors. Policymakers must maintain a delicate balance between standardization and contextual flexibility while ensuring equitable access to recognition systems. Support for technological infrastructure development must be coupled with building credibility through robust quality assurance, such as the European Blockchain Service Infrastructure (EBSI). Furthermore, policies should foster collaboration between educational institutions and industry to enhance the value and recognition of climate-related credentials. Implementation should follow an evidence-based approach while remaining adaptable to emerging needs and technological developments in digital credentialing. The findings from this study suggest that effective policy frameworks must address both the technical aspects of open badge systems and the broader educational and social contexts in which they operate (Bianchi et al., 2022). As climate education evolves and digital recognition systems mature, policies must remain responsive to changing needs while maintaining high standards for quality and accessibility. Limitations and future research directions This study has several limitations that future research should address. As detailed in the ‘Methodological limitations and mitigation strategies’ subsection, several methodological constraints, including convenience sampling and excluding small categories, should be considered when interpreting these findings. The sample’s skew toward higher education students may limit generalizability to other educational contexts. Furthermore, a significant limitation of our survey design is the absence of systematic measures for political engagement and collective action. While we assessed individual behavioral changes and perceptions of government responsibility, we did not explicitly measure participation in climate protests, petition signing, contacting elected officials, or other forms of political activism. This omission is particularly notable given that our target demographic (18–24-year-olds) has been central to global climate movements like Fridays for Future. Although our qualitative data captured some political dimensions (including voting preferences, activism strategies, and collective pressure tactics), the lack of quantitative measures prevents us from fully understanding how educational engagement relates to political mobilization. This omission is particularly consequential given our finding of a substantial value-action gap. The absence of political action measures may partially explain this gap, as collective political engagement represents a critical pathway between environmental values and systemic change that our study design failed to capture. Additionally, the rapid evolution of digital credentialing systems means that attitudes toward open badges may shift as these tools become more widespread. Future research should therefore explore: – Longitudinal impacts of open recognition systems on learning outcomes. – Comparative effectiveness of different badge implementation strategies. – Intersection of climate competencies with other key EU competency frameworks. – The relationship between climate education and political mobilization, including how recognition systems might validate and encourage collective action alongside individual behavioral changes. – Role of emerging technologies, like blockchain, in credential verification to enhance security and trust. Another critical avenue for future inquiry stems from our findings on national context variations. We observed that Portugal consistently showed the highest climate engagement and Italy the lowest—patterns consistent with Eurobarometer data. Future research should move beyond this observation to investigate the underlying causes of these differences. Institutional theory (Scott, 2014) offers a valuable lens for this work, suggesting an exploration of distinct national “climate cultures.” For instance, comparative case studies could analyze how the interplay of regulatory frameworks, normative expectations, and cultural-cognitive schemas shapes environmental engagement in different countries. Investigating whether Portugal’s success in renewable energy has created positive feedback loops between policy and public perception would be a valuable line of inquiry within this theoretical framework. Our findings underscore the complex interplay between environmental attitudes, educational preferences, and recognition systems in supporting climate competency development. Success will require carefully coordinated efforts across policy domains and stakeholder groups, with particular attention to maintaining a balance between standardization and contextual flexibility. Conclusions The OpenPass4Climate research reveals critical insights for developing effective climate education and open recognition systems in European higher education. The study across four Page 19 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 countries demonstrates that while students show strong climate awareness, there remains a significant gap between knowledge and action. This gap presents both a challenge and an opportunity for the development of open badge systems. The findings suggest three key areas requiring immediate attention for the successful implementation of the OpenPass4Climate initiative: First, educational systems must bridge formal and informal learning pathways. Our research demonstrates that students value both structured academic approaches and experiential learning opportunities, suggesting that open badge systems should recognize and validate both forms of learning. Second, badge system design must prioritize credibility and usability. The focus group findings emphasize that successful implementation requires clear institutional backing, robust quality assurance mechanisms, and user-friendly interfaces. These elements are essential for ensuring that badges hold value for both academic progression and professional development. Third, implementation strategies must account for national and cultural contexts while maintaining European-wide standards. The significant variations in climate attitudes and educational preferences across countries indicate the need for flexible frameworks that can adapt to local contexts while ensuring consistent quality and recognition. Looking ahead, the OpenPass4Climate initiative must work within existing European educational frameworks while pushing boundaries to create innovative recognition systems. The focus should be on developing badges that not only acknowledge learning but actively encourage engagement with climate issues through practical action. The path forward requires a coordinated effort from educational institutions, policymakers, and stakeholders to create meaningful change in climate education. Success will depend on maintaining the delicate balance between standardization and flexibility, ensuring that open badges serve as effective tools for recognizing and promoting climate competency development across Europe. Ethics and consent This research was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was approved by the Technical Directorate for Privacy Matters, with approval from the Data Protection Officer of the University of Valladolid (Reference Number: UVA/26/2023) on September 21, 2023. The study was conducted in accordance with the University of Valladolid’s Ethical Code, approved by the Governing Council on July 22, 2022. Informed