Fuelling the Future: Evaluating the perceived challenges to hydrogen fuel uptake in the superyacht sector

 Corresponding author: Capt. Mehrdad Behforouzi/ ORCID: 0000-0001-9753-871X Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Fuelling the Future: Evaluating the perceived challenges to hydrogen fuel uptake in the superyacht sector Harvey Merson-de Mendoza and Mehrdad Behforouzi * Warsash Maritime School, Southampton Solent University, UK. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 Publication history: Received on 14 June 2025; revised on 26 July 2025; accepted on 28 July 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.27.1.2734 Abstract The superyacht industry, a symbol of luxury, significantly contributes to environmental degradation due to its reliance on fossil fuels, highlighting an urgent need for decarbonisation. Hydrogen Fuel Cell (HFC) technology presents a promising zero-emission alternative for maritime propulsion. This study examines professional perspectives on the barriers to HFC adoption in the superyacht sector, with a focus on technical feasibility, economic viability, and infrastructure readiness. Key challenges include large space requirements for fuel storage, integration complexities, high initial and operational costs, inadequate bunkering infrastructure, and the absence of comprehensive international regulations. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research combines a literature review, a survey of 53 industry professionals, and interviews with three experts. Findings reveal that low volumetric energy density of hydrogen and a regulatory deadlock, where supply and policy are mutually dependent, impede progress. Safety concerns and a lack of public awareness further discourage adoption. Despite these challenges, HFC technology holds potential to decarbonise superyachts. The study recommends forming a cross-industry hydrogen task force, increasing investment in RandD for fuel storage and hybrid systems, and developing standardised crew training. Collaborative efforts across the industry are essential to unlocking hydrogen’s potential and fostering a sustainable future for luxury maritime transport. Keywords: Superyacht; Decarbonisation; Future fuels; Hydrogen fuel; Competency 1. Introduction Superyachts, symbols of luxury and opulence, travel around the world with extensive amenities, serving the ultrawealthy. It comes at a cost, as massive consumption of hydrocarbon fuels produces vast amounts of Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), causing this industry to go under the spotlight, creating controversy and highlighting the need for greener, decarbonising options. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells, with hydrogen fuel, provide a decarbonising solution by transforming hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy while producing water and heat as its only byproducts. The zero-emission hydrogen propulsion option meets worldwide sustainable energy expectations, which positions hydrogen as an ideal fuel for superyachts [1]. The study investigates industry professionals' perspectives to identify obstacles preventing hydrogen fuel technology implementation. The dissertation utilises a mixed-methods approach, with a literature review that includes case studies World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2565 to address regulatory pressures, such as the International Maritime Organisation's (IMO) emission targets and sustainable yachting interests, by identifying barriers and suggesting adoption strategies. 1.1. Background The superyacht industry accounts for a considerable portion of global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, which have steadily increased over the last ten years. Our unyielding dependence on traditional fossil fuels leads to environmental issues which demand urgent and comprehensive intervention [2]. In 2023, the IMO implemented a change to address this growing emergency. Their revised strategy (2023 IMO GHG Strategy) sets an uncompromising target to tackle this exponential problem. The IMO plans to reach net-zero GHG emissions in international shipping operations by 2050. An ambitious objective exists alongside essential short-term targets and regional enforcement of strict emission rules, ensuring a necessary movement toward preventing environmental damage [3,4]. In the urgent search for solutions to environmental challenges, hydrogen fuel cells present an optimistic solution. These systems deliver an uncompromisingly clean energy solution which results in no harmful emissions. Although current hydrogen production methods remain dependent on fossil fuels, hydrogen's superior zero-emission capability establishes it as a necessary option for achieving sustainable maritime operations [5]. 1.2. Research problem Fuel cells are devices that utilise electrochemical processes to transform the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity, heat, and water. Utilising hydrogen fuel cells in maritime applications could significantly decrease GHG emissions and enhance energy efficiency [6]. The potential of HFC technology for superyacht decarbonisation is recognised, yet its widespread use continues to be restricted as most ongoing projects are still relying on conventional fuels. Few pioneering superyacht projects have reached completion, which reveals a substantial divide between theoretical potential and real-world execution [7]. Research lacks detailed information about the specific obstacles and their impact that prevent hydrogen from being widely adopted for superyachts. Research literature recognises hydrogen's limitations, such as low volumetric energy density, storage difficulties, safety risks and expensive implementation. Yet this lacks detailed analyses quantifying these effects for superyacht design and operation [8]. Current study compares hydrogen systems with stationary applications but does not supply a defined framework for maritime use while ignoring how marine atmosphere corrosion affects hydrogen systems [9]. However, extensive studies on the challenges posed by inadequate bunkering infrastructure and ambiguous international regulations, which obstruct the adoption of superyachts, remains insufficient [10]. Research efforts must target this gap because hydrogen