Academic Edi o : Angela Zinnai
Recei ed: 5 Ma ch 2025
Re ised: 13 Ma ch 2025
Accep ed: 25 Ma ch 2025
Published: 27 Ma ch 2025
Ci a ion: Ma i, A.; Kekes, T.;
Boukou alas, C.; K okida, M.
In eg a ing Li e Cycle Assessmen in
Inno a i e Be y P ocessing wi h
Edible Coa ing and Osmo ic
Dehyd a ion. Foods 2025,14, 1167.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
oods14071167
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A icle
In eg a ing Li e Cycle Assessmen in Inno a i e Be y
P ocessing wi h Edible Coa ing and Osmo ic Dehyd a ion
Alexand a Ma i *, T y on Kekes, Ch is os Boukou alas and Magdalini K okida
School o Chemical Enginee ing, Na ional Technical Uni e si y o A hens, Zog a ou, 15780 A hens, G eece
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +30-2107723149
Abs ac : This s udy p esen s a Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) o a be y p oduc ion sys-
em using osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ing o ex end he shel li e and imp o e
he nu i ional alue. The goal is o e alua e en i onmen al impac s, iden i y ho spo s,
and p opose imp o emen s. Osmo ic dehyd a ion is he main con ibu o o en i on-
men al impac , pa icula ly due o he ene gy and esou ces equi ed by apple juice as
he osmo ic agen . I con ibu es up o 0.64 kg CO
2
eq. pe kg o bluebe ies, 1.36 kg
CO
2
eq. pe kg o aspbe ies, and 0.66 kg CO
2
eq. pe kg o s awbe ies. The edible
coa ing, howe e , has minimal en i onmen al impac due o i s low ene gy consump ion
and biodeg adable ma e ials. Packaging has a lowe ca bon oo p in bu con ibu es
mo e o ossil uel deple ion and human oxici y. Raspbe ies show he highes human
heal h impac
(3.5 ×10−6DALY/kg)
and ecosys em impac
(9.5 ×10−8species.y /kg)
, ol-
lowed by s awbe ies
(1.78 ×10−6DALY/kg, 4.97 ×10−8species.y /kg
) and bluebe ies
(
1.7 ×10−6DALY/kg, 5.1 ×10−8species.y /kg
), highligh ing he g ea e en i onmen al
and heal h cos s o aspbe ies. Despi e he en i onmen al bu den o osmo ic dehyd a ion,
i o e s economic bene i s by ex ending he shel li e, educing losses, imp o ing supply
chain e iciency, and enhancing p oduc quali y, which leads o highe p ices and p o i ma -
gins. The s udy concludes ha , while he en i onmen al impac s o osmo ic dehyd a ion
should be op imized, i s economic and logis ical bene i s make i a p omising p ese a ion
solu ion. Fu he esea ch in o eco- iendly p ac ices is ecommended o educe ecological
cos s while main aining comme cial ad an ages.
Keywo ds: Li e Cycle Assessmen ; be ies p ocessing; sus ainabili y; osmo ic dehyd a ion;
edible coa ing
1. In oduc ion
Mode n li es yles a e in ica ely linked o die a y habi s, wi h ui s and ege ables be-
ing in eg al componen s o a heal hy die due o hei abundance o bioac i e compounds [
1
].
Be ies a e a aluable componen o a heal hy die , known o hei ich nu i ional p o ile,
including essen ial i amins (C and K), mine als (manganese and po assium), and bioac i e
compounds such as la onoids and an hocyanins [
2
]. These phy ochemicals o e po en
an ioxidan and an i-in lamma o y bene i s, suppo ing hea heal h, b ain unc ion, and
educing he isk o ch onic diseases like diabe es and cance [
3
,
4
]. Due o hei low-calo ie
con en and na u al swee ness, be ies a e inc easingly popula among heal h-conscious
consume s [5,6].
The shel li e o be ies is a c ucial ac o in ensu ing hei a ailabili y and minimizing
losses h oughou he ood supply chain. Due o hei high pe ishabili y and apid de e-
io a ion, be ies a e pa icula ly suscep ible o spoilage, which leads o signi ican ood
Foods 2025,14, 1167 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ oods14071167
Foods 2025,14, 1167 2 o 17
was e, especially du ing he anspo a ion and s o age s ages [
7
]. The seasonal na u e o
be y p oduc ion o en esul s in pe iods o o e supply, which, i no e icien ly managed,
can lead o excess p oduc ha spoils be o e eaching consume s [
8
,
9
]. The losses incu ed
no only a ec he economic iabili y o be y p oduce s bu also con ibu e o he b oade
en i onmen al issue o ood was e [
10
,
11
]. Acco ding o he Uni ed Na ions Food and Ag i-
cul u e O ganiza ion (FAO), 13.8% o global ood p oduc ion is los annually be o e i e en
eaches consume s, wi h ui s and ege ables being pa icula ly ulne able, expe iencing
a loss a e o 21.6% [
12
]. This loss has p o ound economic implica ions, pa icula ly in he
be y indus y, whe e o e supply and inadequa e s o age sys ems can d as ically educe
p o i abili y [13].