consent was obtained from all participants through the online survey platform, where participants were informed that, by taking the survey, they indicated they had read and understood the data protection and consent statement and agreed to participate. For focus groups and interviews, participants provided verbal consent after reviewing data protection information. All participants were informed of data confidentiality measures and their rights under GDPR requirements, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Data were anonymized during analysis and reporting to protect participant identities. Data availability statement UVaDOC Documentary Repository of the University of Valladolid: Understanding climate engagement and open recognition in European higher education: A mixed-methods study across four countries. https://doi.org/10.35376/10324/75208 This project contains the following underlying data: – OpenPass4Climate_survey_results.ods (Complete dataset of survey responses from 630 participants across four European countries). Extended data UVaDOC Documentary Repository of the University of Valladolid: Understanding climate engagement and open recognition in European higher education: A mixed-methods study across four countries. https://uvadoc.uva.es/handle/10324/75250 This project contains the following extended data: – Annex I: Survey questionnaire – Annex II: Statistical analysis tables including mean Likert scale scores, Kruskal-Wallis test results (mean of ranks), and Conover-Iman multiple pairwise comparisons – Annex III: One-to-one interview questionnaire – Annex IV: National focus group questionnaire All data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 Public domain dedication). Reporting guidelines This study follows the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) guidelines for the qualitative components and the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines for the survey component. 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Publisher Full Text Page 22 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Open Peer Review Current Peer Review Status: Version 2 Reviewer Report15 October 2025 https://doi.org/10.21956/openreseurope.22908.r60483 © 2025 Padda I. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Ihtsham Ul Haq Padda Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan Theintroductionof the article is well written and provides a clear overview of the research context. However, thesignificance of the studyis not sufficiently articulated in connection with the contemporary global challenges of climate change and the urgent need to build resilience within higher education systems. Strengthening this linkage would enhance the relevance and impact of the study. Theliterature reviewis adequate and provides a general background to the topic. Nonetheless, it appears somewhat limited, particularly concerning the dimension of climate change awareness and engagement practices within educational institutions. Expanding this section to include more recent and diverse sources would enrich the theoretical foundation. Themethodologyis sound, following standard research procedures, and has been implemented in a well-organized manner. Themanagement of the studyis commendable, and theresultsare clearly presented with robust empirical evidence. However, the discussion section could be improved by incorporating more analytical depth—interpreting the findings beyond numerical presentation to offer stronger insights and implications. In conclusion, this is awell-conducted and valuable studythat contributes meaningfully to the growing body of literature on climate change and education. With minor revisions—particularly in highlighting the study’s significance and enhancing the analytical discussion—it can make an important scholarly contribution to the field. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it engage with the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes Are all the source data and materials underlying the results available? Open Research Europe  Page 23 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Development Economics | Public Sector Economics | Environmental Economics | Food Security | Climate Change I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Reviewer Report15 October 2025 https://doi.org/10.21956/openreseurope.22908.r61100 © 2025 Ceyhan G. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Gaye Defne Ceyhan Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey This study investigates climate engagement and open recognition systems across four European countries. The findings present a valuable contribution to the field of climate education and digital credentialing. The revised manuscript successfully addresses reviewer concerns through substantial enhancements to the introduction, literature review, methods section, and discussion. The addition of the literature review section and enhanced theoretical justification for survey constructs strengthens the manuscript's scholarly positioning. The cross-national design with multiple data collection methods offers valuable comparative insights into climate education needs and cultural variations. The revised manuscript includes detailed methodological explanations, explicit acknowledgment of limitations, and full data availability, supporting reproducibility and further research.The findings provide actionable recommendations for implementing open badge systems in climate education contexts.The authors have appropriately acknowledged the limitations of the study and proposed future research directions. The revised manuscript is clearly written, methodologically sound, and provides valuable insights for researchers, educators, and policymakers working on climate education and recognition systems in European higher education.After reviewing the revised manuscript, I am pleased to recommend its acceptance. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it engage with the current literature? Open Research Europe  Page 24 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025 Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes Are all the source data and materials underlying the results available? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Climate change education, sustainability education, systems thinking I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Reviewer Report01 October 2025 https://doi.org/10.21956/openreseurope.22908.r59195 © 2025 Nguyen A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Anh Thu Nguyen Mount Royal University, Calgary, Canada After reviewing the revised manuscript, we are pleased to recommend its acceptance. We appreciate the thoroughness with which the authors addressed our constructive comments, particularly their treatment of the limitation concerning the lack of collective political actions. The manuscript is now highly accessible, with a clear and logical flow. As a result, the revisions have successfully strengthened the introduction and the literature review, clarified the methodology, and enhanced both the discussion and conclusions. We commend the authors for their careful and thoughtful revisions, which have substantially improved the clarity and overall quality of the manuscript. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Open Research Europe  Page 25 of 31 Open Research Europe 2025, 5:121 Last updated: 15 OCT 2025