offers substantial benefits to reducing superyacht carbon emissions and supporting the IMO's net-zero GHG emissions goals by 2050. Utilizing this technology would contribute to resolving wider problems specified in International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI through substantial reductions in emissions of harmful pollutants. The study seeks to address a significant gap by empirically examining the real-world barriers that obstruct hydrogen fuel adoption in the superyacht industry to support better decision-making and strategic planning. Aims and Objectives The primary aim of this study is to identify and assess the perceived obstacles affecting the superyacht industry's adoption of HFC technology. The study includes assessing professional opinions about the technical feasibility, economic viability, readiness of infrastructure and compliance with relevant regulations. The study will achieve this fundamental aim by executing several targeted objectives World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2566 • To ascertain how well superyacht industry professionals understand HFC technology, their primary concerns are its technical feasibility, challenges of safety, storage, and integration. • To assess industry opinions about hydrogen refuelling facilities and essential development needs that support hydrogen technology adoption on superyachts while evaluating how these aspects function as obstacles. • To investigate opinions on regulatory frameworks, classification society guidelines, and industry partnerships regarding hydrogen-powered superyachts to uncover perceived shortcomings and improvement requirements. • To evaluate the perceived economic feasibility of HFC systems for superyachts by comparing them with traditional fuels and other alternative power options and analysing government incentive impacts. • To explore the influence of owner and guest perceptions of hydrogen safety on the superyacht sector and to determine actionable solutions to alleviate associated concerns. • The study will systematically follow these objectives to achieve a thorough knowledge of HFC technology adoption challenges and opportunities inside the superyacht industry. 1.3. Significance of the study There are challenges regarding the use of HFC. For example, the difficulties of storing hydrogen in gaseous and liquid states, along with the necessary procedures for its handling, transportation, and storage, clarify the comprehensive needs for hydrogen storage based on its volumetric density. Due to its innovative approach to shipping, few studies have examined the elements that affect the decision to implement HFC. Although earlier studies have pinpointed the factors that encourage and hinder the adoption of zero-emission technologies, there is a shortage of an extensive analysis from an organisational viewpoint that focuses specifically on HFC [11]. This study targets the pressing requirement for sustainable maritime solutions, specifically within the superyacht industry. Firstly, it will evaluate perceived barriers to hydrogen adoption to deliver an essential understanding of marine decarbonisation, which supports the development of eco-friendly technology for superyachts. Secondly, stakeholders, such as ship managers, engineers, researchers, technicians and shipyard representatives, will gain valuable perspectives from findings that assess hydrogen's technical/economic feasibility and market readiness. This informs design, investment, and operational strategies. Thirdly, this analysis responds to rising global regulatory pressures, such as the 2023 IMO GHG strategy, by revealing hydrogen adoption barriers, which helps policymakers and classification societies create better regulations and incentives for clean fuels. Finally, the mixed-methods approach, which combines quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews, creates a comprehensive understanding through the identification of broad trends and rich contextual details. The combined methodology approach improves validity through actionable insights that drive hydrogen adoption and promote sustainable superyacht operations. 1.4. The problem with existing fossil fuels The 2023 study by Krantz et al. offers an extensive life-cycle evaluation of different marine fuels and detailed figures of CO₂ emissions from combustion. The paper details the amount of CO₂ emissions in grams for every Megajoule of propulsion energy produced [12]. Based on that, the author calculated the amount of CO₂ produced for each tonne of fuel by multiplying the combustion emissions by energy per Kg of fuel (CO₂/MJ propulsion X a MJ fuel/Kg fuel) before standardising the unit and dividing this by the energy value of the fuel per Megajoule of propulsion. Finally, it was converted back to tonnes by multiplying this number by one thousand. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2567 Table 1 Amount of CO2, in tonnes, produced after the combustion of four different conventional marine fuels High-Sulphur Fuel Oil (HSFO): (150𝑔 𝐶𝑂2/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 40𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝐾𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑋 1𝐾𝑔 1000𝑔 ) 2.01 𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 1000 = 3.022 𝑡 𝐶𝑂2/𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 Very-Low-Sulphur Fuel Oil (VLSFO): (150𝑔 𝐶𝑂2/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 43.1𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝐾𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑋 1𝐾𝑔 1000𝑔 ) 2.01 𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 1000 = 3.216 𝑡 𝐶𝑂2/𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 Marine Gas Oil (MGO): (146𝑔 𝐶𝑂2/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 43.1𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝐾𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑋 1𝐾𝑔 1000𝑔 ) 2.04 𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋1000 = 3.085 𝑡 𝐶𝑂2/𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): (114𝑔 𝐶𝑂2/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 39𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝐾𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑋 1𝐾𝑔 1000𝑔 ) 1.96 𝑀𝐽 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑀𝐽 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋 1000 = 2.268 𝑡 𝐶𝑂2/𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 Source: Mendoza 1.5. Existing Government Targets The work by Anantharaman, Sardar and Islam (2025) provides essential data about the IMO’s objectives. The paper details the IMO's step-by-step approach to cutting emissions, referencing 2008 as the starting point. International shipping must achieve a 40% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030 while minimising total GHG emissions by 20% (with a 30% target) and implementing zero or near-zero emissions fuels or technologies to cover 5% of shipping energy needs (aiming for 10%). The checkpoint target for 2040 sets a minimum 70% reduction in total annual GHG emissions to reach an 80% reduction. The interim steps contribute to fulfilling the long-term goals of the sector. The revised 2023 IMO strategy aims for international shipping to achieve net-zero GHG emissions by the year 2050 or shortly thereafter [13]. According to the UK Department for Transport (2025), the UK government has embarked on implementing the IMO 2023 strategy by applying the domestic Maritime Decarbonisation Strategy (MDS). The published UK maritime strategy sets a timeline for “Net-Zero” and” Well-to-Wake” GHG emissions in domestic shipping by 2050 [14]. A structured timetable has been developed for this strategy Table 2 Domestic maritime decarbonisation strategy timeline Year/Period Category Event/Milestone pre-2025 International Policy IMO GHG negotiations (continuous) Domestic Policy International Green Corridor Fund and Clean Maritime Demonstration Fund run until March 2025 Clean Maritime Demonstration Competition (CMDC) round 6 launches Technical consultation on expanding the UK Emission trading scheme (ETS) to domestic maritime Call for evidence on: Net Zero Ports; Measure for small vessels and emissions uptake in targeted subsectors Primary legislation required for: UK fuel regulations; Zero Emissions Berth requirement; Measures for small vessels and emissions uptake in targeted subsectors; IMO mid-term measures 2025 IMO Approval and Adoption of mid-term GHG reduction measures World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2568 International Policy Fuel EU Maritime regulation (FuelEU) implementation 2026 Domestic Policy UK ETS comes into force, proposed for vessels over 5000GT Consultation on at berth measure Consultation on measures for targeted subsectors Initial evaluation report of UK SHORE 1.0 First formal consultation on UK fuel regulations 2027 Domestic Policy MDS Review Earliest point from which measures aimed at smaller vessels could be introduced 2028 International Policy IMO GHG 2028 Strategy revision Domestic Policy Proposed UK ETS threshold review Zero Emission Vessels and Infrastructure (ZEVI) projects complete self-funded 3year demonstration 2030 International Policy IMO 20-30% International Target (Reduction) Domestic Policy 30% Interim Goal (Reduction) 2030-2040 International Policy Anticipated IMO GHG 2028 Strategy revision Anticipated IMO revision of midterm measures Domestic Policy UK fuel regulations introduced Potential measures for at berth emissions introduced Proportionate measures aimed at smaller vessels introduced where appropriate 2040 International Policy IMO 70-80% International Target (Reduction) Domestic Policy 80% Interim Goal (Reduction) 2040-2050 International Policy Some global measures increase in stringency Domestic Policy Some UK measures increase in stringency 2050 International Policy Earliest date from which IMO long-term GHG reduction measures could come into force Domestic Policy Zero Emission Maritime Clean Maritime Hub (Drives) Source: UK Department for Transport 2025 1.6. Superyacht Market and Current Projects Allied Market Research (2023) quantifies data showing that the global Superyacht market was valued at $10.3 billion (£8.2 billion) in 2022. They also predict that by 2032, this will have grown significantly to $25.7 billion (£20.5 billion), representing a compound annual growth rate of 9.8%. Market research shows a significant growth in Yachts above 80 metres in size by 2032 compared to the initial findings taken in 2022. This data also highlights that countries such as Italy, Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom are witnessing an increase in the popularity of “sustainable and ecofriendly” yachts, which aligns with this region’s strong emphasis on environmental conservation [15]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2569 The Superyacht Report by TRP Magazines (2025) examines hydrogen deployment, market share analysis, and environmental effects in the superyacht market [16]. • The superyacht order book totalled €25.3bn in 2022, representing a substantial segment of the €33bn global yachting market. Regarding unit numbers, superyachts occupy 1% of the luxury market, while vessels between 2440m Length Over All (LOA) make up 80% of the superyacht fleet. • The maritime industry generates substantial environmental damage due to its dependency on fossil engines, which emit CO₂, Nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. The industry is also struggling to meet IMO Tier III standards. • Feadship's Project 821, named “Breakthrough”, represents a new development in hydrogen fuel technology. It is the world's first superyacht powered by green hydrogen fuel cells, providing zero-emission “hotel load” and enabling “short-range cruising”. Gulf Craft is also researching Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) systems. MAN, Energy Solutions (2024) supplied and installed the hydrogen system onboard “Project 821”. In a press release, the company highlighted many challenges with the design, installation and operation of the system. MAN faced substantial project difficulties because there were no established design codes or standards for liquid hydrogen tanks to obtain approval. The International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF) code is the standard for designing Type C LNG tanks but does not fully cover hydrogen applications. MAN, and Lloyd's Register (a leading classification society) jointly established a risk assessment-based design process to secure safety approval for below-deck liquid hydrogen tank installation. The alternative method for design approval faced difficulties, which demonstrated the trailblazing efforts needed and the bureaucratic obstacles present in creating sustainable marine fuel solutions [17]. 