Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine War

Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )70 Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine War Benghazi, Amina (Department of English, University of Tripoli, Libya) [email protected] ABSTRACT This study explores the presence of linguistic ambiguity in a specific register, namely, the news headlines of The Guardian covering the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict from 2023 to 2024. The objectives of the study are to identify instances of ambiguity in the selected headlines, to analyze these ambiguous constructs through Kreidler’s model to examine their potential interpretations. The results revealed the presence of 15 ambiguous headlines were categorized according to the model. Within this subset, 5 headlines were lexically ambiguous, 5 exhibited syntactic ambiguity, and 5 were characterized by referential ambiguity. The findings have further demonstrated that syntactic ambiguity of the surface type was serving as a primary catalyst for diplomatic tensions, exacerbating existing conflict, and fostering an atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion at the international scale. While the study offers valuable guidance to practitioners of language, helping them gain a deeper understanding of English language ambiguity, further research is still required in this area. Keywords: ambiguity, news headlines, political news, The Guardian newspaper صخلملا رابخلأا نيوانع في يوغللا ضومغلا ةرهاظ ةسارلدا هذه لوانتتةفيحصب نايدراغلا سيورلا عاصرلا تلوانت تيلا– نياركولأا ميعا للاخ2023 و2024رلديارك جذومن قفو اهليلتحو ضومغلا رهاظم دصر لىإ فدهتو . (Kreidler) فشكلل نعةلمتحلما اهتايرسفت. يونحو ميجعم ضومغ لىإ يواستلاب تفِّنُص اًضمغا اًناونع شرع ةسخم دوجو نع جئاتلنا تفشك عيجرمو. ةدح قيمعتو ةيسامولبلدا تارتولتا جيجأت في سيئرلا لماعلا نكا حيطسلا يوحلنا ضومغلا نأ ترهظأ امك مهف عيسوت في مهسُت اهئجاتن نأ ةسارلدا دكؤتو .ليولدا ىوتسلما على ةقلثا مادعناو كشلا خانم زيزعت في مهاس امم ،عاصرلا وعدتو ،ةييزلنجلإا ةغللا في ضومغلا ةرهاظل ينثحالبا باطلخا في اهداعبأ فاشكتسلا ةيلبقتسلما تاسارلدا نم ديزم لىإ ميلاعلإا. تامكللاضومغلا :ةيحاتفلما ، رابخأ ،رابخلأا نيوانع ،ةيسايس ةفيحص ايدراغلا ن Faculty of languages Journal Issue 32 December 2025 Faculty of languages Journal (23 )71 Introduction A dialogue occurs between two interlocutors: the speaker, who utters the linguistic expression, and the addressee, who receives it. What is expected from this reciprocal speaker-hearer relationship is to attain a mutual understanding of the utterances. Nevertheless, there are certain situations in which dialogues do not conclude with utter comprehension of the intended message due to issues related to linguistic structures and their previous knowledge. This issue of misunderstanding and misinterpretation of what someone intended to deliver is called ambiguity. Ambiguity is a pervasive aspect of human lives; it permeates various dimensions of human existence, impacting perceptions, interactions, communication decision-making, and the overall complexity of human experience, which makes it an interesting topic to study (Lyons, 1973). Ambiguity, as a linguistic feature, occurs when a word, phrase, sentence, or utterance can be interpreted in multiple conceivable senses, often with two or more denotations that are unrelated to the one another. These different interpretations can lead to confusion or uncertainty in comprehending the intended message. Moreover, ambiguity is not solely restricted to written communications but can also be found in spoken language. This linguistic feature is frequently present in media, particularly in newspaper headlines, which are considered a fundamental, crucial, and compelling part of journalistic writing (Brône & Coulson, 2010). Editors and news writers advertently or not utilize this linguistic feature to serve various purposes. For instance, to stimulate reader's curiosity, compelling them to engage with the news story in order to disambiguate the intended meaning and gain a deeper understanding of the topic. On the other hand, the excessive use of ambiguity in newspaper headlines can significantly hinder a reader's motivation to engage further with the article, as it may leave them uncertain about the article’s true focus or message. When headlines are overly vague or ambiguous, readers may feel disoriented or frustrated, ultimately discourage them from pursuing the full article. Additionally, this ambiguity not only has the potential to lead to misinterpretations, particularly when addressing complex or sensitive subjects, such as the Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )72 ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine, followed by millions of people worldwide, but it also often