Resea ch Pape
Recommended ci a ion: Ma kman, A. O., Ch is iansen, S. H., Fo nø, A. A., &
Al-Subaihi, M. (2025). Using The Gene al Sel -E icacy Scale o Measu e
Enginee ing S uden s’ Sel -E icacy in a P ojec Managemen Cou se. In
Kangaslampi, R., Langie, G., Jä inen, H.-M., & Nagy, B. (Eds.), SEFI 53 d Annual
Con e ence. Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI), Tampe e,
Finland. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631567.
This Con e ence Pape is b ough o you o open access by he 53 d Annual Con e ence
o he Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI) a Tampe e Uni e si y in
Tampe e, Finland. This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion-NonComme cial-Sha e Alike 4.0 In e na ional License.
USING THE GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY SCALE TO MEASURE
ENGINEERING STUDENTS’ SELF-EFFICACY IN A PROJECT
MANAGEMENT COURSE
A. O. Ma kmana,
1
, S. H. Ch is iansenb, A. A. Fo nøc,
M. Al-Subaihid
a Aalbo g Uni e si y, Aalbo g, Denma k, h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0002-5183-7241
b Aalbo g Uni e si y, Aalbo g, Denma k, h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1329-9836
c Technical Uni e si y o Denma k, Balle up, Denma k, h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0004-
1445-3622
d Technical Uni e si y o Denma k, Balle up, Denma k, h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-
1941-5201
Con e ence Key A eas: 8. Con inuing educa ion and li e-long lea ning in
enginee ing & 10. Enginee ing skills, p o essional skills, and ans e sal skills
Keywo ds: Gene al sel -e icacy scale, sel -e icacy, p ojec managemen ,
enginee ing educa ion
ABSTRACT
An impo an aspec o enginee ing educa ion is he c ucial ole i plays in p epa ing
enginee ing s uden s o he complexi ies o p o essional li e, especially in ela ion o
he de elopmen o sel -e icacy. This s udy examines enginee ing s uden s’ sel -
e icacy de elopmen o e he imespan o a semes e in a p ojec managemen
cou se wi h ocus on he impac o s udy- ela ed employmen and gende
di e ences. Using he Gene al Sel -E icacy (GSE) scale, da a was collec ed om
103 s uden s a he beginning o he cou se and 46 s uden s a he end. While he
esul s indica e no signi ican o e all change in sel -e icacy h oughou he semes e ,
s uden s wi h s udy- ela ed jobs epo ed consis en ly highe sel -e icacy sco es,
pa icula ly in handling unexpec ed challenges. Addi ionally, male s uden s sco ed
highe han hei emale coun e pa s. These esul s sugges ha eal-wo ld wo k
expe ience play a c ucial ole in sel -e icacy de elopmen o enginee ing s uden s.
Fu u e esea ch should inco po a e quali a i e me hods o u he explo e he
nuances o sel -e icacy g ow h in enginee ing educa ion.