1.7. Environmental effects of yachts The report by Lloret and Carreno (2020) examines the environmental consequences of yacht engine usage within Marine Protected Areas (MPA). The Mediterranean MPAs face substantial ecosystem pressure from the operation of engines onboard large yachts (>24m), which congregate in these sensitive areas. Pollutants such as fuel, oil, heavy metals, and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) emitted from engines enter water sources through exhaust gases and bilge water, resulting in water pollution and bioaccumulation. Exhaust emissions produce air pollution, which leads to environmental deterioration [18]. 1.8. Existing Methods of Decarbonisation The study by Tay and Konovessis (2023) evaluates existing sustainable propulsion systems for maritime transport while exposing various adoption barriers specific to sea transport settings. Renewable energy sources face significant challenges in maritime operations because weather-dependent wind and solar resources display unpredictable patterns which undermine system reliability. The authors state that alternative fuels, such as LNG, hydrogen, and ammonia, require special handling procedures and present safety risks, including flammability and toxicity. The requirement for ships to have high-energy-density power systems introduces engineering challenges to the integration of sustainable technologies, as renewable options, such as wind and solar, face physical limitations (height and deck space) that prevent the provision of complete power for large ships. The demand for alternative fuels has increased storage capacity requirements (LNG, hydrogen, ammonia), which in turn affects ship design and stability [19]. A study by Karatug, Arslanoglu, and Guedes Soares (2022) presents an assessment of decarbonisation methods for current ships [20]. The study describes multiple operational methods already in practice: • Wind energy harnessing methods use Flettner rotors, kites, wind turbines, and wing sails. Although a ship can sail faster than the wind and still power Flettner rotors to generate energy, the direction of the wind remains an essential factor. Research indicates that Flettner rotors provide up to a 20% reduction in fuel consumption, as demonstrated by the "E-Ship1" project. • Slow steaming is the concept of lowering a ship's speed, which reduces fuel consumption and emissions by enhancing energy efficiency throughout its operational processes. • Engine derating optimises ship engines to operate at lower speeds continuously, which lowers fuel consumption by 10-12%. • Waste heat recovery systems generate electricity by capturing waste heat from thermal processes, such as exhaust gas emissions, without requiring extra fuel. • Carbon Capture and Storage systems (CCS) extract CO₂ from the exhaust gas, achieving reduction levels between 85% and 90%. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2570 • Air Lubrication Systems (ALS) utilise an air layer between the ship's hull and seawater to reduce frictional resistance, resulting in a 7.5% to 15% increase in energy efficiency while reducing emissions. The authors Wang, Zhang, and Zhu (2023) state that nuclear energy serves as a decarbonisation solution for marine fuel but faces substantial obstacles. The primary advantage of nuclear propulsion systems is their ability to prevent operational emissions of greenhouse gases, such as CO₂, NOx, and Sox, which supports the shipping industry's transition towards environmentally friendly practices. Nuclear power enables ships to operate for extended periods without refuelling, providing increased autonomous capabilities. Despite these advantages, significant obstacles remain. The development of nuclear merchant ships has faced challenges due to their high operational costs, regulatory hurdles and limited port acceptance. The hazardous nuclear events, such as Chernobyl, have created negative public sentiments, resulting in social and political obstacles against adoption. The outdated and disjointed international regulatory framework poses the most significant challenge, as it has lagged technological advancements. The absence of precise crew training requirements and effective liability systems, coupled with fragmented safety and port access rules, makes commercial deployment of nuclear ships currently impractical [21]. • A study by Gil et al. in 2013 examined the financial feasibility of nuclear propulsion for ships, identifying multiple cost-related variables [22]. • A nuclear ship's initial Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) significantly exceeds that of diesel ships due to the main engine costing $270 million. In comparison, diesel ship engines cost $18 million, and nuclear vessels include an additional 10% contingency fee. • The Operation Expenditure (OPEX) for a nuclear ship saves $36 million annually, although expenses such as fuel cycle management, fuel exchange, waste disposal, crew costs and insurance persist. • The cost of nuclear reactors plays a crucial role in the economic feasibility of nuclear propulsion, which remains viable when reactor costs stay under $ 4,000/kW. • The economic evaluation of operations is affected when changes in oil prices influence CAPEX and OPEX. The maritime sector faces significant challenges in adopting nuclear propulsion due to financial constraints combined with the high costs of reactors and fuel. 1.9. Hydrogen Fuel Cells • The study by Wang et al. (2024) examines fuel cell technology for ship power and reveals multiple challenges and obstacles hindering its adoption within the maritime environment: • The maritime operational environment presents significant challenges, including harsh saltwater corrosion, while demanding high durability and energy density solutions for long voyages due to limited refuelling opportunities. • Ships require power systems that surpass land-based system requirements in both robustness and energy capacity, creating substantial engineering obstacles for fuel cell systems. • The production and transportation of hydrogen fuel present complex supply chain challenges which require