exacerbates the conflict and reinforces political biases (Reah, 2002). Therefore, the current study aims to identify the linguistic ambiguity utilized in constructing the selected headlines of Russia-Ukraine conflict. Furthermore, it intends to provide an adequate analysis of the conceivable interpretations of the ambiguous selected headlines according to Kreidler’s model (2002). The The Guardian is considered a leading newspaper not only in the UK but also internationally (The Guardian, 2011). Relevant Literature Review Ambiguity is a complex notion that refers to the quality of being open to multiple interpretations or having uncertain meaning (Webster, 1984). It is an inherent feature of language and can be found in various areas of communication. Discussing ambiguity from a linguistic perspective, McArthur (1996, p. 36) introduces ambiguity as the presence of actual or potential uncertainty in meaning, particularly when a word, phrase, or sentence can be interpreted in two ways. Similarly, Kreidler (2002, p. 298) a renowned linguist, whose model on ambiguity is adopted in this study, defines ambiguity as ''the condition whereby any linguistic form has two or more interpretations''. When considering ambiguity and vagueness, it is significant to recognize that they are separated from one another. Although Pinkal (1995, p. 19) acknowledges their relationship in language and communication, he argues that they denote different concepts. Ambiguous expressions have a finite but arbitrarily large number of interpretations. This implies that while there are a limited number of potential senses, the range of possible interpretations can be quite extensive. On the other hand, vagueness is characterized by imprecise or uncertain boundaries of meaning. In Generative Transformational Grammar, the interpretation of ambiguous sentences relies on phrase markers. Linguistic ambiguity is defined as an expression that can accommodate multiple structural analyses (Gillon, 1990). An example of this is the sentence: '' Sally saw the man with the telescope''. It could be understood in two various ways, depending on the phrase structure: either Sally used a telescope to see the man or Sally saw a man who had a telescope. Faculty of languages Journal Issue 32 December 2025 Faculty of languages Journal (23 )73 Previous Studies The use of ambiguity in newspaper headlines has been a topic of interest and study among many researchers, journalists, and scholars for a long time and will continue to do so as long as human communication remains relevant (Ungerer, 2000). News headlines, as the first point of contact between readers and news stories, play a significant role in capturing attention, conveying information, and shaping the desired perspectives and ideologies (Ethelb, 2022; 2023). Newspaper headlines have been extensively examined from various angles due to their unique characteristics and functions. For instance, Williams & Wright (2024) investigated the usage of pronouns by UK government speakers during televised COVID-19 briefings between March and June 2020. The emphasis was on how these pronouns were used to assign responsibility to themselves and others. Every usage of the first-person plural pronoun (1PL) in the research had its referents classified as either "inclusive," "exclusive," or "ambiguous". The claim was that the UK government purposefully made use of the 1PL pronouns to shift responsibility for controlling the virus onto the general public while minimizing their own accountability. Nurradiatummardiah (2020) examined lexical and structure ambiguity of 137 news headlines in the Al Jakarta newspaper. The researcher analyzed data using Quiroga-Clare’s theory (2003). However, only 15 of the headlines contained ambiguity, ten headlines were structurally ambiguous, and five headlines were lexically ambiguous. Moreover, the study indicated that structure ambiguity was more dominant than lexical ambiguity. Contrary to what Fitri (2019) stated, lexical ambiguity was the most dominant in the headlines analyzed. A further study (Khalifa, 2018) specified ambiguity types such as lexical, syntactic, and pragmatic that would motivate readers and prompt them to read the entire content of headline news stories. The results indicated that readers struggled the most with interpreting syntactic ambiguity. Additionally, the study observed that readers showed a greater inclination to continue reading headlines with lexical ambiguity compared with other types of ambiguity. In an alternative approach, Bucaria (2004) examined various forms of linguistic ambiguity in English, especially focusing on newspaper headlines as a specific register. The results of the study indicated that both Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )74 