To mi iga e hese losses, a ious p ese a ion echniques ha e been de eloped o
ex end he shel li e o be ies while main aining hei quali y and nu i ional alue. The
abili y o ex end he eshness o be ies p o ides signi ican economic bene i s, educing
he olume o p oduc was e and imp o ing supply chain e iciency [
5
,
14
]. P ese a ion
me hods such as osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ings a e gaining a en ion o hei
e ec i eness in p olonging be y eshness and minimizing spoilage. Osmo ic dehyd a ion
wo ks by imme sing be ies in hype onic solu ions, which educes he mois u e con en
and inhibi s mic obial g ow h, hus slowing down spoilage and ex ending he shel li e [
15
].
Edible coa ings, ypically made om na u al biopolyme s such as polysaccha ides, p o eins,
and lipids, c ea e a p o ec i e ba ie ha limi s mois u e loss, p e en s oxygen ing ess, and
educes mic obial con amina ion [
16
]. These coa ings help main ain he quali y and ex u e
o be ies, ex ending hei eshness du ing s o age and anspo a ion [
17
,
18
]. Addi ionally,
he ex ended shel li e made possible by hese me hods no only educes ood was e bu
also imp o es he o e all e iciency o he be y supply chain, allowing o be e in en o y
managemen , ewe anspo - ela ed losses, and g ea e p o i abili y o p oduce s [19].
Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) plays a c ucial ole in e alua ing he en i onmen al
impac s o hese p ese a ion me hods [
20
]. By examining he en i e li ecycle o a p oduc
o p ocess— om aw ma e ial ex ac ion o disposal—LCA p o ides aluable insigh s in o
he esou ce use, ene gy consump ion, and emissions associa ed wi h di e en p ese a ion
s a egies [
21
]. In he case o osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ings, LCA can help
de e mine hei en i onmen al sus ainabili y by compa ing hei ecological oo p in and
iden i ying oppo uni ies o imp o emen [
22
]. This comp ehensi e e alua ion enables
he iden i ica ion o he mos sus ainable p ac ices wi hin he ood indus y, pa icula ly in
he con ex o be y p ese a ion.
The aim o his s udy is o conduc an LCA o sus ainable echniques o p ese ing
he quali y and ex ending he shel li e o be ies. Speci ically, he esea ch analyzes he
en i onmen al impac s o osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ings as me hods o p olong
he shel li e o be ies, wi h he p ima y goal being o assess he easibili y and sus ainabili y
o hese echnologies. This s udy akes a comp ehensi e app oach o e alua ing hese
p ese a ion me hods om an en i onmen al pe spec i e, ocusing on hei long- e m
sus ainabili y and po en ial o educe he ecological oo p in o be y p ese a ion.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) was pe o med ollowing he guidelines ou lined in
ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 [
23
], and i consis s o ou s eps: (i) Goal & Scope De ini ion,
(ii) In en o y Analysis, (iii) Impac Assessmen , and (i ) In e p e a ion.
Foods 2025,14, 1167 3 o 17
2.1. Goal and Scope
The Goal o he LCA analysis was o de e mine he e ec o he implemen a ion o mild
p ocessing me hods, such as osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ings, in he de elopmen
o inno a i e be ies wi h an inc eased shel -li e and high nu i ional alue.
A ga e- o-ga e app oach was selec ed o he e alua ion o he en i onmen al oo p in
o p ocessed be ies. Speci ically, he sys em bounda ies encompass p oduc ion p ocesses
om be ies pickup o p ocessing and packaging.
The da a u ilized in his s udy we e sou ced om he GaBi p o essional and Ecoin en
da abases, which pe ain o he geog aphical a ea o he Eu opean Union 28 (EU-28). All
he s udies and da a collec ed a e ele an o he pas i e yea s.
The Scope o he LCA analysis in ol es de ining he goals and bounda ies o he s udy,
collec ing da a on esou ce inpu s and en i onmen al ou pu s h oughou all s ages o he
li e cycle, e alua ing po en ial en i onmen al impac s, and in e p e ing he esul s o guide
decision-making and os e sus ainabili y.
The Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) was pe o med ollowing he ecommenda ions
p oposed by he ISO 14040 ecommenda ions se ies (14040:2006 and 14044:2006) [
23
].
ReCiPe 2016 (H, hie a chis ) was selec ed as a me hod o pe o m he impac assessmen ,
wi h i s main objec i e being he ans o ma ion o Li e Cycle In en o y esul s in o a
limi ed numbe o en i onmen al impac sco es using cha ac e iza ion ac o s. Finally,
GaBi s so wa e ( 10.6.2.9, Sphe a Solu ions GmbH, Ech e dingen, S u ga , Ge many)
was used o he calcula ion o he impac ca ego ies [24].
The ReCiPe 2016 me hodology de ines impac indica o s a wo le els: midpoin and
endpoin indica o s. Midpoin indica o s ocus on speci ic en i onmen al impac s, p o id-
ing de ailed insigh s in o a eas such as clima e change, pa icula e ma e o ma ion, and
esou ce deple ion. These indica o s co e issues like clima e change (wi h and wi hou
biogenic ca bon), pa icula e ma e , mine al esou ce deple ion, eshwa e consump ion
and eco oxici y, eu ophica ion, human oxici y (ca cinogenic and non-ca cinogenic), ioniz-
ing adia ion, land use, ma ine eco oxici y, pho ochemical ozone o ma ion, s a osphe ic
ozone deple ion, and e es ial acidi ica ion and eco oxici y.
Endpoin indica o s agg ega e he midpoin indica o s o simpli y esul in e p e a ion.
Howe e , as agg ega ion inc eases, so does he unce ain y o he esul s. Endpoin indica-
o s o e a b oade o e iew o en i onmen al impac s, assessing damage o human heal h
(measu ed in Disabili y-Adjus ed Li e Yea s, DALY), ecosys ems (measu ed in species.y ),
and esou ce a ailabili y (measu ed in mone a y e ms, $).
2.1.1. P oduc Sys ems and Sys em’s Bounda ies
The e alua ion was conduc ed on he inno a i e be y p oduc ion line wi h ex ended
shel li e. The sys em s udied includes he p ocess o ecei ing, p ocessing, and packaging
be ies in an inno a i e p oduc ion line, as shown in Figu e 1. Speci ically, compa ed
o con en ional be ies ha a e ecei ed and di ec ly packaged, p ocessing me hods o
osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ing ha e been added o he p oduc ion phase.
Foods 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 17
2.1. Goal and Scope
The Goal o he LCA analysis was o de e mine he effec o he implemen a ion o
mild p ocessing me hods, such as osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ings, in he de el-
opmen o inno a i e be ies wi h an inc eased shel -li e and high nu i ional alue.
A ga e- o-ga e app oach was selec ed o he e alua ion o he en i onmen al oo -
p in o p ocessed be ies. Speci ically, he sys em bounda ies encompass p oduc ion p o-
cesses om be ies pickup o p ocessing and packaging.
The da a u ilized in his s udy we e sou ced om he GaBi p o essional and Ecoin-
en da abases, which pe ain o he geog aphical a ea o he Eu opean Union 28 (EU-28).
All he s udies and da a collec ed a e ele an o he pas i e yea s.
The Scope o he LCA analysis in ol es de ining he goals and bounda ies o he
s udy, collec ing da a on esou ce inpu s and en i onmen al ou pu s h oughou all s ages
o he li e cycle, e alua ing po en ial en i onmen al impac s, and in e p e ing he esul s
o guide decision-making and os e sus ainabili y.
The Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) was pe o med ollowing he ecommenda ions
p oposed by he ISO 14040 ecommenda ions se ies (14040:2006 and 14044:2006) [23].
ReCiPe 2016 (H, hie a chis ) was selec ed as a me hod o pe o m he impac assessmen ,
wi h i s main objec i e being he ans o ma ion o Li e Cycle In en o y esul s in o a lim-
i ed numbe o en i onmen al impac sco es using cha ac e iza ion ac o s. Finally, GaBi
s so wa e ( 10.6.2.9, Sphe a Solu ions GmbH, Ech e dingen, S u ga , Ge many) was
used o he calcula ion o he impac ca ego ies [24].
The ReCiPe 2016 me hodology de ines impac indica o s a wo le els: midpoin and
endpoin indica o s. Midpoin indica o s ocus on speci ic en i onmen al impac s,
p o iding de ailed insigh s in o a eas such as clima e change, pa icula e ma e o -
ma ion, and esou ce deple ion. These indica o s co e issues like clima e change (wi h
and wi hou biogenic ca bon), pa icula e ma e , mine al esou ce deple ion, eshwa e
consump ion and eco oxici y, eu ophica ion, human oxici y (ca cinogenic and non-ca -
cinogenic), ionizing adia ion, land use, ma ine eco oxici y, pho ochemical ozone o -
ma ion, s a osphe ic ozone deple ion, and e es ial acidi ica ion and eco oxici y.