the development of environmentally sustainable hydrogen supply networks. • The adoption of fuel cell technology in the maritime industry is at an early stage compared to other sectors, meaning that more research and development are required to optimise systems and improve efficiency while addressing specific limitations such as the reduced lifespan of some types of fuel cells, for instance, Low-Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (L-T PEM FC). • An examination of the economic feasibility of fuel cell systems for ships' power highlights significant challenges due to the high starting costs of different fuel cell types, which are designed to survive the vessel's long operational life. It increases the necessity for additional cost-reduction techniques [23]. A 2022 analysis by Pourrahmani et al. examines PEM fuel cells as viable, low-pollution alternatives to combustion engines. The main benefits are zero direct emissions, as they only produce water as a byproduct, along with performance capabilities that match conventional vehicles in terms of range and refuelling time. Lower operating temperatures, ranging from 65-85°C, are a key advantage compared to other fuel cell systems. However, significant challenges hinder widespread adoption. A major barrier remains high expenses, primarily driven using platinum catalysts. Two fundamental operational problems are managing complex water systems required for maintaining proper hydration while preventing flooding and maintaining system performance through precise thermal management within a limited operational temperature range. Improvements are needed to address issues of durability, reliability, and cold-start capabilities. The commercialisation of fuel cells faces major obstacles due to catalyst degradation and World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2571 poisoning (reduced electrode activity caused by contaminated Fuel or air), as well as system complexity and insufficient hydrogen infrastructure [24]. 1.9.1. Hydrogen Fuel Storage Technology The study conducted by Berkehan Inal, Dere and Deniz (2021) analyses various hydrogen storage technologies for maritime applications and identifies numerous implementation barriers: • The limited "volumetric energy density" of hydrogen gas requires complex storage systems that may occupy a large amount of space for marine vessels, which presents significant design challenges. • The high costs and safety risks associated with high-pressure tanks storing compressed hydrogen coexist alongside the extreme cryogenic temperatures and boil-off problems encountered in liquid hydrogen storage. In contrast, solid-state and liquid carrier methods require complex thermal management and the use of catalysts. • The maritime sector faces significant logistical and supply chain challenges in building global bunkering infrastructure, ensuring secure hydrogen supplies, and developing safe operational procedures. • Shipboard hydrogen systems lack full technological maturity. Managing hydrogen flammability risks and carrier toxicity issues, such as ammonia leaks, remains crucial for safe operations. Technical limitations, infrastructural shortcomings, and safety concerns pose significant barriers to implementing hydrogen storage systems on board ships. According to the authors, widespread adoption cannot be achieved without substantial development [25]. 1.9.2. Cost of HFC Technology The 2017 study by Grahn, Brynolf, and Taljegård presents the production costs for liquid hydrogen, resulting in a base cost of €116/MWh. Investment costs for Fuel Cell (FC) propulsion and storage are substantial, depending on vessel type. Coastal vessels require an investment of approximately €23.77 million per vessel. In comparison, deep-sea vessels need an investment of approximately €118.31 million per vessel, and container vessels demand an investment of approximately €201.95 million per vessel for FC propulsion and storage systems. The study shows that hydrogen fuel costs less than electro fuels. However, FC system installation costs exceed those of Internal combustion engines (ICE). The replacement costs for fuel cell stacks, which range from €0.26 million to €2.87 million depending on vessel type, contribute to operational expenses yet are regarded as minimal on the overall cost scale. Hydrogen FCs demonstrate cost advantages over electro-diesel and ICEs on vessels that operate for more than 150 days per year, according to the base scenario analysis; however, this changes when lower fuel production costs are considered [26]. 1.9.3. Benefits of HFCs Sürer and Arat (2022) analysed HFC technology for marine vehicles by examining their benefits and potential future developments • Advantages: Hydrogen fuel cells deliver greater efficiency with near-zero emissions during operation while producing less noise and requiring less maintenance than diesel engines. They also provide improved performance under partial load conditions. • Future Advancements of Green Hydrogen: The focus involves lowering the costs associated with green hydrogen production through electrolysis and resolving infrastructure challenges. • Future Advancements in Onboard Production: The innovative onboard hydrogen production method, utilising seawater electrolysis (either directly or after desalination), requires further development to address corrosionrelated challenges. • Future Advancements of Storage and Fuel Cell Technology: To make progress, advances in hydrogen storage density, together with increased fuel cell durability through methods such as non-precious metal catalysts, are essential [27]. 1.9.4. Hydrogen Production Ishaq, Dincer and Crawford (2021) highlight the global shift to renewable energy as essential. While hydrogen serves as a critical element in energy transition efforts, its traditional 'grey' production method, which relies on fossil fuels, generates significant CO₂ emissions. The researchers emphasise the critical need for 'green hydrogen' production, which utilises electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy [28]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2572 • Environmental decarbonisation, alongside the practical use of renewable energy, demands the use of green hydrogen. • Blue hydrogen production from fossil fuels involves CCS, although concerns exist about its efficiency and the longterm safety of storage [29]. • Nuclear energy is used to produce purple hydrogen, which ensures there are no direct emissions during its generation. The review concludes that green hydrogen represents the legitimate, sustainable, and carbon-free solution needed to achieve worldwide decarbonisation targets. 