Assessment of Lighting Illumination in the Central Business District of Iloilo City

Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 92 Assessment of Lighting Illumination in the Central Business District of Iloilo City DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17637399 Clyde M. Seruelo La Consolacion College Bacolod https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5886-3068 | clydes.ao[email protected] Abstract: This study assessed the quality of lighting illumination in the Central Business District (CBD) of Iloilo City, particularly Barangay San Rafael, by examining three key dimensions: visibility, visual comfort, and perceived safety. Using a quantitative, descriptive, comparative, and correlational research design, data were gathered from 187 respondents through a validated and highly reliable questionnaire measuring visibility (α = 0.92), visual comfort (α = 1.00), and safety (α = 0.94). Descriptive analyses revealed that visibility, visual comfort, and safety were consistently rated at High to Very High Levels, indicating that the existing lighting system generally supports clarity of surroundings, visual ease, and a sense of security during nighttime. Comparative analyses showed no significant differences in visibility, visual comfort, or safety based on sex. However, age, marital status, and educational attainment demonstrated significant differences across multiple indicators, suggesting that these demographic factors shape varying expectations and perceptual sensitivities toward lighting conditions. Notably, older adults, widowed respondents, and those with certain educational backgrounds tended to report higher levels of comfort and safety than younger and single respondents. Correlation analyses revealed very strong, positive, and statistically significant relationships among visibility, visual comfort, and safety (ρ = 0.904 to 0.974; p < .001). These results indicate that improvements in one aspect of lighting—such as brightness, color temperature, or light quality—enhance overall visibility and strengthen perceived safety in the area. Overall, the findings highlight that while current illumination in Iloilo City’s CBD is generally adequate, targeted lighting enhancements can further improve night-time experiences, particularly for younger adults and individuals with more stringent visual expectations. The study underscores the importance of human-centered, context-responsive lighting design in promoting safe, inclusive, and comfortable urban environments and provides empirical insights to guide future urban planning and smart lighting initiatives in Iloilo City. Keywords: Urban lighting; Visibility; Visual comfort; Perceived safety; Street illumination; Human-centered design; Iloilo City. Introduction: Lighting is one of the most influential yet often overlooked components of urban design. Beyond its utilitarian purpose of ensuring visibility, light defines how people perceive, experience, and interact with public spaces (Navaraj & Inkarojrit, 2024). Frutos et al. (2024) highlight that well-designed lighting fosters social interaction by enabling visual recognition, orientation, and comfort in shared spaces. Urban illumination transforms environments—turning empty roads into safe corridors, and ordinary plazas into vibrant public realms—thus shaping both safety and livability. From a physiological perspective, illumination directly affects human health and performance. According to Osibona et al. (2021), light regulates circadian rhythms and melatonin secretion, influencing sleep cycles, alertness, and general well-being. Inadequate or excessive exposure to artificial lighting can disrupt these biological processes, leading to fatigue, anxiety, and reduced cognitive performance (Delloye , 2012). The intersection between lighting and health underscores its importance not only for visibility and safety but also for promoting holistic human functioning in urban environments. Street lighting has long been linked to perceptions of safety and economic vitality. Inadequate illumination contributes to increased risks of vehicular accidents, street crimes, and pedestrian injuries, especially in developing cities where infrastructure development is uneven. Conversely, adequate lighting enhances public confidence, attracts commercial activity, and extends social and economic life into the night (Dastgheib, 2018). This nexus between illumination and safety positions lighting as a determinant of urban competitiveness and sustainability. Iloilo City, one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the Philippines, exemplifies this challenge. Despite its modernization and economic growth, certain sections of its Central Business District (CBD), particularly in Barangay San Rafael, Mandurriao, still experience uneven or insufficient street lighting. Such inadequacies compromise both pedestrian comfort and urban aesthetics. Poorly lit environments discourage evening activities and deter investors and tourists, thus affecting the city’s economic momentum (Hilario et al., 2021). Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 93 Lighting design, therefore, is both a technical and social issue. It involves balancing visual comfort, energy efficiency, environmental impact, and psychological response. Johansson et al. (2014) conceptualize perceived outdoor lighting quality (POLQ) as dependent on intensity, color temperature, and direction—elements that determine whether illumination is comfortable or glaring. Inadequate design may cause light trespass or glare, reducing visibility and increasing accident risks (Carlos, 2025). This suggests that illumination must be context-sensitive, calibrated to human and environmental needs. Historically, lighting design has evolved from purely functional approaches toward more human-centered paradigms. Kelly’s (1956) conceptual framework—comprising ambient luminescence, focal glow, and play of brilliants— transformed the field of lighting design by introducing a human-centered approach that integrates emotional response and experiential perception into illumination (Navaraj & Inkarojrit, 2024).Contemporary studies continue to build upon this tradition, emphasizing the interplay between safety, aesthetics, and sustainability (Custers et al., 2010; Nguyen et al., 2019; Mba et al., 2024; Zhang & Shen, 2024;). As urban lighting technology transitions to LED and smart systems, cities must ensure that technological advancement translates into tangible social and environmental benefits. The World Bank and UN-Habitat advocate safe and inclusive lighting as a cornerstone of sustainable cities, especially in areas with high nighttime pedestrian activity. In Southeast Asia, where mixed-use developments and informal economic zones dominate, lighting serves not only to prevent accidents but also to enhance gender safety and public participation in urban spaces (Douglass et al., 2003; ASEAN, 2022; UN-Habitat & ASEAN, 2022). Yet, many local governments prioritize lighting improvements last, often focusing on road widening or vehicular infrastructure, thereby neglecting pedestrian-oriented illumination design. In Iloilo’s context, the need for systematic evaluation of street lighting becomes more pressing as the city advances toward smart city initiatives. Barangay San Rafael’s mix of residential, commercial, and recreational areas demands lighting systems that balance brightness, energy efficiency, and visual comfort. Without proper assessment of existing illumination levels, future planning risks perpetuating inefficient layouts and energy wastage. This study thus addresses a crucial gap: the lack of localized empirical data on visibility, visual comfort, and perceived safety among city users. Moreover, the increasing emphasis on sustainable lighting—particularly through energy-efficient LED systems—aligns with global climate goals. Energy-efficient lighting reduces carbon emissions and operational costs while maintaining visual performance standards (Chen et al., 2022). However, while LED technologies offer efficiency, they also pose challenges such as glare, blue-light pollution, and uneven distribution, which may compromise human comfort (Nazari & Matusiak, 2024). Understanding these trade-offs within local urban contexts is essential for designing balanced illumination systems. Therefore, this study assesses the lighting illumination in the Central Business District of Iloilo City, focusing on three dimensions—visibility, visual comfort, and safety. By examining the relationships between these variables across demographic groups, the study provides data-driven insights for architects, planners, and policymakers. The findings aim to guide evidence-based design interventions that foster safer, more inclusive, and visually comfortable urban environments. Ultimately, this research underscores that illumination is not merely an engineering concern but a social infrastructure that sustains the city’s pulse after dark. Methodology: This study employed a quantitative, descriptive, comparative, and correlational research design to assess the levels of visibility, visual comfort, and safety in the Central Business District (CBD) of Iloilo City, particularly within Barangay San Rafael, Mandurriao. Quantitative research enables the collection and analysis of numerical data to describe relationships and trends among variables (Pandey et al., 2023). The descriptive design was utilized to identify existing lighting conditions, while the correlational aspect sought to determine the relationships between visibility, visual comfort, and perceived safety. This design provided a systematic framework for examining how lighting quality influences the experience of people in public spaces, allowing the researcher to generate meaningful insights for urban lighting improvement. The research locale is Barangay San Rafael, Mandurriao, Iloilo City, one of the 18 barangays in Mandurriao District. The area forms part of the city’s central business zone characterized by mixed-use commercial and residential structures. It is a vital hub for economic activity and pedestrian movement, making it a suitable setting for assessing illumination efficiency and its implications for safety and comfort. The barangay’s population has grown steadily, from 826 in 1990 to 1,813 in 2020, indicating increased demand for effective infrastructure such as lighting (PhilAtlas, 2025). Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 94 The sample size consisted of 187 respondents, determined through non-probability convenience sampling. This approach was chosen due to the lack of an exact population frame and the practical accessibility of respondents. Participants were selected based on their availability and presence in the designated areas during data collection. Convenience sampling is commonly used in exploratory and descriptive studies where the researcher seeks to gather perceptions from readily available participants (Bell et al., 2022). The respondents represented diverse demographic backgrounds, including varying age groups, educational levels, and marital statuses, ensuring a range of perspectives on lighting conditions within the area. The data-gathering instrument was a structured questionnaire divided into four parts. The first part collected demographic information. The second part, adapted from Dastgheib (2018), consisted of 16 items measuring visibility in terms of awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection. The third part, based on Liu et al. (2022), included 12 items assessing visual comfort, emphasizing perceived lighting quality, illumination, and color temperature. The fourth section, adapted from Wu (2014), featured 12 items addressing perceived