lexical and syntactic ambiguities were significant tools for creating puns in humor. In today's digital era, online news has largely replaced traditional newspapers. News agencies and social media platforms deliver information online; however misleading headlines often disappoint readers with content that differs significantly. Clickbaits as a deceptive technique that used ambiguity to entice readers into clicking a link, was explored in Galstyan’s study (2024). Previous studies have examined the utilization of ambiguity in news headlines from various angles, including the examination of humorous ambiguity, ambiguity related to global pandemics and the analysis of headlines from a pragmatic standpoint. Furthermore, the presence of ambiguity in clickbaits headlines and its impact on readers of digital media. Conducting a study on linguistic ambiguity and examining its types within a political discourse as the international conflict between Russia and Ukraine holds a significant role in shaping and intensifying political tensions and ideologies. Methodology The major concern of the current study is to present an interpretative linguistic analysis of the ambiguous headlines of political news regarding the Russia-Ukraine war. Hence, it is qualitative in nature. It opts to utilize The Guardian as a data source due to its accessibility and round the-clock availability. The online content of The Guardian serves as a rich and convenient source for the sake of the current study, catering to global audiences such as welleducated, middle-class, and left-leaning ones. Furthermore, the samples of the study are 15 ambiguous news headlines that specifically target the ongoing conflicts between Russia and Ukraine. Prior to selecting these samples, a set of criteria is carefully adhered to for their inclusion in the study. Firstly, solely headlines directly and explicitly related to the RussiaUkraine conflict are included. Secondly, the study limits news headlines to those published on the The Guardian’s online platform within a specific timeframe: 2023 and 2024. Lastly, only news headlines that exhibit particular types of ambiguity are subject for analysis. These includes: lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity, referential ambiguity. Consequently, headlines that exhibit other forms of linguistic ambiguity, Faculty of languages Journal Issue 32 December 2025 Faculty of languages Journal (23 )75 such as scope ambiguity, phonetic ambiguity or pragmatic ambiguity, are excluded. Additionally, the collected data are meticulously analyzed through Kreidler model in 2002, which adeptly categorizes linguistic ambiguity into three primarily types: lexical, referential, and syntactic ambiguity. It is noteworthy that the category of syntactic ambiguity is further subdivided into two distinct types: surface syntactic ambiguity and deep syntactic ambiguity. Presented below are various instances of ambiguous headlines, accompanied by their respective analyses. Analysis and Discussion Lexical Ambiguity This section offers a thorough analysis of some of The Guardian news headlines featuring lexical ambiguity, exploring how language can carry multiple senses within a single context. It covers various subtypes, such as homonyms, polysemes, and the interplay between figurative and literal meanings, which can further complicate interpretation (Kreidler, 2002). 1. Ukraine defence minster expects Nato guarantee for after war In headline 1, the verb ''guarantee'' is an illustration of lexical ambiguity. According to the online Cambridge English Dictionary, the word "guarantee" is polysemous with conceivable meanings, including: (a) to engage, which might imply that Ukraine expects NATO to undertake or promise a path towards membership in the alliance, which includes longterm security assurance and support. (b) it also means to warrant, which might imply that Ukraine expects NATO to provide military and economic assistance to Ukraine after the conflict, assisting in the reconstruction of infrastructure and stabilization of the nation. Or (c) it means to ensure, which could also mean that Ukraine expects NATO to ensure its territorial integrity and security, preventing any further threats or incursions into Ukrainian territory. According to Kreidler’s model (2002, p. 52), a word with multiple related meanings can cause confusion and lead to misunderstanding the intended sense. Therefore, readers of various backgrounds and perspectives probably interpret this headline in varied ways and stimulate them to read the whole story to reveal the truth. Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )76 2. Interest rate hike just a sticking plaster for Russia’s war-fuelled economic woes In headline 2, lexical ambiguity occurs as a result of a longer linguistic form that has both literal and figurative senses (Kreidler, 2002, p. 56). In the online Cambridge English Dictionary, the phrase "sticking plaster'' possesses literal and figurative senses. "Sticking plaster'' is a British term for band-aid, which could be taken literally as (a) a small adhesive strip used to cover minor cuts or wounds. Or (b) figuratively, ''sticking plaster can imply a superficial or temporary fix for massive problems. The latter can emphasize the idea that the interest rate hike may only provide a shortterm or surface level remedy for the economic difficulties exacerbated by the ongoing conflict in Russia. Readers of various English levels and political backgrounds probably interpret the term in its literal sense, which is not the right meaning. This kind of ambiguity has the potential of causing confusion and misleading the intended sense of the headline. 3. Putin has become a global bogeyman. Russians must exorcise this ghoul Headline 3 is also an instance of lexical ambiguity that results from the literal and figurative meanings (Kreidler, 2002, p. 56). Tisdall (2023), the foreign affairs commenter for The Guardian’s Observer, utilizes the word (noun) ''ghoul'' to illustrate Putin, which is a striking example of how language shapes public perception. Linguistically, the word ''ghoul'' embodies a layer of ambiguity, suggesting both literal and figurative senses. In a literal sense the lexicon ''ghoul'' means an evil spirit or creature that feeds on dead bodies as in the Cambridge English Dictionary. However, in a figurative sense, it is used as a metaphor for how the West views Putin’s actions. This term, with its eerie and supernatural connotations, goes beyond describing Putin as a political leader, instead portraying him as frightening and morally corrupt figure. The choice of words in this headline taps into emotions, creating fear and reinforcing a narrative that positions Putin as a global threat. Tisdall’s choice of words underscores the role of media rhetoric in influencing how audiences interpret global affairs. Ultimately, this complexity not only have the potential to perplex the readers of The Guardian but also to exacerbate Faculty of languages Journal Issue 32 December 2025 Faculty of languages Journal (23 )77 tensions between the involved parties and to deliver embedded messages. 4. ‘Drone sanctions’ burn Russian oil reserves In headline 4, the verb ''burn'' is lexically ambiguous in the case of literal and figurative senses (Kreidler, 2002, p. 56). As pointed out in the online Cambridge English Dictionary, the word ''burn'' can denote (a) physical harm, damage, or destruction caused by fire or (b) the experience of emotional or financial harm. In the context of the headline, this ambiguity allows for dual interpretations. On one hand, it can be interpreted literally, suggesting that drones are actively causing physical destruction by setting Russian oil reserve on fire. On the other hand, it can be interpreted figuratively, implying that Russia oil reserves are suffering negative consequences or depletion due to sanctions associated with the drones. The ambiguity of the term ''burn'' thus creates a layer of interpretative complexity, requiring readers to engage with the broader context to ascertain whether the damage described is physical or metaphorical. This highlights the subtle interplay between language and meaning in journalistic discourse, where a single word can evoke multiple dimensions of understanding, leading readers to perplexity or misinterpretation. 5. Mourning for ‘Ghosts of Kyiv’ fighter pilot Headline 5 also illustrates lexical ambiguity due to the phrase ''Ghosts of Kyiv'' which possesses literal and figurative meanings (Kreidler, 2002, p.56). The phrase ''Ghosts of Kyiv'' can literally be interpreted as (a) a spectral manifestation of a deceased individual that is thought to be visible or evident to the living in Kyiv, or (b) it can figuratively be interpreted as the spirit of Ukrainian resistance and bravery, transcending mere moral identity to represent the enduring courage and determination of the Ukrainian people in the face of war. This news headline with its former and latter interpretations has the potential to perplex readers who do not have political knowledge and are unaware of the events that are taking place in 2022. This lack of context may Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )78 result in misunderstanding of the significance behind these interpretations. Syntactic Ambiguity The subsequent paragraphs are thorough analysis of some of the news headlines with syntactic ambiguity. They cover various subtypes, such as surface structure ambiguity occurs where the potential clustering of words in various constructions leads to multiple interpretation, whereas deep structure ambiguity occurs where a single sequence of words conveys more than possible meaning (Kreidler, 2002). 