1.9.5. Training and competency The 2024 report from the Maritime Just Transition Task Force (MJTTF) is a crucial document that reveals substantial obstacles and essential training requirements for seafarers who use hydrogen as a marine fuel. Industry professionals recognise hydrogen as potentially the most complex new fuel due to its limited operational history and distinctive properties. These differ from both traditional fuels and other alternative fuels, such as ammonia and methanol [30,31]. The primary challenges of using hydrogen fuel stem from its high flammability, which necessitates the development of new flame detection systems and enhanced fire safety protocols. The industry is acutely aware of these risks and is proactively developing solutions to ensure safety. • A comprehensive transformation in training and competencies for seafarers is expected across vital domains, including: • A deep comprehension of the unique physical, chemical and hazardous characteristics of CH2 and LH2. • Process safety, including fuel handling, bunkering management, storage, operational knowledge of cryogenic fuel systems, and fuel preparation. • Correct usage of hydrogen leak and flame detection devices, including calibration. • Hydrogen fire risks, correct firefighting methods, ventilation requirements and Emergency Shutdown (ESD) procedures. The MJTTF recommends that these comprehensive revisions be incorporated into seafarer training programs, which are crucial for the safe use of hydrogen in the maritime sector. Failure to update these programs could lead to increased safety risks, potential accidents, and environmental damage. 2. Materials and Methods The study uses multiple methods to assess the perceived barriers to adopting HFC technology within the superyacht industry. The study methodology combines quantitative data collection methods, such as surveys, with qualitative data collection techniques, including semi-structured interviews. The dual approach provides a comprehensive overview of industry viewpoints, allowing for a detailed examination of specific topics. 2.1.1. Research Design The study aims to systematically collect and analyse information from various stakeholders in the superyacht industry. The survey phase of the quantitative research investigates overall trends and widespread perceptions, as well as the presence of specific challenges. The qualitative phase, through interviews, provides enhanced contextual details and deeper insights into the subtle complexities of stakeholder perceptions and challenges. A comprehensive understanding of the research problem is reliant on the combined power of these dual methods. 2.2. Data Collection Methods 2.2.1. Surveys (Quantitative Data Collection) The primary approach to collecting quantitative data will be via online surveys. • Purpose: The survey gathers information from various industry professionals regarding their perspectives and experiences, as well as their concerns related to HFC systems. The investigation will examine technical feasibility components, including safety and storage, as well as economic viability through operational costs and maintenance expenses. It will also evaluate regulatory barriers and adoption opportunities for hydrogen technology in superyachts. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2579 Source: Mendoza Figure 10 Perceived challenge of integrating hydrogen systems with existing superyacht designs, by familiarity This shared understanding creates a sense of Community among experts and non-experts, as shown in Figure 10, who all recognize this task as challenging, regardless of their position/title or familiarity, as it represents a fundamental engineering issue. 3.1.4. Perception of Infrastructures and Bunkering Source: Mendoza Figure 11 Perceived view of hydrogen bunkering infrastructure, by position/title World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2580 Source: Mendoza Figure 12 Perceived view of hydrogen bunkering infrastructure, by familiarity According to Figure 11, the absence of hydrogen bunkering facilities represents a “moderate” obstacle to the broad adoption of hydrogen-powered superyachts. Engineers view the lack of hydrogen bunkering infrastructure as a “moderate” or “substantial” issue. However, individuals who are “not at all familiar” with the technology rate it as a “critical” barrier, as shown in Figure 12. Source: Mendoza Figure 13 Perceived essential support infrastructure requirements, by position/title World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2581 Source: Mendoza Figure 14 Perceived essential support infrastructure requirements, by familiarity Findings from both Figures 13 and 14 display essential infrastructural requirements that extend beyond bunkering operations. “Specialised training centres” and “green hydrogen production capacity” receive consistent priority from both positions/title and familiarity levels. Figure 13 shows that “Engineering officers” also perceive “hydrogen-specific safety equipment and procedures” as a necessary development. 3.1.5. Perception of Safety Source: Mendoza Figure 15 Perception of hydrogen safety, by position/title In Figure 15, "engineering officers" primarily view hydrogen safety as a "significant barrier", but chief engineers place their views between "significant" and "major" barriers. Yacht/ship managers and technicians demonstrate a wider range of perceptions that incorporate both "minor" and "moderate" barriers. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2582 3.1.6. Perception of current industry and government collaboration Source: Mendoza Figure 16 Perception of collaboration and information sharing within the superyacht industry, by position/title Source: Mendoza Figure 17 Perception of collaboration and information sharing within the superyacht industry, by familiarity In Figure 16, Engineering Officers most often report “sufficient collaboration”; they also share the view of “limited collaboration” with chief engineers. The group of respondents who reported “not at all familiar” in Figure 17 disproportionately identified collaboration as “insufficient” or “limited”. Industry responses reveal varied opinions regarding the adequacy of collaboration and information sharing. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2583 Source: Mendoza Figure 18 Perceived necessity of government incentives and subsidies, by position/title Source: Mendoza Figure 19 Perceived necessity of government incentives and subsidies, by familiarity In Figures 18 and 19, Engineering Officers and those “moderately familiar” with the subject commonly see government incentives as “very important” or “slightly important”. Yet, numerous respondents from different roles and knowledge backgrounds believe such incentives are “not at all important.” Industry perspectives remain conflicted regarding the essential nature of government support. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2584 Source: Mendoza Figure 20 Perceived barrier due to the lack of clear international regulations, by position/title Source: Mendoza Figure 21 Perceived barrier due to the lack of clear international regulations, by familiarity Figures 20 and 21 demonstrate that a diverse range of opinions exists regarding international regulations and standards. A significant portion of respondents across all familiarity levels and positions view the issue as "significant". In contrast, many Engineering Officers and respondents who are "moderately familiar" consider it to be minor. Those who identify as "not at all familiar" most commonly rate the lack of clear international regulations as "critical". World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2585 3.1.7. Feasibility and Viability Source: Mendoza Figure 22 Perception of life-cycle cost, by position/title Source: Mendoza Figure 23 Perception of life-cycle cost, by familiarity Across all professional levels and familiarity, the data underscore that HFC systems are consistently viewed as more expensive than diesel propulsion systems, as shown in Figures 22 and 23. Engineering officers, together with respondents who are moderately familiar, strongly agree with this opinion. Respondents who lacked familiarity frequently selected either "about the same" or "don't know/ not sure", highlighting their uncertainty of costs, as shown in Figure 23. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2586 Source: Mendoza Figure 24 Perception of hydrogen viability, by position/title Source: Mendoza Figure 25 Perception of hydrogen viability, by familiarity The results in Figures 24 and 25 indicate a generally positive view of HFC viability, with only some mixed opinions. The response “equally viable” emerged as the dominant choice among all positions and levels of familiarity. Many engineering officers view hydrogen fuel cells as “more viable”, but numerous participants from diverse groups rate them as “less viable”, presenting varied perspectives on their competitive status among alternative fuels. 3.2. Interview results Q1: From your perspective as a (Researcher and shipyard representative), what are the most significant technical hurdles of integrating HFC systems onto superyachts, specifically concerning fuel storage and power distribution? World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2587 3.2.1. Interviewee 1: The primary obstacle is allocating sufficient "space that you need to put into the ship" for cryogenic hydrogen storage tanks. The system demands "a lot of additional equipment", like "double wall piping" and proper "detection systems", which creates engineering difficulties. 3.2.2. Interviewee 2: The primary issue facing hydrogen fuel is its "energy density problem", as hydrogen requires "six to seven times the same space" as diesel for equivalent energy. Because hydrogen molecules are tiny, they tend to "escape" from storage containers, which creates material science challenges in containing them. 3.2.3. Interviewee 3: Storing hydrogen demands substantial space because liquid hydrogen occupies "three to four times more" volume than diesel to deliver equivalent energy content. The need for larger storage space for hydrogen "reduces the range" and requires the removal of specific amenities, such as "gyms and guest bedrooms". The large volume needed for hydrogen storage has an impact on the "vessel's stability". Q2: Considering the current market trends, how do you assess the economic viability of hydrogen as a fuel source for superyachts, particularly in comparison to traditional fuels and other alternatives? 3.2.4. Interviewee 1: Production and transportation challenges make the economic feasibility of hydrogen uncertain. This shipyard has decided to adopt methanol as its fuel choice because it is a "commodity" that is simpler to "store and transport". 3.2.5. Interviewee 2: The cost of hydrogen reaches levels that are "brutally expensive," reaching up to "ten times higher than diesel prices". The costs of installing "high safety tanks" along with custom manufacturing processes raise the overall expense. The gap between hydrogen and diesel fuel costs could narrow due to increasing diesel prices and the European Union's (EU) ETS. 3.2.6. Interviewee 3: The economic appeal of hydrogen remains low because "production costs" and "location greatly affect its price". The absence of a unified global fuel market results in fluctuating prices, which become even more "unpredictable because of the EU ETS". The future acquisition of fuels will be dependent on their "carbon intensity" levels. Q3: Given the increasing focus on environmental sustainability, how do you believe the superyacht industry can effectively transition to hydrogen to minimise its carbon footprint? 3.2.7. Interviewee 1: Superyacht transition initiatives stem from "innovative clients" because these vessels typically operate outside of "regulatory constraints". This shipyard "informs clients about emission reduction options". "Methanol is becoming the preferred" focus because of its potential for "worldwide uptake and scalability". 3.2.8. Interviewee 2: The superyacht sector can "lead", due to the "moral incentive" of wealthy owners. Government incentives, including "fines for dirty fuels", have the potential to speed up these changes. The introduction of Bill Gates' "hydrogen-powered superyacht will work, others will follow". 