safety, covering aspects such as personal safety, prospect, and concealment. All items used a four-point Likert scale ranging from “Very Low Level” to “Very High Level.” Validity and reliability of the research instrument were ensured through expert evaluation and internal consistency testing. Content validation was conducted by three specialists in architecture and lighting design to ascertain relevance and clarity of items. The reliability of the instrument was tested using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding coefficients of 0.92 for visibility, 1.00 for visual comfort, and 0.94 for safety, indicating excellent reliability levels. A Cronbach’s alpha above 0.70 generally signifies strong internal consistency (Taber, 2017), confirming the instrument’s dependability for data collection. The data-gathering procedure involved a one-week on-site survey conducted from 6:00 p.m. to 8:30 p.m. across four major streets within the barangay. This schedule was chosen to capture actual nighttime illumination experiences. The researcher was assisted by a nine-member field team who facilitated the distribution and retrieval of questionnaires. Participants were provided with small tokens as appreciation for their cooperation. The completed questionnaires were collected daily, reviewed for completeness, and encoded in Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis. This systematic process ensured both accuracy and efficiency in data handling. For statistical treatment, descriptive and inferential analyses were utilized. Frequency and percentage distributions described respondents’ profiles, while weighted mean scores determined levels of visibility, comfort, and safety. To test relationships among variables, Pearson’s r correlation coefficient was employed. Significant differences across demographic categories such as sex, age, marital status, and educational attainment were examined using t-tests and one-way ANOVA, following a 0.05 level of significance. These statistical tools allowed the researcher to quantify patterns and infer meaningful relationships between lighting factors and perceived safety outcomes. In adherence to research ethics, the study complied with institutional and community standards. Ethical clearance was obtained from the appropriate Institutional Research Ethics Committee. Informed consent was secured from all participants, ensuring voluntary participation and the right to withdraw at any time. Confidentiality of responses was strictly maintained, with data anonymized and stored securely. The researcher also ensured a comfortable and noncoercive environment during data collection by providing adequate lighting, seating, and refreshments. These measures were implemented to protect participants’ dignity and well-being while upholding integrity and accountability in research conduct. Overall, the methodology ensured a rigorous, ethical, and context-sensitive approach to understanding illumination quality in Iloilo City’s CBD. The integration of quantitative analysis, validated instruments, and ethical safeguards provided credible data for evaluating how lighting affects human perception, safety, and comfort in urban environments. Results: Visibility in the Central Business District of Iloilo City Table 1 presents the respondents’ assessment of visibility in Iloilo City’s central business district, focusing on four indicators: awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection. Across all demographic categories, visibility was rated at a High Level (HL) to Very High Level (VHL), indicating that the existing lighting system generally allows people to navigate and perceive their environment adequately during nighttime. Table 1. Assessment of Lighting Illumination in the Central Business District of Iloilo City on Visibility Variables Awareness of Surroundings Orientation Facial Recognition Obstacle Detection Visibility Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 95 Respondents x σ VI x σ VI x σ VI x σ VI x σ VI Sex Male (n=66) 3.69 0.22 HL 3.69 0.181 HL 3.79 0.204 VHL 3.69 0.191 HL 3.71 0.179 HL Female (n=121) 3.67 0.257 HL 3.68 0.255 HL 3.74 0.252 HL 3.68 0.259 HL 3.69 0.237 HL Generation Baby Boomer (n=19) 3.67 0.344 HL 3.72 0.299 HL 3.75 0.25 VHL 3.71 0.254 HL 3.71 0.271 HL Gen X (n=24) 3.63 0.221 HL 3.60 0.232 HL 3.70 0.255 HL 3.63 0.221 HL 3.64 0.222 HL Xennials (n=73) 3.73 0.241 HL 3.74 0.216 HL 3.82 0.232 VHL 3.74 0.239 HL 3.76 0.212 VHL Gen Y (n=52) 3.65 0.217 HL 3.66 0.212 HL 3.73 0.217 HL 3.65 0.228 HL 3.67 0.197 HL Gen Z (n=19) 3.58 0.205 HL 3.59 0.208 HL 3.72 0.249 HL 3.61 0.225 HL 3.62 0.199 HL Marital Status Single (n=28) 3.57 0.253 HL 3.57 0.202 HL 3.68 0.224 HL 3.68 0.224 HL 3.60 0.206 HL Married (n=149) 3.69 0.204 HL 3.70 0.232 HL 3.77 0.233 VHL 3.77 0.233 HL 3.71 0.218 HL Widow (n=10) 3.75 0.204 VH 3.80 0.197 VH 3.78 0.299 VHL 3.78 0.299 VHL 3.77 0.199 VHL Educational Level Secondary Level (n=20) 3.54 0.272 HL 3.56 0.228 HL 3.66 0.203 HL 3.59 0.203 HL 3.59 0.215 HL Secondary Graduate (n=34) 3.73 0.233 HL 3.71 0.255 HL 3.68 0.277 HL 3.71 0.25 HL 3.71 0.226 HL Tertiary Level (n=61) 3.71 0.256 HL 3.72 0.235 HL 3.80 0.226 VHL 3.72 0.25 HL 3.74 0.222 HL Tertiary Graduate (n=38) 3.65 0.222 HL 3.67 0.218 HL 3.78 0.238 HL 3.65 0.215 HL 3.69 0.211 HL Others (n=34) 3.68 0.218 HL 3.66 0.203 HL 3.81 0.205 VHL 3.68 0.233 HL 3.71 0.201 HL Legend: VHL – Very High Level; HL – High Level; LL – Low Level; VLL – Very Low Level; SD – Standard Deviation; VI – Verbal Interpretation. Across sex groups, both males (M = 3.71) and females (M = 3.69) rated overall visibility as High, with males slightly higher. Facial recognition registered the highest mean among males (M = 3.79, VHL), followed by obstacle detection and awareness of surroundings (both M = 3.69). Females also rated facial recognition highly (M = 3.74, HL), suggesting that lighting conditions in the