1
Co esponding Au ho
A. O. Ma kman
[email protected]
1 INTRODUCTION
Mo i a ing a di e se g oup o s uden s academically can be challenging, and i is
o en hinde ed by he use o ine ec i e s a egies o app oaches ha only esona e
wi h a subse o he g oup (Anyichie & Bu le , 2023). S uden s who lack con idence
in hei abili ies a e less likely o engage wi h o apply a gi en skill (Ca be y e al.,
2018). The e o e, unde s anding he p inciples ha enhance sel -e icacy is c ucial
o educa o s (Pon on e al., 2001), as sel -e icacy has been linked o imp o ed
lea ning ou comes, highe academic pe o mance, inc eased mo i a ion,
pe sis ence, esilience, help-seeking beha iou , sel -managemen , and e en ion in
highe educa ion p og ams (Mama il e al., 2016; Powe e al., 2024). Sel -e icacy
e e s o an indi idual’s belie in hei abili y o success ully pe o m a ask in a gi en
con ex , pa icula ly in ela ion o hei pe cei ed s eng hs and limi a ions
(Wadding on, 2023). I is gene ally seen as a s onge p edic o o an indi idual’s
ask pe o mance han o he concep s such as sel -con idence o sel -es eem (Heslin
& Klehe, 2006). P e ious esea ch show ha sel -e icacy belie s could signi ican ly
a ec academic achie emen and he pe sis ence in he ield o enginee ing (e.g.,
Basi h e al., 2020; Fi zpa ick e al., 2023). Bandu a (1982; 1994) p esen s ou main
sou ces o in luence on indi idual’s sel -e icacy. These include: 1) mas e y
expe ience (success ully accomplishing asks), 2) ica ious expe iences (obse ing
simila o he s succeed), 3) social pe suasions ( ecei ing encou agemen o belie e
in one’s abili ies), and 4) physiological and emo ional s a es (in e p e ing one’s
capabili ies based on emo ional and physical esponses). Resea ch has shown ha
hese sou ces signi ican ly in luence s uden s’ sel -e icacy belie s and in e es in
enginee ing (e.g., Concannon e al., 2018).
The ways in which sel -e icacy has been measu ed in enginee ing ha e a ied
conside ably, e.g., gene al academic sel -e icacy measu es, domain-gene al sel -
e icacy measu es, and sel -e icacy measu es o speci ic enginee ing asks o skills
(Mama il e al., 2016; Venugopal e al., 2020). Gene al academic sel -e icacy
measu es b oadly assess enginee ing s uden s’ belie s in hei capabili ies o
pe o m academically (Mama il e al., 2016). Gene al sel -e icacy (GSE) in ol es a
mo e ai -like gene ali y dimension o sel -e icacy, de ined as one’s belie in one’s
o e all compe ence o e ec equisi e pe o mances ac oss a wide a ie y o
achie emen si ua ions, cap u ing di e ences among indi iduals in hei endency o
iew hemsel es as capable o mee ing ask demands in a b oad a ay o con ex s
(Chen e al., 2001). GSE e lec s a gene aliza ion ac oss a ious domains o
unc ioning in which people judge how e icacious hey a e (Luszczynska &
Schwa ze , 2005).
The GSE scale has p e iously been used o measu e gende di e ences, whe e
emales ha e consis en ly epo ed a lowe gene al sel -e icacy le el han males
(Nielsen e al., 2018; Wang e al., 2019). Howe e , s udies conside ing he ole o
enginee ing s uden s’ employmen in shaping sel -e icacy belie s a e limi ed. This
pape examines su ey esul s om a p ojec managemen cou se o enginee ing
s uden s a a Scandina ian echnical uni e si y, using he GSE scale. Du ing he
cou se, he s uden s we e exposed o a ious ac i i ies ha we e based on
Bandu a’s (1982; 1994) main sou ces o in luence on sel -e icacy. The GSE scale
was used in he beginning o he cou se (n = 103) and end o he cou se (n = 46).
The s udy explo es he ollowing esea ch ques ions: How can he GSE scale be
used o assess s uden s’ sel -e icacy in a cou se? A e he e di e ences in s uden s’
sel -e icacy based on ac o s such as gende o s uden s’ ha ing a s uden job?
2 METHODOLOGY
To es ablish a baseline and measu e he impac o he cou se, s uden s esponded
o he su ey wice, once a he beginning o he semes e and again a he end.
Responden s we e equi ed o indica e he ex en o which each s a emen applies o
hem on a Like scale (Schwa ze & Je usalem, 2010). The GSE scale includes 10
i ems, o s a emen s (Table 1), e.g., “I can always manage o sol e di icul p oblems
i I y ha d enough”, wi h he possible esponses: 1) No a all ue, 2) Ha dly ue, 3)
Mode a ely ue, and 4) Exac ly ue (Luszczynska & Schwa ze , 2005). The GSE
scale assesses he s eng h o an indi idual’s belie in his o he own abili y o
espond o no el o di icul si ua ions and o deal wi h any associa ed obs acles o
se backs (Schwa ze & Je usalem, 2010).