Endpoin indica o s agg ega e he midpoin indica o s o simpli y esul in e p e a-
ion. Howe e , as agg ega ion inc eases, so does he unce ain y o he esul s. Endpoin
indica o s offe a b oade o e iew o en i onmen al impac s, assessing damage o hu-
man heal h (measu ed in Disabili y-Adjus ed Li e Yea s, DALY), ecosys ems (measu ed
in species.y ), and esou ce a ailabili y (measu ed in mone a y e ms, $).
2.1.1. P oduc Sys ems and Sys em’s Bounda ies
The e alua ion was conduc ed on he inno a i e be y p oduc ion line wi h ex ended
shel li e. The sys em s udied includes he p ocess o ecei ing, p ocessing, and packaging
be ies in an inno a i e p oduc ion line, as shown in Figu e 1. Speci ically, compa ed o
con en ional be ies ha a e ecei ed and di ec ly packaged, p ocessing me hods o os-
mo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ing ha e been added o he p oduc ion phase.
Figu e 1. Flow cha o he inno a i e p oduc ion o be ies.
Foods 2025,14, 1167 4 o 17
2.1.2. P ocess Analysis
Figu e 2p o ides a g aphical ep esen a ion o he p oduc ion chain, illus a ing he
p ocess om s a o inish. I begins wi h he addi ion o eshly ha es ed be ies in o he
osmo ic solu ion, ollowed by hei imme sion in he edible coa ing solu ion, and concludes
wi h he packaging o he be ies as he inal p oduc .
Foods 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 17
Figu e 1. Flow cha o he inno a i e p oduc ion o be ies.
2.1.2. P ocess Analysis
Figu e 2 p o ides a g aphical ep esen a ion o he p oduc ion chain, illus a ing he
p ocess om s a o inish. I begins wi h he addi ion o eshly ha es ed be ies in o
he osmo ic solu ion, ollowed by hei imme sion in he edible coa ing solu ion, and con-
cludes wi h he packaging o he be ies as he inal p oduc .
Figu e 2. P ocess o he inno a i e p oduc ion o be ies.
Osmo ic Dehyd a ion
Osmo ic dehyd a ion is a na u al and mild me hod o emo ing wa e om ood us-
ing osmo ic solu ions. Based on he p inciple o osmosis, he p ocess exploi s he mo e-
men o wa e om a egion o low solu e concen a ion o a egion o high solu e concen-
a ion h ough a semipe meable memb ane [18]. In he osmo ic dehyd a ion o be ies,
apple juice a 42°B ix has been selec ed as he op imum solu ion, a e an op imiza ion
conduc ed in he labo a o y ega ding he dehyd a ion kine ics, he quali y cha ac e is ics
o he inal p oduc , and he shel li e [25]. The du a ion o dehyd a ion a ies be ween
he diffe en ypes, wi h bluebe ies and aspbe ies a 360 min and s awbe ies a 200
min o achie e he op imal esul . The p ocess is ca ied ou a 40 °C, main aining he
nu i ional alue and o ganolep ic cha ac e is ics o he be ies and making i sui able o
indus ial applica ion. This me hod helps p ese e he na u al ex u e, a oma, and la o
o he be ies, as i does no equi e high empe a u es o mechanical s esses ha could
damage he cell walls [26]. A he same ime, osmo ic dehyd a ion educes he need o
p ese a i es and ex ensi e p ocessing, making he be ies heal hie and mo e appealing
o consume s seeking na u ally p ocessed p oduc s. Finally, his me hod offe s economic
and en i onmen al bene i s, as i educes ene gy and esou ce consump ion, con ibu ing
o a sus ainable and efficien p oduc ion o p oduc s.
Edible Coa ing
Edible coa ing is an inno a i e echnology applied in ood p ocessing, aimed a im-
p o ing hei quali y and shel li e. This p ocess in ol es coa ing he be ies wi h an edible
ilm made om na u al ma e ials such as polysaccha ides, p o eins, and lipids [27]. Edible
coa ings a e designed o c ea e a p o ec i e ba ie ha educes mois u e loss and p e-
en s oxygen ing ess while simul aneously p o ec ing he be ies om mic obial con am-
ina ion [28]. The edible coa ing was selec ed based on he e alua ion o a ious coa ings
conduc ed by Ma i e al. (2024) [29]. In hei s udy, he coa ing de i ed om he p o ein
o Chlo ella ulga is was iden i ied as he mos effec i e o enhancing he shel li e o be -
ies. The sys em s udied includes he p ocess o ecei ing, p ocessing, and packaging be -
ies in an inno a i e p oduc ion line, as shown in Figu e 1. Speci ically, compa ed o con-
en ional be ies ha a e ecei ed and di ec ly packaged, p ocessing me hods o osmo ic
dehyd a ion and edible coa ing ha e been added o he p oduc ion phase.