area sufficiently support safe identification of faces and objects at night. When grouped by age, Xennials (M = 3.76) recorded the highest overall visibility and were the only age group to interpret visibility as Very High Level (VHL). Baby Boomers (M = 3.71) and Gen X (M = 3.64) also expressed strong visibility perceptions, with Baby Boomers reporting very high facial recognition (M = 3.75). Younger cohorts—Gen Y (M = 3.67) and Gen Z (M = 3.62)—rated visibility slightly lower but still within the High Level, suggesting generally favorable but more varied perceptions among younger respondents. By marital status, widowed respondents (M = 3.77) reported the highest visibility, consistently interpreting most indicators—including orientation and obstacle detection—as Very High Level. Married respondents (M = 3.71) and single respondents (M = 3.60) also rated visibility as High, though singles reported slightly lower means across all subcomponents. Across educational attainment, all groups rated visibility at a High Level. However, the highest means were seen among Tertiary-level respondents (M = 3.74) and those in the “Others” category (M = 3.71), both of whom assigned Very High Level ratings to facial recognition. Secondary graduates (M = 3.71) also perceived visibility favorably. This Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 96 suggests that individuals with higher or specialized educational backgrounds may be more sensitive to, or appreciative of, lighting adequacy in urban spaces. Overall, visibility in Iloilo City’s CBD is perceived positively across all demographic groups, with mean values consistently clustered between 3.60 and 3.80, indicating stable High to Very High Levels of perceived visibility. These findings highlight that existing lighting conditions generally support safe movement, facial recognition, and environment awareness—key components of nighttime urban safety and comfort. Table 2. Assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on visual comfort in terms of perceived light quality, illumination, and color temperature when they are taken collectively and grouped according to sex, age, marital status, and educational level Variables Perceived Light Quality Illumination Color Temperature Visual Comfort x σ VI x σ VI x σ VI x σ VI Sex Male (n=66) 3.50 0.419 HL 3.50 0.395 HL 3.50 0.318 HL 3.50 0.373 HL Female (n=121) 3.66 0.498 HL 3.47 0.489 HL 3.46 0.513 HL 3.46 0.478 HL Generation Baby Boomer (n=19) 3.47 0.623 HL 3.61 0.542 HL 3.47 0.589 HL 3.52 0.565 HL Gen X (n=24) 3.31 0.523 HL 3.31 0.533 HL 3.34 0.465 HL 3.32 0.469 HL Xennials (n=73) 3.61 0.435 HL 3.58 0.435 HL 3.60 0.45 HL 3.60 0.422 HL Gen Y (n=52) 3.41 0.434 HL 3.42 0.407 HL 3.42 0.434 HL 3.42 0.405 HL Gen Z (n=19) 3.34 0.356 HL 3.33 0.382 HL 3.32 0.448 HL 3.33 0.356 HL Marital Status Single (n=28) 3.48 0.471 HL 3.48 0.457 HL 3.47 0.47 HL 3.48 0.443 HL Married (n=149) 3.66 0.498 HL 3.67 0.492 HL 3.57 0.518 HL 3.63 0.495 HL Widow (n=10) 3.47 0.623 HL 3.61 0.542 HL 3.47 0.589 HL 3.52 0.565 HL Educational Level Secondary Level (n=20) 3.18 0.494 HL 3.28 0.405 HL 3.19 0.479 HL 3.21 0.434 HL Secondary Graduate (n=34) 3.51 0.458 HL 3.58 0.451 HL 3.53 0.484 HL 3.54 0.45 HL Tertiary Level (n=61) 3.57 0.468 HL 3.50 0.497 HL 3.57 0.443 HL 3.55 0.449 HL Tertiary Graduate (n=38) 3.41 0.487 HL 3.42 0.42 HL 3.40 0.492 HL 3.41 0.434 HL Others (n=34) 3.52 0.396 HL 3.52 0.437 HL 3.50 0.417 HL 3.52 0.393 HL Legend: VHL – Very High Level; HL – High Level; LL – Low Level; VLL – Very Low Level; SD – Standard Deviation; VI – Verbal Interpretation. Table 2 presents the respondents’ assessment of visual comfort in Iloilo City’s central business district in terms of perceived light quality, illumination, and color temperature, taken collectively and grouped by sex, age, marital status, and educational level. Overall, visual comfort was interpreted as High (HL) across all demographic groups, indicating that the lighting conditions in Barangay San Rafael generally support comfortable visual experiences during nighttime use. Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 97 Across sex groups, males (M = 3.50) and females (M = 3.46) both reported high levels of visual comfort. Although females registered slightly higher perceived light quality (M = 3.66), the overall means reflect a consistent perception that lighting conditions are adequately comfortable for general night-time activities such as walking, navigating streets, and identifying surroundings. When grouped by age, Xennials (M = 3.60) reported the highest mean visual comfort, followed closely by Baby Boomers (M = 3.52). These groups consistently registered higher means across all three indicators, particularly in color temperature and light quality, suggesting that middle-aged and older adults perceive the lighting environment more favorably. Gen X (M = 3.32), Gen Y (M = 3.42), and Gen Z (M = 3.33) also reported high visual comfort, although with slightly lower means, possibly indicating higher sensitivity to lighting uniformity or glare among younger age groups. Table 3. Assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on safety in terms of perceived personal safety, prospect, and concealment when they are taken collectively and grouped according to sex, age, marital status, and educational level Variables Perceived Personal Safety Prospect Concealment Safety Mean SD VI Mean SD VI Mean SD VI Mean SD VI Sex Male (n=66) 3.51 0.385 HL 3.50 0.366 HL 3.53 0.366 HL 3.51 0.357 HL Female (n=121) 3.50 0.47 HL 3.48 0.478 HL 3.46 0.492 HL 3.48 0.459 HL Age Baby Boomer (n=19) 3.46 0.673 HL 3.57 0.6 HL 3.50 0.577 HL 3.51 0.594 HL Gen X (n=24) 3.38 0.448 HL 3.32 0.433 HL 3.31 0.485 HL 3.34 0.425 HL Xennials (n=73) 3.65 0.388 HL 3.61 0.412 HL 3.62 0.393 HL 3.62 0.393 HL Gen Y (n=52) 3.42 0.398 HL 3.40 0.4 HL 3.42 0.392 HL 3.42 0.384 HL Gen Z (n=19) 3.38 0.327 HL 3.37 0.367 HL 3.34 0.393 HL 3.36 0.334 HL Marital Status Single (n=28) 3.28 0.483 HL 3.24 0.411 HL 3.30 0.397 HL 3.27 0.411 HL Married (n=149) 3.53 0.428 HL 3.52 0.439 HL 3.51 0.46 HL 3.52 0.422 HL Widow (n=10) 3.70 0.307 HL 3.65 0.316 HL 3.63 0.339 HL 3.66 0.312 HL Educational Level Secondary Level (n=20) 3.51 0.47 HL 3.56 0.35 HL 3.71 0.356 HL 3.67 0.341 HL Secondary Graduate (n=34) 3.41 0.451 HL 3.60 0.367 HL 3.73 0.336 HL 3.27 0.339 HL Tertiary Level (n=61) 3.51 0.467 HL 3.59 0.333 HL 3.71 0.325 HL 3.20 0.322 HL Tertiary Graduate (n=38) 3.44 0.457 HL 3.60 0.351 HL 3.44 0.335 HL 3.25 0.333 HL Others (n=34) 3.35 0.399 HL 3.71 0.347 HL 3.71 0.336 HL 3.27 0.341 HL Legend: VHL – Very High Level; HL – High Level; LL – Low Level; VLL – Very Low Level; SD – Standard Deviation; VI – Verbal Interpretation. Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 98 In terms of marital status, married respondents (M = 3.63) showed the highest visual comfort ratings, reflecting positive evaluations of overall illumination and color temperature. Meanwhile, single (M = 3.48) and widowed respondents (M = 3.52) also reported high comfort levels, with minimal differences across categories. For educational attainment, all groups perceived visual comfort at a High Level, though with varying degrees. Respondents with secondary-level education (M = 3.21) recorded the lowest mean, while those under the “Others” category (M = 3.52) and tertiary-level respondents (M = 3.55) showed higher levels of comfort. This may indicate variations in expectations or sensitivity to lighting conditions depending on educational and occupational backgrounds. Overall, the results show that visual comfort remains consistently high (M ≈ 3.21 to 3.63), suggesting that the lighting system in the CBD effectively supports ease of vision, minimizes discomfort, and fosters a visually pleasant night-time environment. The consistently high evaluation across all demographic groups reinforces the adequacy of existing illumination but also highlights opportunities for enhancement in areas where perceived comfort is slightly lower—such as among younger age groups and respondents with lower educational attainment. Table 3 presents the respondents’ assessment of safety in Iloilo City’s central business district across three indicators: perceived personal safety, prospect, and concealment. Overall, safety was consistently rated at a High Level (HL) across all demographic groups, indicating that the lighting environment in Barangay San Rafael generally supports a sense of security and reduces feelings of vulnerability during nighttime. Across sex groups, both males (M = 3.51) and females (M = 3.48) perceived safety at a high level. Male respondents slightly rated concealment higher (M = 3.53) than females (M = 3.46), suggesting that men may feel marginally more confident in identifying hidden or potentially risky areas in the environment. Nonetheless, both groups’ ratings reflect generally positive perceptions of safety supported by existing illumination. In terms of age, Baby Boomers (M = 3.51) rated safety higher than younger cohorts, with their highest score observed in prospect (M = 3.57), indicating a favorable assessment of visibility across distances and openness of spaces. Xennials (M = 3.62) likewise reported strong perceptions of safety across indicators, especially in concealment (M = 3.62). Respondents from Gen X (M = 3.34), Gen Y (M = 3.42), and Gen Z (M = 3.36) also rated safety positively, though with slightly lower means. These differences may reflect varying levels of awareness or expectations regarding urban safety across age groups. Table 4. Significant difference in the assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on visibility in terms of awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection when grouped according to sex Visibility Indicator Statistics df p-value Significance @ 0.05 Hypothesis Status Awareness of surroundings 4117.00 185 0.713 Not significant Accepted Orientation 3995.00 185 0.996 Not significant Accepted Facial recognition 4357.00 185 0.277 Not significant Accepted Obstacle detection 3953.00 185 0.906 Not significant Accepted Visibility 3993.50 185 1 Not significant Accepted Note. Test statistics compare the mean scores of sex groups for each visibility indicator. When grouped by marital status, widowed respondents (M = 3.66) expressed the highest sense of safety, with consistently strong ratings across all indicators—particularly in prospect (M = 3.65) and concealment (M = 3.63). Married respondents (M = 3.52) also reported high levels of perceived safety, while single respondents recorded slightly lower yet still high ratings (M = 3.27). The higher ratings among widowed and married individuals may reflect increased sensitivity to environmental risks and reliance on adequate lighting for nighttime mobility. Across educational levels, all respondents rated safety at a High Level, though with some variation. Secondary-level respondents (M = 3.67) and secondary graduates (M = 3.27) reported differing perceptions, with secondary-level participants assigning higher ratings—particularly in concealment (M = 3.71). Those in the tertiary level and tertiary graduate categories also rated safety highly (M = 3.20 and M = 3.25 respectively), though their overall means were slightly lower than other groups. Respondents classified as “Others” (M = 3.27) similarly interpreted safety positively, supported by strong scores in prospect (M = 3.71). Overall, safety perceptions ranged from 3.20 to 3.66, indicating uniformly High Level assessments. These findings suggest that current lighting conditions in the CBD effectively contribute to a sense of security by reducing concealment, increasing visibility across distances, and enhancing overall situational awareness. Minor variations Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 99 across