The GSE scale has been used o nume ous esea ch p ojec s, whe e i ypically
yielded in e nal consis encies be ween α (alpha) = 0.75-0.91 (Scholz e al., 2002). To
ge a eliable sco e o compa ison, Romppel e al.’s (2013) s udy was used. They
assessed he i em cha ac e is ics o he o iginal scale wi h pa icipan s (n = 19,717)
om 26 di e en coun ies (Table 1). The su ey dis ibu ed o he s uden s in his
s udy inco po a ed he 10 i ems om he GSE scale alongside h ee con ex -speci ic
ques ions ega ding age, gende , and s uden employmen . The s udy was
conduc ed in language o he coun y he s udy was conduc ed in; he ansla ion
was ound on he o icial GSE scale websi e (Schwa ze , 2012). The so wa e IBM
SPSS was used o he da a analysis.
2.1 Sample
The s udy pa icipan s we e six h and se en h semes e bachelo ’s o enginee ing
s uden s, wi h 103 s uden s comple ing he ini ial su ey (men = 54%, women =
46%) and 46 s uden s esponding o he su ey a he end o he semes e (men =
52%, women = 48%). The sample ep esen ed s uden s om nine di e en
enginee ing p og ams. The s udy was conduc ed wi hin a p ojec managemen
cou se designed o bachelo ’s o enginee ing s uden s. The cou se ocused on
designing and managing p ojec s while equipping s uden s wi h skills o iden i y and
add ess challenges as hey a ise. The cou se consis ed o 13 lessons ocused on
de eloping s uden s’ p ojec managemen compe encies, wi h addi ional emphasis
on ime managemen and he concep o sel -e icacy. In pa icula , he cu iculum
was closely aligned wi h Bandu a’s (1982; 1994) amewo k on he sou ces o sel -
e icacy. Fo example, ica ious expe iences we e os e ed h ough he inclusion o
ole models and gues lec u es by alumni, o e ing s uden s ela able examples o
success. Time managemen ins uc ion was designed o equip s uden s wi h
p ac ical s a egies o balancing mul iple asks, he eby c ea ing oppo uni ies o
mas e y expe iences and ein o cing hei sense o sel -e icacy. I was manda o y o
one s udy p og am (13% o pa icipan s), while 87% en olled as an elec i e. 53% o
s uden s in he ini ial su ey epo ed ha ing o ha ing had a pa - ime job while
s udying. By he end o he semes e , his p opo ion o s uden s was 65% in he
second su ey.
3 RESULTS
The in e nal consis ency o he o al sample in Sep embe 2024 (n = 103) was α =
0.81, indica ing a s ong le el o eliabili y o he GSE scale. Simila ly, he in e nal
consis ency o he o al sample in Decembe 2024 (n = 46) was 0.85. Table 2
p esen s a compa ison o he means o he GSE scale in lec u e 1 (Sep embe 2024)
and lec u e 13 (Decembe 2024), as well as a hi d sample (n = 19,719) o e e ence
(Romppel e al., 2013).
Table 1. Compa ison o mean esul s.