3.2.9. Interviewee 3: A "more detailed policy or standard for vessel design, and also production" is needed. Classification societies' "cooperation" with yacht shipyards and policymakers is required to achieve the necessary results. "Learning from using the vessel with alternative fuel" is crucial for refining standards. Q4: From an industry perspective, what collaborative efforts or partnerships do you believe are essential to accelerate the development and adoption of hydrogen technology in the superyacht sector? World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2588 3.2.10. Interviewee 1: Shipbuilders acting as "system integrators" need to collaborate closely with component manufacturers to achieve optimal results. It requires maintaining a close alignment with the advancements made by system manufacturers. This shipyard "participates in co-development" in research projects, learning from "other industries." There's a "consensus that for energy transition, things shouldn't be hidden because it slows it down." 3.2.11. Interviewee 2: The "UK Maritime Decarbonisation Research Hub" demonstrates effective collaboration by bringing "shipbuilders together" with "energy sector professionals". This approach creates collaborative networks which enhance project sustainability. The ethical obligation of new designers towards sustainability further "promotes" collaborative efforts. 3.2.12. Interviewee 3: Strong ties between organisations, such as "classification societies" and "yacht producers", are essential for success. They "need to collaborate physically to achieve their common goals together". The group embraces equipment manufacturers along with classification societies and policymakers from organisations such as the "IMO". The development of additional "breakthrough projects" is crucial for formulating policies on vessel production and usage. Q5: What are your views on the current state of regulatory frameworks and classification society guidelines related to hydrogen-powered vessels, and what improvements are needed? 3.2.13. Interviewee 1: Regulators and class societies so far have developed regulations that remain "vague", and updates are incremental. The general regulations currently in place "fail" to address the distinct demands of superyachts. This shipyard collaborates with classification societies to implement "alternative design scenarios" that ensure safety. 3.2.14. Interviewee 2: Regulations are "a bit lacking, honestly". Both classification societies and regulators remain hesitant until there are enough users to adopt the system, a typical "chicken and egg scenario." Crew training "will lag" implementation. Current training requirements for the use of hydrogen onboard are "bespoke" and costly. 3.2.15. Interviewee 3: There is "no clear and straightforward standard for designing a hydrogen-powered vessel". The current IGF code serves only as a fundamental requirement for carriers, but it does not apply to fuel-powered ships. Development through collaborative efforts and practical experience will create a "more detailed policy or standard" for both the design and production of vessels. Q6: How do you perceive the role of research and development (RandD) in advancing hydrogen technology for superyacht applications, particularly in fuel cell efficiency and durability? 3.2.16. Interviewee 1: RandD requires manufacturers to "co-develop" and engage in research projects. This shipyard embraces knowledge from "other industries" and stresses information sharing since it believes hiding data during the energy transition process only creates unnecessary delays. The use of multi-fuel tanks and "full direct current" ships represents innovative approaches to "reduce fuel consumption." 3.2.17. Interviewee 2: The "volumetric energy density problem" requires RandD to develop alternative storage systems, such as "ammonia" and "solid matrix." Designers strive for top-tier equipment and technology, which creates better efficiency. "Human behaviour and perceptions" also contribute to optimising operations. 3.2.18. Interviewee 3: "There is room to improve the efficiency of the fuel cell system". Laboratory measurements show a "60% efficiency", whereas actual field performance falls between "47% and 50%". RandD efforts need to focus on optimising fuel cell World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(01), 2564-2597 2595 • Recommendation: Targeted research and development efforts in hydrogen storage efficiency, hybrid fuel cell batteries, and power management systems demand industry-wide funding. • Implementation: Publicly funded sources, such as the UK's ZEVI fund, in conjunction with a collaborative RandD consortium comprising shipyards, universities, and technological specialists, will facilitate resource sharing for accelerated innovation in key sectors. Compliance with ethical standards Acknowledgments The authors extend their heartfelt thanks to the 53 survey respondents for donating their time and to the three interviewees whose deep insights into the superyacht industry proved highly valuable. The authors would like to thank Southampton Solent University for providing the necessary resources and environment that enabled this study to reach a successful completion. The authors owe a profound thank you to their friends and family members (especially to their mother) for their enduring patience and support throughout this entire journey. Your support has been truly exceptional. Disclosure of conflict of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Statement of informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Author Contributions “Conceptualization, H.M; methodology, H.M; software, H.M; validation, H.M; formal analysis, H.M; investigation, H.M; resources, H.M; data curation, H.M; writing—original draft preparation, H.M; writing—review and editing, H.M and M.B; visualization, H.M; supervision, M.B; project administration, H.M and M.B; funding acquisition, NA. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research received no external funding. Data Availability Statement Data are available from the corresponding author. References [1] L'ECHONAUTIQUE, 2024. 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