Packaging
The be ies we e packaged using High-Densi y Polye hylene (HDPE) plas ic, se-
lec ed o i s du abili y and p o ec i e quali ies. The packaging was designed o minimize
Figu e 2. P ocess o he inno a i e p oduc ion o be ies.
Osmo ic Dehyd a ion
Osmo ic dehyd a ion is a na u al and mild me hod o emo ing wa e om ood using
osmo ic solu ions. Based on he p inciple o osmosis, he p ocess exploi s he mo emen o
wa e om a egion o low solu e concen a ion o a egion o high solu e concen a ion
h ough a semipe meable memb ane [
18
]. In he osmo ic dehyd a ion o be ies, apple
juice a 42
◦
B ix has been selec ed as he op imum solu ion, a e an op imiza ion conduc ed
in he labo a o y ega ding he dehyd a ion kine ics, he quali y cha ac e is ics o he inal
p oduc , and he shel li e [
25
]. The du a ion o dehyd a ion a ies be ween he di e en
ypes, wi h bluebe ies and aspbe ies a 360 min and s awbe ies a 200 min o achie e
he op imal esul . The p ocess is ca ied ou a 40
◦
C, main aining he nu i ional alue and
o ganolep ic cha ac e is ics o he be ies and making i sui able o indus ial applica ion.
This me hod helps p ese e he na u al ex u e, a oma, and la o o he be ies, as i does
no equi e high empe a u es o mechanical s esses ha could damage he cell walls [
26
].
A he same ime, osmo ic dehyd a ion educes he need o p ese a i es and ex ensi e
p ocessing, making he be ies heal hie and mo e appealing o consume s seeking na u ally
p ocessed p oduc s. Finally, his me hod o e s economic and en i onmen al bene i s, as
i educes ene gy and esou ce consump ion, con ibu ing o a sus ainable and e icien
p oduc ion o p oduc s.
Edible Coa ing
Edible coa ing is an inno a i e echnology applied in ood p ocessing, aimed a
imp o ing hei quali y and shel li e. This p ocess in ol es coa ing he be ies wi h an
edible ilm made om na u al ma e ials such as polysaccha ides, p o eins, and lipids [
27
].
Edible coa ings a e designed o c ea e a p o ec i e ba ie ha educes mois u e loss
and p e en s oxygen ing ess while simul aneously p o ec ing he be ies om mic obial
con amina ion [
28
]. The edible coa ing was selec ed based on he e alua ion o a ious
coa ings conduc ed by Ma i e al. (2024) [
29
]. In hei s udy, he coa ing de i ed om he
p o ein o Chlo ella ulga is was iden i ied as he mos e ec i e o enhancing he shel li e
o be ies. The sys em s udied includes he p ocess o ecei ing, p ocessing, and packaging
be ies in an inno a i e p oduc ion line, as shown in Figu e 1. Speci ically, compa ed
o con en ional be ies ha a e ecei ed and di ec ly packaged, p ocessing me hods o
osmo ic dehyd a ion and edible coa ing ha e been added o he p oduc ion phase.
Packaging
The be ies we e packaged using High-Densi y Polye hylene (HDPE) plas ic, selec ed
o i s du abili y and p o ec i e quali ies. The packaging was designed o minimize physical
damage du ing handling, anspo a ion, and s o age. HDPE se es as an e ec i e ba ie
Foods 2025,14, 1167 5 o 17
agains mois u e, oxygen, and con aminan s, helping o main ain he eshness, appea ance,
and quali y o he be ies o e ime. The ma e ial’s s uc u al in eg i y ensu es ha he
be ies emain in ac , educing he isk o b uising o o he damage [
11
]. The packaging was
sealed o p e en mois u e loss and exposu e o ai , he eby slowing down he de e io a ion
p ocess. HDPE’s anspa en na u e allows o easy isibili y o he p oduc , aiding in
consume decision-making while also p o iding a s able su ace o labeling and b anding.