I ems (Q)
Mean o he
GSE scale in
Romppel e al.,
2013 (n =
19,719)
Mean o he
GSE scale in
Sep embe
(n = 103)
Mean o he
GSE scale in
Decembe
(n = 46)
Q1. I can always manage o sol e di icul
p oblems i I y ha d enough
3.14
3.3
3.3
Q2. I someone opposes me, I can ind
means and ways o ge wha I wan
2.96
3.0
3.0
Q3. I is easy o me o s ick o my aims and
accomplish my goals
2.80
3.1
3.1
Q4. I am con iden ha I could deal e icien ly
wi h unexpec ed e en s
2.85
3.1
3.0
Q5. Thanks o my esou ce ulness I know
how o handle un o eseen si ua ions
2.90
3.1
3.2
Q6. I can sol e mos p oblems i I in es he
necessa y e o
3.03
3.5
3.4
Q7. I can emain calm when acing di icul ies
because I can ely on my coping abili ies
2.95
3.2
3.1
Q8. When I am con on ed wi h a p oblem, I
can usually ind se e al solu ions
2.98
3.1
2.9
Q9. I I am in ouble I can usually hink o
some hing o do
3.01
3.3
3.2
Q10. No ma e wha comes my way I’m
usually able o handle i
2.97
3.4
3.2
As shown in Table 2, while di e ences be ween he wo ime poin s (Sep embe and
Decembe ) we e minimal, s uden s gene ally sco ed highe on he GSE scale
compa ed o he e e ence sample o 19,719 indi iduals. A pai ed-samples - es was
conduc ed o assess changes o e ime, and he esul s showed no s a is ically
signi ican di e ences (p > 0.05 o all i ems). The analysis ins ead ocuses on wo
ac o s: gende and s udy- ela ed job s a us. Fi s , he esul s examining gende
di e ences in s uden s’ esponses a e p esen ed. Second, he analysis explo es
di e ences based on whe he s uden s had a s udy- ela ed job o no . Due o he
limi ed numbe o pa icipan s, a - es combining bo h gende and job s a us could
no be conduc ed.
3.1 S uden s’ gende
The sel -e icacy sco es o male and emale s uden s we e compa ed ac oss all 10
su ey i ems (see Table 2 o desc ip i e s a is ics).
Table 2. Gende – desc ip i e s a is ics o he wo su eys (Sep embe = Sep, n =
103; Decembe = Dec, n = 46).
Men
Women
Ou o he 103 s uden s who esponded o he i s su ey in Sep embe , 46%
iden i ied as women and 54% as men. In gene al, male s uden s epo ed sligh ly
highe sel -e icacy han emale s uden s ac oss he majo i y o he i ems, wi h he
la ges di e ences obse ed in Q4 (Men: M = 3.29, SD = 0.594; Women: M = 2.82,
SD = 0.747) and Q7 (Men: M = 3.36, SD = 0.70; Women: M = 2.96, SD = 0.85). On
he o he hand, o Q1, Q2, and Q9, he mean sco es we e almos iden ical o bo h
gende s, sugges ing minimal gende di e ences in hese a eas. No ably, Q2 showed
iden ical mean alues (M = 3.02) o bo h gende s, hough women exhibi ed sligh ly
highe a iabili y (SD = 0.81) compa ed o men (SD = 0.75). The s anda d de ia ions
(SD) o women’s esponses we e gene ally highe , indica ing a g ea e a ia ion in
sel -e icacy pe cep ions among emale s uden s. This was pa icula ly e iden in Q7
(SD = 0.85) and Q8 (SD = 0.81). An independen samples - es was pe o med o
compa e he sel -e icacy sco es be ween male and emale s uden s. The esul s
indica ed ha while mos su ey i ems showed no signi ican di e ence (p > 0.05),
wo i ems did exhibi s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Q4 showed a highly
signi ican esul ( (99) = 3.472, p. < 0.001), indica ing ha male s uden s epo ed
signi ican ly highe sel -e icacy in his a ea. Simila ly, Q7 also showed a signi ican
di e ence ( (99) = 2.604, p = 0.011), again wi h male s uden s epo ing highe sel -
e icacy. Finally, Q8 app oached signi icance ( (99) = 1.741, p = 0.085), sugges ing a
ma ginally highe sel -e icacy sco e o male s uden s.