demographic groups highlight potential areas where lighting improvements may further strengthen perceived safety, especially among younger and tertiary-educated individuals. Table 4 shows the results of the test for significant differences in visibility when respondents are grouped according to sex. Across all four indicators—awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection— the computed p-values ranged from 0.277 to 1.000, all of which exceed the 0.05 level of significance. This indicates that there is no statistically significant difference between male and female respondents in how they assess visibility in the central business district of Iloilo City. Awareness of surroundings (p = 0.713) and orientation (p = 0.996) showed particularly high p-values, confirming that the perception of environmental awareness and directional clarity is similar regardless of sex. The same trend is seen for facial recognition (p = 0.277) and obstacle detection (p = 0.906), suggesting comparable perceptions of safety and clarity when identifying faces or potential hazards at night. The overall visibility score also showed no significant difference (p = 1.000), further affirming that both male and female respondents evaluate the lighting conditions in essentially the same way. Consequently, the null hypotheses for all indicators were accepted. These results imply that sex does not influence visibility perception in this urban environment—suggesting that lighting conditions provide a consistent visual experience for all users, regardless of gender. Table 5. Significant difference in the assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on visibility in terms of awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection when grouped according to age/ generation Visibility Indicator Statistics df p-value Significance @ 0.05 Hypothesis Status Awareness of surroundings 11.951 4 0.018 Significant Rejected Orientation 13.66 4 0.008 Significant Rejected Facial recognition 8.936 4 0.063 Not significant Accepted Obstacle detection 11.169 4 0.025 Significant Rejected Note. Test statistics compare the mean scores of age/ generation groups for each visibility indicator. Table 5 presents the test for significant differences in visibility ratings across age groups. The results reveal that age has a statistically significant effect on several key aspects of visibility, indicating perceptual differences among generational cohorts. A significant difference was found in awareness of surroundings (p = 0.018), suggesting that respondents from different age groups vary in how effectively they perceive their environment under current lighting conditions. Similarly, orientation yielded a significant difference (p = 0.008), indicating that age influences how well individuals can determine direction, spatial layout, or pathway clarity within the illuminated streetscape. In contrast, facial recognition did not differ significantly across age groups (p = 0.063). This means that respondents, regardless of age, share similar perceptions of their ability to identify faces clearly under existing lighting—an important factor associated with personal safety and social interaction. Finally, obstacle detection was found to differ significantly by age (p = 0.025). This suggests that some age groups perceive greater difficulty—or greater ease—in identifying obstructions such as uneven surfaces, curbs, or objects on pathways, likely reflecting visual acuity differences or varied expectations of lighting performance. Overall, the findings indicate that age influences specific visibility-related perceptions, particularly those requiring broader environmental awareness and spatial interpretation, while perceptions of facial recognition remain consistent across groups. These patterns highlight the importance of designing lighting systems that accommodate diverse visual needs and promote safe mobility for all age groups. Table 6. Significant difference in the assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on visibility in terms of awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection when grouped according to marital status Visibility Indicator Statistics df p-value Significance @ 0.05 Hypothesis Status Awareness of surroundings 5.844 2 0.054 Not Significant Accepted Orientation 10.306 2 0.006 Significant Rejected Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 100 Facial recognition 5.057 2 0.08 Not significant Accepted Obstacle detection 5.319 2 0.07 Not Significant Accepted Visibility 7.474 2 0.024 Significant Rejected Note. Test statistics compare the mean scores of marital groups for each visibility indicator. Table 6 shows the analysis of differences in visibility assessments when respondents are grouped according to marital status. The results reveal that marital status has a significant influence on some, but not all, visibility indicators. For orientation, a significant difference was found (p = 0.006), indicating that single, married, and widowed respondents differ in how effectively they perceive directional cues and spatial layout under existing lighting. This may reflect differences in mobility patterns and nighttime navigation needs across marital categories. Similarly, overall visibility showed a significant difference (p = 0.024), suggesting that marital status influences the general perception of lighting adequacy. Widowed respondents, who are often older adults, tended to show slightly higher visibility ratings in earlier descriptive tables, which may partially account for this variation. However, awareness of surroundings (p = 0.054), facial recognition (p = 0.080), and obstacle detection (p = 0.070) did not yield significant differences, as all p-values exceeded the 0.05 threshold. This indicates that respondents across marital categories share similar perceptions regarding their ability to identify