6. Russian missiles and drones target Odesa Headline 6 illustrates another instance of ambiguity, which is the syntactic one as pointed out in Kreidler’s model (2002, p. 169). It occurs when words can group together in various constructions; it gives rise to surface syntactic ambiguity, as in the ''Russian missiles and drones'' is structurally ambiguous in the case of a coordinate head with one modifier. The phrase ''Russian missiles and drones'' can be interpreted in two ways: as (a) [Russian] [missiles and drones], suggesting that Odesa is targeted by missiles and drones both coming from Russia. Or (b) [Russian missiles] and [drones], can imply that Odesa is targeted by Russian missiles, and the drones possibly to be of any other countries that support the Russian war on Ukraine. These dual interpretations have the potential to mislead readers and provoke intense reactions. They may cause confusion and fuel controversy, particularly among audiences with differing political perspectives. This ambiguity can lead to escalate tensions, as some may interpret the message as suggesting that a foreign nation is actively supplying drones to Russia. Therefore, such ambiguity can spark diplomatic disputes, exacerbate existing conflict, and create an environment of mistrust and suspicion on the international stage. 7. Zelenskiy discusses grain corridor and security in Odesa with Macron Headline 7 represents surface syntactic ambiguity arising from the phrase structure ''grain corridor and security.'' as a coordinate head with one modifier (Kreidler, 2002, p. 169). This headline may confuse Faculty of languages Journal Issue 32 December 2025 Faculty of languages Journal (23 )85 crucial role of syntactic ambiguity of surface type in shaping public narratives and influencing how complex geopolitical events were interpreted. The results aligned with prior research, notably Nurradiatummardiah’s 2020 study, which, grounded in Quiroga-Clare’s theoretical framework, had identified syntactic ambiguity as a central linguistic phenomenon utilized in headlines. Likewise, Khalifa’s 2018 analysis had highlighted the prevalence of syntactic ambiguity, while Maouf’s 2021 study had highlighted its effectiveness in engaging readers through humor and emotional appeal. Prior linguistic analyses of conflict reporting (Mouzughi & Ethelb, 2024) had demonstrated that metaphorical framing and translation strategies often reflect ideological positions and shape readers’ perceptions. This study further suggested that journalists or news writers had the potential to deliberately employed syntactic ambiguity to craft layered, multifaceted messages that could shape public perceptions on Russia and its president ''Putin''. Such use of ambiguity had the potential to exacerbate tensions in international conflicts. Although lexical and referential ambiguity were also observed in the analyzed news headlines, they appeared to have played a more supplementary role, adding complexity to discourse. Importantly, the study uncovered the overt bias evident in certain headlines from The Guardian, that reported on Russia-Ukraine war. This bias has been evident in the deliberate framing of headlines that appeared to favor Ukraine while simultaneously attempting to smear Putin’s reputation and provoke negative sentiment against him. Such framing reflected a broader agenda to influence public opinion and deepen societal divisions. This partiality had significantly impacted audience perceptions and had undermined the core principles of journalistic integrity, including objectivity and impartiality. In reporting sensitive and polarizing topics such as the ongoing conflicts between Russia and Ukraine, it had been essential to maintain balanced and unbiased coverage to preserve the credibility of public discourse and ensure the accurate dissemination of information. Ultimately, these findings provided valuable insights into how language had been used as a powerful tool to influence perceptions and construct perspectives within the complex realm of global geopolitics. The study results also offered a valuable guidance to students of theoretical Al Benghazi, Linguistic Ambiguity in News Headlines of Russia-Ukraine Faculty of languages Journal (23 )86 linguistics and translators, helping them gain a deeper understanding of English language ambiguity. REFERENCES Brône, G., & Coulson, S. (2010). Processing deliberate ambiguity in newspaper headlines: Double grounding. Discourse Processes, 47(3), 212-236 Bucaria, C. (2004). 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