Mean
S d.
de ia ion
Mean
S d.
de ia ion
Independen
Samples - es
Signi icance
(p)
Q1
Sep
3.25
0.667
3.31
0.596
0.633
Dec
3.13
0.680
3.45
0.596
0.089
Q2
Sep
3.02
0.751
3.02
0.812
0.978
Dec
2.88
0.537
3.09
0.610
0.208
Q3
Sep
3.02
0.726
3.16
0.737
0.349
Dec
3.08
0.717
3.14
0.774
0.811
Q4
Sep
3.29
0.594
2.82
0.747
<0.001
Dec
3.17
0.565
2.91
0.868
0.235
Q5
Sep
3.20
0.616
3.04
0.673
0.240
Dec
3.21
0.509
3.18
0.733
0.887
Q6
Sep
3.54
0.571
3.40
0.780
0.316
Dec
3.29
0.464
3.45
0.596
0.305
Q7
Sep
3.36
0.699
2.96
0.852
0.011
Dec
3.13
0.680
3.00
0.756
0.558
Q8
Sep
3.18
0.606
2.93
0.809
0.085
Dec
2.96
0.624
2.91
0.811
0.818
Q9
Sep
3.27
0.587
3.24
0.645
0.849
Dec
3.21
0.588
3.27
0.631
0.722
Q10
Sep
3.46
0.571
3.27
0.688
0.118
Dec
3.29
0.550
3.18
0.853
0.603
In he second su ey conduc ed in Decembe , 52% we e male s uden s, while 48%
we e emale s uden s. An obse a ion is ha male s uden s’ sel -e icacy appea s o
sligh ly decline o e he cou se o he semes e , whe eas emale s uden s’ sel -
e icacy emains ela i ely s able o inc eases in some a eas. Fo ins ance, in Q1,
men’s mean sel -e icacy sco e dec eases om 3.25 in Sep embe o 3.13 in
Decembe , while women’s sco e inc eases om 3.31 o 3.45. A pai ed - es was
conduc ed o assess gende di e ences o e ime. Fo male s uden s in Q7, he e
was a s a is ically signi ican inc ease ( (11) = 2.244, p = 0.046). Addi ionally, se e al
bo de line signi ican changes we e obse ed o Q6 ( (11) = 2.159, p = 0.054), Q4
( (11) = 1.915, p = 0.082), and Q10 ( (11) = 1.820, p = 0.096). Howe e , he - es o
emale s uden s showed no signi ican di e ences om Sep embe o Decembe .
3.2 S uden s wi h o wi hou s uden jobs
The sel -e icacy sco es o s uden s wi h o wi hou a s uden job we e compa ed
ac oss all 10 su ey ques ions (see Table 3 o desc ip i e s a is ics).
Table 3. S uden s wi h o wi hou a s uden job – desc ip i e s a is ics o he wo
su eys (Sep embe = Sep, n = 103; Decembe = Dec, n = 46).
S uden job
No s uden job
Mean
S d.
de ia ion
Mean
S d.
de ia ion
Independen
Samples -
es
Signi icance
(p)
Q1
Sep
3.30
0.638
3.25
0.636
0.684
Dec
3.29
0.693
3.27
0.594
0.910
Q2
Sep
3.09
0.766
2.94
0.783
0.312
Dec
3.03
0.547
2.87
0.640
0.367
Q3
Sep
3.11
0.725
3.04
0.743
0.625
Dec
3.06
0.727
3.20
0.775
0.565
Q4
Sep
3.19
0.652
2.96
0.743
0.100
Dec
3.06
0.772
3.00
0.655
0.782
Q5
Sep
3.25
0.617
3.00
0.652
0.055
Dec
3.26
0.514
3.07
0.799
0.331
Q6
Sep
3.57
0.636
3.38
0.703
0.155
Dec
3.42
0.502
3.27
0.594
0.367
Q7
Sep
3.23
0.800
3.13
0.789
0.523
Dec
3.03
0.752
3.13
0.640
0.657
Q8
Sep
3.06
0.745
3.08
0.679
0.851
Dec
2.84
0.638
3.13
0.834
0.191
Q9
Sep
3.38
0.596
3.13
0.606
0.037
Dec
3.19
0.601
3.33
0.617
0.467
Q10
Sep
3.45
0.574
3.29
0.683
0.201
Dec
3.26
0.729
3.20
0.676
0.797
In he su ey conduc ed in Sep embe , a o al o 51% o s uden s epo ed ha ing a
s uden job, while 49% epo ed no ha ing one. Ac oss he majo i y o he i ems (Q1,
Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q7, Q9, & Q10), s uden s wi h a s udy job epo ed highe sel -
e icacy mean sco es compa ed o hose wi hou a s uden job. Fo example, in Q5,
he mean sco e o hose wi h a s uden job is 3.25, compa ed o 3.00 o hose
wi hou . Simila ly, in Q6, indi iduals wi h a s uden job sco e 3.57, while hose