people, recognize surroundings, and detect obstacles at night. Overall, the findings indicate that while marital status does not strongly influence specific elements of visibility such as obstacle detection or facial recognition, it does shape broader aspects of spatial understanding and overall judgment of lighting quality. This suggests that demographic factors connected to lifestyle, routines, and security needs may inform how lighting in urban public spaces is perceived. Table 7. Significant difference in the assessment of lighting illumination in the central business district of Iloilo City on visibility in terms of awareness of surroundings, orientation, facial recognition, and obstacle detection when grouped according to educational level Visibility Indicator Statistics df p-value Significance @ 0.05 Hypothesis Status Awareness of surroundings 8.718 4 0.069 Not Significant Accepted Orientation 9.004 4 0.061 Not Significant Accepted Facial recognition 10.193 4 0.037 Significant Rejected Obstacle detection 7.943 4 0.094 Not Significant Accepted Visibility 9.09 4 0.059 Not Significant Accepted Note. Test statistics compare the mean scores of educational level groups for each visibility indicator. Table 7 presents the test of significant differences in visibility when respondents are grouped according to educational level. The results show that educational attainment does not significantly influence most visibility indicators, with only one exception. For awareness of surroundings (p = 0.069) and orientation (p = 0.061), no significant differences were observed across educational levels. This suggests that respondents—whether secondary-level, tertiary-level, or belonging to other educational categories—have comparable perceptions of how well they can detect their surroundings and maintain spatial orientation under current lighting conditions. Similarly, obstacle detection (p = 0.094) showed no significant difference, indicating that individuals across different educational backgrounds evaluate their ability to identify potential hazards in the environment in a similar manner. The same trend is reflected in the overall visibility score (p = 0.059), which also did not reach statistical significance. However, a significant difference emerged in facial recognition (p = 0.037). This finding implies that respondents’ educational backgrounds may influence their ability to recognize faces under existing lighting conditions. As earlier descriptive tables showed, tertiary-level respondents tended to rate facial recognition more favorably than some groups. This may reflect differing expectations regarding lighting performance, varied experiences in navigating urban environments, or differences in sensitivity to illumination quality. Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 107 environmental safety when accompanying dependents. Meanwhile, respondents with tertiary education exhibited more discriminating assessments, possibly influenced by greater exposure to architectural or workplace lighting standards. The absence of significant differences by sex suggests that the lighting environment affords a relatively equal experience of comfort for both men and women. However, broader regional literature—particularly regarding gendered safety concerns in Southeast Asian cities (Douglass et al., 2003; UN-Habitat & ASEAN, 2022)—suggests that comfort alone does not fully mitigate gender-specific anxieties, pointing to the need for integrated design approaches beyond illumination alone. Safety as a Social Interpretation of Light Safety—operationalized through perceived personal safety, prospect, and concealment—was also consistently rated as High, demonstrating that the area’s illumination contributes meaningfully to users' sense of security. This supports prior work showing that well-lit streets reduce fear of crime and increase nighttime activity (Dastgheib, 2018; Hilario et al., 2021). Significant differences across age, marital status, and educational level reflect the social nature of perceived safety: ● Older and widowed respondents reported the highest safety ratings, perhaps due to greater dependence on lighting for orientation and hazard detection. ● Younger respondents, particularly Gen Z, expressed slightly lower safety scores, potentially reflecting differing expectations for visibility or increased exposure to online discourse about urban risks. ● Married respondents rated safety higher than singles; this aligns with previous findings that people with dependents tend to be more attentive to environmental cues. ● Educated respondents demonstrated greater variability in safety perception, suggesting that safety interpretations may be shaped by environmental literacy and awareness of design standards. Importantly, sex had no significant effect on safety perception—contrary to common assumptions that women feel disproportionately unsafe in public spaces. This does not negate the gendered realities noted in global literature, but suggests that in this specific locale, lighting may successfully equalize perceptions of nighttime security. Interrelationship of Visibility, Comfort, and Safety The strongest finding of the study is the very high and statistically significant correlations among visibility, visual comfort, and safety (ρ = .904 to .974). This aligns closely with the integrated lighting frameworks proposed by modern lighting scholars and organizations such as UN-Habitat, which argue that urban lighting functions not as isolated technical systems but as interdependent determinants of social behavior, mobility, and well-being. These correlations confirm that: ● When lighting enhances visibility, perceived safety improves. ● When lighting feels visually comfortable, fear decreases and confidence in the environment rises. ● When glare is reduced and color temperature is pleasant, visibility is enhanced, reinforcing a cycle of environmental trust. These findings validate the premise that urban lighting is a social infrastructure, not merely an engineering utility— fulfilling the study’s original proposition. Implications for Urban Lighting Design in Iloilo City The findings suggest several key considerations for urban planning and lighting design: 1. Visibility is strong but improvement is possible. While overall levels are high, younger cohorts identify lower scores in certain indicators, suggesting that uniformity, glare control, and luminance distribution should be monitored. 