Fu he mo e, he choice o HDPE was based on i s cos -e ec i eness and widely ecognized
pe o mance in ex ending he shel li e o pe ishable i ems [
28
–
31
].This packaging me hod
is commonly used o esh p oduce due o i s e ec i eness in p o ec ing he p oduc
and acili a ing handling and anspo . Howe e , he en i onmen al impac o HDPE
packaging was also conside ed, wi h a ocus on explo ing mo e sus ainable al e na i es o
u u e applica ions.
2.1.3. Func ional Uni
The unc ional uni o he be y sys ems is de ined as 1 kg (1 kg), while an analysis
was also conduc ed using 1 eu o (EUR) o e enue as a unc ional uni .
2.1.4. Assump ions and Limi a ions
The da a used o be y p oduc ion in bo h cases is de i ed om expe imen al s udies
and supplemen ed wi h li e a u e e iews o ensu e accu acy and ep esen he cu en
indus y condi ions. This s udy p ima ily aims o assess he en i onmen al oo p in o
he p oposed me hods and e alua e hei easibili y o managing solid and liquid was e.
Addi ionally, ene gy consump ion is ca e ully conside ed, pa icula ly in he osmo ic
dehyd a ion p ocess, whe e he highes ene gy losses occu .
2.1.5. Da a Requi emen s
Fo he collec ion o da a and he es ablishmen o he in en o y, alues we e ob ained
om expe imen s conduc ed by ou esea ch eam be ween 2021 and 2024. These expe i-
men al da a we e combined wi h ele an li e a u e da a, and all igu es we e app op ia ely
adjus ed and e i ied h ough di ec communica ion wi hin he eam.
2.2. Li e Cycle In en o y
The Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI) links p ocesses wi h quan i a i e da a based on he
selec ed unc ional uni (1 kg o inal packaged be ies). Tables 1–3p esen he inpu and
ou pu da a o each p ocess in ol ed in be y p ocessing, as depic ed in Figu e 2, o each
be y. Li e a u e and expe imen al da a we e used as a e e ence o da a collec ion and
in en o y es ablishmen , wi h app op ia e adjus men s made based on he speci ic con ex .
These numbe s we e e i ied h ough ca e ul e iew and consul a ion wi h ele an sou ces.
Table 1. Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI) o inno a i e bluebe ies, exp essed on a uni basis (1 kg o inal
packaged be ies) o he inal bluebe y p oduc .
P ocess Flow Quan i y
Osmo ic dehyd a ion [In] Bluebe ies (kg) 0.91
[In] Apple juice (kg) 1.20
[In] Wa e (kg) 1.02
[In] Elec ici y (MJ) 0.25
[Ou ] Bluebe ies (kg) 0.90
[Ou ] Was ewa e (kg) 1.72
Foods 2025,14, 1167 6 o 17
Table 1. Con .
P ocess Flow Quan i y
Edible coa ing [In] Be ies (kg) 0.90
[In] P o ein (kg) 0.01
[In] Tween 20 (kg) 3.58 ×10−4
[In] Glyce ol (kg) 2.69 ×10−3
[In] Wa e (kg) 0.08
[Ou ] Bluebe ies (kg) 0.99
Packaging [In] Bluebe ies (kg) 0.99
[In] HDPE (kg) 0.01
[Ou ] Bluebe ies (kg) 1.00
Table 2. Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI) o inno a i e aspbe ies, exp essed on a uni basis (1 kg o inal
packaged be ies) o he inal aspbe y p oduc .
P ocess Flow Quan i y
Osmo ic dehyd a ion [In] Raspbe ies (kg) 1.17
[In] Apple juice (kg) 1.52
[In] Wa e (kg) 1.30
[In] Elec ici y (MJ) 0.20
[Ou ] Raspbe ies (kg) 0.90
[Ou ] Was ewa e (kg) 2.60
Edible coa ing [In] Be ies (kg) 0.90
[In] P o ein (kg) 0.01
[In] Tween 20 (kg) 3.58 ×10−4
[In] Glyce ol (kg) 2.69 ×10−3
[In] Wa e (kg) 0.08
[Ou ] Raspbe ies (kg) 0.99
Packaging [In] Raspbe ies (kg) 0.99
[In] HDPE (kg) 0.01
[Ou ] Raspbe ies (kg) 1.00
Table 3. Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI) o inno a i e s awbe ies, exp essed on a uni basis (1 kg o
inal packaged be ies) o he inal s awbe y p oduc .