wi hou sco e 3.38 on a e age. The a iabili y in esponses (as e lec ed by he
s anda d de ia ions) is simila o bo h g oups ac oss mos i ems, indica ing ha he
deg ee o sp ead in esponses is compa able be ween indi iduals wi h and wi hou a
s uden job. The la ges s anda d de ia ions a e obse ed in Q7, whe e bo h g oups
show some a ia ion in hei esponses, bu no signi ican di e ence be ween he
g oups in e ms o a iabili y. In gene al, he esul s e ealed ha mos i ems did no
show signi ican di e ences be ween indi iduals wi h and wi hou a s uden job.
Howe e , one i em demons a ed s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Q9 showed a
signi ican esul ( (99) = 2.109, p = 0.037), sugges ing ha s uden s wi h a job
sco ed highe han hose wi hou , while Q5 app oached signi icance ( (99) = 1.941, p
= 0.055).
In he su ey conduc ed in Decembe , a o al o 31 s uden s epo ed ha ing a
s uden job, while 17 epo ed no ha ing one. Compa ed o he su ey conduc ed in
Sep embe , he mean di e ences a e gene ally small ac oss all i ems, wi h some
i ems showing sligh ly highe means o s uden s wi h s uden jobs. Simila ly, he e
a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween s uden s wi h o wi hou s uden
jobs in he su ey conduc ed in Decembe . A pai ed - es we e applied o assess
hese di e ences o e ime. All he pai ed compa isons be ween Sep embe and
Decembe show no s a is ically signi ican di e ences, indica ing ha , on a e age,
he e we e no changes in he esponses be ween he wo mon hs ac oss he 10
i ems.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The s udy has se e al indica ions o he po en ials o applying he GSE scale as pa
o assessmen s and e alua ions in enginee ing cou ses wi h a p ojec managemen
ocus. This includes p o iding a ge ed suppo as lowe GSE sco es migh highligh
a need o addi ional men o ing o sca olding o ce ain s uden g oups. Addi ionally,
changes in GSE sco es ac oss a cou se could indica e g ow h in s uden s’ pe cei ed
abili y o e.g., handle challenges, emphasizing he possibili y o acking s uden s’
de elopmen , These indings mus be in e p e ed wi h cau ion, acknowledging bo h
he limi ed pa icipan pool and he con ex -speci ic na u e o enginee ing- ela ed
s udy p og ams. Howe e , esul s de i ed om applying he GSE scale a e ele an
o he equi emen s and condi ions o he speci ic si ua ion (Debap iyo e al., 2018). I
is impo an o ecognize ha hese s uden s do no ep esen a uni e sal sample,
no can hei expe iences be easily gene alized o o he disciplines.
Al hough he s udy sugges s he po en ial o using he GSE scale in enginee ing
educa ion, he esul s did no indica e a signi ican shi in s uden s’ sel -e icacy o e
he cou se. This aises ques ions abou which ac o s, such as cou se con en ,
pe sonal expe iences, o indi idual mo i a ion le els, may con ibu e o changes in
sel -e icacy, e en i hey we e no explici ly e lec ed in he da a. Fu he esea ch is
needed o explo e how hese elemen s in e ac and whe he speci ic aspec s o he
cou se con ibu e o shi s in sel -e icacy. Elemen s such as ica ious expe iences,
whe e s uden s obse ing eamma es sol ing p oblems o managing asks
e ec i ely, could model simila belie s in hei own abili ies in combina ion wi h an
in ended elemen o social pe suasion (Loo and Choy, 2013).