2. Visual comfort matters as much as visibility. High visibility does not guarantee comfort. LED lighting should be calibrated to reduce harshness, optimize color temperature, and balance luminance levels. 3. Safety perceptions differ across key demographic groups. This suggests the need for targeted lighting enhancements in areas frequented by younger populations, single individuals, or tertiary-educated workers. 4. Lighting should be integrated into broader urban renewal efforts. As Iloilo City transitions toward smart city developments, lighting systems must be scalable, sustainable, and sensitive to human factors—not merely energy-efficient. 5. Participatory lighting audits may enhance accuracy. Demographic variations suggest the need for community-engaged planning to capture user-specific visual needs. 6. Smart lighting solutions could address comfort and safety simultaneously. Adjustable color temperatures, motion-sensitive dimming, and glare-reduction fixtures can support diverse user expectations. Situating the Study Within Global Literature The results corroborate international findings that lighting contributes directly to social participation, psychological well-being, and economic activity (Osibona et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022). By confirming a strong relationship between visibility and safety, this study strengthens the evidence supporting lighting as a central component of sustainable, livable cities—a position strongly advocated by the World Bank, ASEAN, and UN-Habitat. This study also contributes new empirical evidence from a Philippine urban context—an understudied setting in lighting research—addressing a gap identified in regional literature. Conclusion: This study set out to evaluate the quality of street lighting in the central business district of Iloilo City—specifically Barangay San Rafael—through the lenses of visibility, visual comfort, and perceived safety. Using a validated, highly Volume 2, Issue no. 11 | 108 reliable questionnaire administered to 187 respondents, the research generated a detailed picture of how urban lighting is experienced by diverse user groups during nighttime. Overall, the findings point to a generally adequate and effective lighting environment. Visibility was consistently rated from High to Very High, indicating that existing illumination allows people to recognize faces, detect obstacles, and navigate spaces with confidence. Visual comfort, likewise, was rated at a High Level across all groups, suggesting that brightness, color temperature, and overall light quality are broadly acceptable for everyday nighttime activities. Perceived safety also reached a High Level, demonstrating that the current lighting system contributes meaningfully to respondents’ sense of security in the CBD. At the same time, the study revealed important demographic nuances. Sex did not significantly influence perceptions of visibility, visual comfort, or safety, indicating that the lighting environment affords a relatively equitable experience for men and women. However, age, marital status, and educational attainment were consistently associated with significant differences in several indicators. Older and widowed respondents generally expressed stronger perceptions of visibility and safety, while Xennials and Baby Boomers reported higher visual comfort than younger generations. Educational level also shaped how respondents evaluated facial recognition, lighting quality, and safety, suggesting that expectations and risk perceptions vary with social and educational background. The strongest result of the study is the very high, positive, and statistically significant correlations among visibility, visual comfort, and safety. Better visibility is closely associated with higher perceived safety; greater visual comfort likewise strengthens feelings of security; and visually comfortable environments tend to enhance visibility. These interrelationships confirm that illumination functions as a holistic urban system: improvements in one aspect of lighting produce cascading benefits in others. In this sense, lighting emerges not only as a technical utility but as a form of social infrastructure that sustains livability, walkability, and public confidence after dark. For Iloilo City, the findings imply that the CBD’s lighting system is performing relatively well but also highlight opportunities for refinement and targeted enhancement. Design interventions should prioritize age-responsive and education-sensitive strategies—such as glare control, better uniformity, and carefully calibrated color temperature— especially in areas frequented by younger adults, single pedestrians, and tertiary-educated workers who expressed slightly lower comfort and safety ratings. As the city advances toward smart and sustainable urban development, integrating these human-centered insights into lighting upgrades, energy-efficient retrofits, and public-space planning will be crucial. In sum, this study demonstrates that well-designed lighting in Iloilo City’s CBD already supports safe, comfortable, and visible nighttime environments, yet it also underscores the importance of treating illumination as a dynamic, user-centered component of urban design. 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