P ocess Flow Quan i y
Osmo ic dehyd a ion [In] S awbe ies (kg) 1.03
[In] Apple juice (kg) 0.75
[In] Wa e (kg) 1.15
[In] Elec ici y (MJ) 0.25
[Ou ] S awbe ies (kg) 0.90
[Ou ] Was ewa e (kg) 3.94
Edible coa ing [In] Be ies (kg) 0.90
[In] P o ein (kg) 0.01
[In] Tween 20 (kg) 3.58 ×10−4
[In] Glyce ol (kg) 2.69 ×10−3
[In] Wa e (kg) 0.08
[Ou ] S awbe ies (kg) 0.99
Packaging [In] S awbe ies (kg) 0.99
[In] HDPE (kg) 0.01
[Ou ] S awbe ies (kg) 1.00
Foods 2025,14, 1167 7 o 17
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen
The esul s o he en i onmen al impac assessmen h oughou he li e cycle o he
p oduc ion o inno a i e be ies (bluebe y, aspbe y, and s awbe y) wi h ex ended shel
li e, pe 1 kg o inal packaged be ies, a e p esen ed in Tables 4–6.
Table 4. Li e cycle impac assessmen esul s o he inno a i e bluebe ies (pe 1 kg o inal packaged
be ies) o he selec ed con en ional and inno a i e midpoin impac ca ego ies.
Midpoin Impac
Ca ego ies Uni s Osmo ic
Dehyd a ion
Edible
Coa ing Packaging To al
Clima e change,
de aul , excl
biogenic ca bon
kg CO2eq. 6.35E−01 1.27E−02 2.26E−02 6.70E−01
Clima e change,
incl biogenic ca bon kg CO2eq. 4.02E−01 4.21E−03 2.27E−02 4.29E−01
Fine Pa icula e
Ma e Fo ma ion kg PM2.5 eq. 6.42E−04 1.01E−05 7.88E−06 6.60E−04
Fossil deple ion kg oil eq. 1.20E−01 5.01E−03 2.28E−02 1.48E−01
F eshwa e
Consump ion m36.92E−02 1.13E−04 9.86E−05 6.94E−02
F eshwa e
eco oxici y kg 1.4 DB eq. 1.03E−03 6.94E−06 8.24E−06 1.05E−03
F eshwa e
Eu ophica ion kg P eq. 1.09E−05 1.08E−06 3.46E−08 1.20E−05
Human oxici y,
cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 2.80E−04 3.79E−06 1.35E−05 2.97E−04
Human oxici y,
non-cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 2.66E−02 1.27E−02 2.83E−03 4.21E−02
Ionizing Radia ion Bq C-60 eq. o
ai 1.29E−03 6.14E−04 7.77E−05 1.98E−03
Land use Annual c op
eq.·y3.56E−01 1.31E−02 2.94E−04 3.69E−01
Ma ine eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 8.64E−04 1.11E−05 2.44E−05 9.00E−04
Ma ine
Eu ophica ion kg N eq. 4.29E−04 8.28E−06 2.86E−07 4.38E−04
Me al deple ion kg Cu eq. 5.35E−04 3.17E−04 1.63E−05 8.68E−04
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Ecosys ems
kg NOxeq. 2.99E−01 2.82E−02 1.62E−02 3.43E−01
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Human Heal h
kg NOxeq. 1.87E−01 1.75E−02 1.00E−02 2.15E−01
S a osphe ic
Ozone Deple ion kg CFC-11 eq. 1.67E−06 2.18E−08 4.88E−09 1.70E−06
Te es ial
Acidi ica ion kg SO2eq. 1.88E−03 4.35E−05 2.37E−05 1.95E−03
Te es ial eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 7.14E−02 5.25E−03 3.12E−03 7.98E−02
Foods 2025,14, 1167 8 o 17
Table 5. Li e cycle impac assessmen esul s o he inno a i e aspbe ies (pe 1 kg o inal packaged
be ies) o he selec ed con en ional and inno a i e midpoin impac ca ego ies.