Since he GSE scale is widely used ac oss a ious con ex s (Chen e al., 2001), i is
ele an o conside how i s applica ion aligns wi h he speci ic se ing o his s udy.
Had we de eloped a con ex -speci ic sel -e icacy scale ailo ed o he p ojec
managemen cou se (Bandu a, 2005), i would ha e allowed o a mo e p ecise
measu emen o no only s uden s’ gene al ou look bu also hei con idence in
execu ing cou se-speci ic enginee ing asks. This s udy’s con ex , a Scandina ian
echnical uni e si y’s enginee ing cou se, aises impo an conside a ions ega ding
gene alizabili y and measu emen . While ocusing on a speci ic p ojec managemen
cou se p o ided a well-de ined se ing, i also limi s he ex en o which indings can
be applied o o he p og ams o ins i u ions. Cul u al and ins i u ional ac o s (e.g.,
he uni e si y in ques ion’s sys emic emphasis on g oup wo k and egali a ian
pa icipa ion) may shape sel -e icacy de elopmen di e en ly han in o he
educa ional en i onmen s. Fo ins ance, he ela i ely high baseline GSE sco es
obse ed could e lec a sel -selec ing g oup o al eady con iden s uden s o a
cul u al en i onmen ha inhe en ly suppo s sel -e icacy (Hend ickson, 2021). This
could ha e esul ed in a ceiling e ec , making i di icul o de ec signi ican g ow h
o e ime.
Male s uden s epo ed highe sel -e icacy han hei emale coun e pa s. This
aligns wi h p io esea ch on sel -e icacy in STEM (Chan, 2022). Gi en
me hodological limi a ions, i is unce ain whe he he p ojec managemen cou se
p o ided emale s uden s wi h such expe iences. Fu u e esea ch inco po a ing
quali a i e me hods could o e deepe insigh s in o gende di e ences in sel -
e icacy among enginee ing s uden s. The indings also indica e ha s uden s wi h a
s udy- ela ed job gene ally epo ed highe sel -e icacy sco es han hose wi hou ,
pa icula ly on i ems ela ed o handling unexpec ed challenges. This sugges s ha
eal-wo ld exposu e h ough employmen may play a signi ican ole in shaping
s uden s’ pe cep ion o hei abili ies o na iga e un o eseen si ua ions. Ha ing a
s uden job likely p o ides s uden s wi h p ac ical p oblem-sol ing expe iences,
equi ing hem o adap o new challenges, manage asks unde p essu e, and
de elop a sense o esou ce ulness. S uden s wi h a s uden job may ha e g ea e
exposu e o p o essional en i onmen s whe e hey obse e and engage wi h
expe ienced colleagues, which could con ibu e o hei sense o ica ious lea ning
(Bandu a, 1982; 1994). Howe e , o he ac o s could also in luence hese
di e ences. Fo ins ance, s uden s who seek ou s uden jobs migh al eady possess
highe ini ial con idence le els, making hem mo e inclined o ake on esponsibili ies
ha u he enhance hei sel -e icacy. Fu u e esea ch could explo e whe he
speci ic job cha ac e is ics, such as ask complexi y, le el o esponsibili y, o
men o ship oppo uni ies, con ibu e o sel -e icacy g ow h. Addi ionally,
in es iga ing how o he expe ien ial lea ning oppo uni ies could p o ide u he
insigh s in o how enginee ing s uden s de elop sel -e icacy. In conclusion, by
pu suing hese u u e di ec ions and a ending o he limi a ions, he ield can
ad ance owa d a mo e nuanced and powe ul unde s anding o how o nu u e