Midpoin Impac
Ca ego ies Uni s Osmo ic
Dehyd a ion
Edible
Coa ing Packaging To al
Clima e change,
de aul , excl
biogenic ca bon
kg CO2eq. 1.36E+00 6.36E−02 2.26E−02 1.45E+00
Clima e change,
incl biogenic ca bon kg CO2eq. 8.35E−01 2.14E−02 2.26E−02 8.79E−01
Fine Pa icula e
Ma e Fo ma ion kg PM2.5 eq. 1.39E−03 5.05E−05 7.86E−06 1.45E−03
Fossil deple ion kg oil eq. 2.56E−01 2.51E−02 2.27E−02 3.04E−01
F eshwa e
Consump ion m31.55E−01 5.67E−04 9.83E−05 1.56E−01
F eshwa e
eco oxici y kg 1.4 DB eq. 2.27E−03 3.45E−05 8.22E−06 2.31E−03
F eshwa e
Eu ophica ion kg P eq. 2.24E−05 5.39E−06 3.45E−08 2.78E−05
Human oxici y,
cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 5.53E−04 1.90E−05 1.35E−05 5.86E−04
Human oxici y,
non-cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 5.67E−02 6.27E−02 2.82E−03 1.22E−01
Ionizing Radia ion Bq C-60 eq. o
ai 2.86E−03 3.07E−03 7.74E−05 6.01E−03
Land use Annual c op
eq.·y7.92E−01 6.52E−02 2.93E−04 8.57E−01
Ma ine eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 1.89E−03 5.53E−05 2.44E−05 1.97E−03
Ma ine
Eu ophica ion kg N eq. 9.53E−04 4.12E−05 2.85E−07 9.94E−04
Me al deple ion kg Cu eq. 1.12E−03 1.58E−03 1.63E−05 2.72E−03
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Ecosys ems
kg NOxeq. 5.78E−01 1.41E−01 1.61E−02 7.35E−01
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Human Heal h
kg NOxeq. 3.61E−01 8.77E−02 1.00E−02 4.59E−01
S a osphe ic
Ozone Deple ion kg CFC-11 eq. 3.71E−06 1.08E−07 4.86E−09 3.82E−06
Te es ial
Acidi ica ion kg SO2eq. 4.09E−03 2.16E−04 2.36E−05 4.33E−03
Te es ial eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 1.29E−01 2.61E−02 3.11E−03 1.58E−01
Foods 2025,14, 1167 9 o 17
Table 6. Li e cycle impac assessmen esul s o he inno a i e s awbe ies (pe 1 kg o inal
packaged be ies) o he selec ed con en ional and inno a i e midpoin impac ca ego ies.
Midpoin Impac
Ca ego ies Uni s Osmo ic
Dehyd a ion
Edible
Coa ing Packaging To al
Clima e change,
de aul , excl
biogenic ca bon
kg CO2eq. 6.65E−01 2.55E−02 2.27E−02 7.13E−01
Clima e change,
incl biogenic ca bon kg CO2eq. 4.15E−01 8.51E−03 2.27E−02 4.46E−01
Fine Pa icula e
Ma e Fo ma ion kg PM2.5 eq. 6.75E−04 2.02E−05 7.90E−06 7.03E−04
Fossil deple ion kg oil eq. 1.23E−01 1.01E−02 2.29E−02 1.56E−01
F eshwa e
Consump ion m3 7.41E−02 2.27E−04 9.88E−05 7.44E−02
F eshwa e
eco oxici y kg 1.4 DB eq. 1.15E−03 1.39E−05 8.26E−06 1.17E−03
F eshwa e
Eu ophica ion kg P eq. 1.51E−05 2.16E−06 3.47E−08 1.73E−05
Human oxici y,
cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 4.03E−04 7.60E−06 1.36E−05 4.24E−04
Human oxici y,
non-cance kg 1.4-DB eq. 2.81E−02 2.53E−02 2.84E−03 5.62E−02
Ionizing Radia ion Bq C-60 eq. o
ai 1.44E−03 1.23E−03 7.78E−05 2.75E−03
Land use Annual c op
eq.·y3.92E−01 2.61E−02 2.94E−04 4.18E−01
Ma ine eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 9.60E−04 2.22E−05 2.45E−05 1.01E−03
Ma ine
Eu ophica ion kg N eq. 4.78E−04 1.65E−05 2.87E−07 4.95E−04
Me al deple ion kg Cu eq. 6.25E−04 6.33E−04 1.64E−05 1.27E−03
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Ecosys ems
kg NOxeq. 2.52E−01 5.65E−02 1.62E−02 3.25E−01
Pho ochemical
Ozone Fo ma ion,
Human Heal h
kg NOxeq. 1.58E−01 3.51E−02 1.01E−02 2.03E−01
S a osphe ic
Ozone Deple ion kg CFC-11 eq. 1.83E−06 4.35E−08 4.89E−09 1.88E−06
Te es ial
Acidi ica ion kg SO2eq. 1.98E−03 8.69E−05 2.37E−05 2.09E−03
Te es ial eco oxici y kg 1.4-DB eq. 4.81E−02 1.05E−02 3.13E−03 6.17E−02
Subsequen ly, de ailed diag ams a e p esen ed in Figu es 3–5, illus a ing he con i-
bu ion o each indi idual p ocess o he o al oo p in o he selec ed midpoin impac
ca ego ies, p o iding a comp ehensi e analysis o he en i onmen al bu den.
Foods 2025,14, 1167 16 o 17
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