A comp ehensi e assessmen o li e cycle en i onmen al impac and
economic easibili y o di e en ed aspbe y (Rubus idaeus L)
cul i a ion sys ems
Angeliki Xyde ou Male aki
a,b
, Nicolas Valanides
a
, Geo ge A Mangana is
a
,
Lisa Wasko DeVe e
c
, So ia Papadaki
d
, Magdalini K okida
e
, An onia Vy kou
b
,
A hanasios Angelis-Dimakis
b,*
a
Depa men o Ag icul u al Sciences, Bio echnology & Food Science, Cyp us Uni e si y o Technology, 3603 Lemesos, Cyp us
b
Depa men o Physical and Li e Sciences, School o Applied Sciences, Uni e si y o Hudde s ield, Queensga e, HD1 3DH, Hudde s ield, UK
c
Depa men o Ho icul u e, Washing on S a e Uni e si y No hwes Washing on Resea ch and Ex ension Cen e , Moun Ve non, WA 98273, USA
d
DIGNITY P i a e Company, 30-32 Leo o os Alexand ou Papagou, Zog a ou, 157 71 A hens, G eece
e
Labo a o y o P ocess Analysis and Design, School o Chemical Enginee ing, Na ional Technical Uni e si y o A hens, 9 I oon Poly echneiou S . Zog a ou Campus,
15780 A hens, G eece
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Sus ainable p oduc ion
So ui s
P o ec ed cul i a ion
Con aine p oduc ion
P imocane
Wa e use e iciency
ABSTRACT
Red aspbe y is conside ed a knowledge- and capi al-in ensi e c op ha a ge s a niche ma ke globally; i s
quali y a ibu es and enhanced heal h-p omo ing p ope ies a e highly app ecia ed by he consume s. In he
con ex o he exponen ial g ow h in demand o his special y c op ha su e s om limi ed shel li e, i is
impe a i e o expand aspbe y cul i a ion by employing sus ainably-sou ced p oduc ion models. In he cu en
s udy, we used Cyp us as a case s udy ha is cha ac e ised by inc eased p oduc ion cos s and lack o yea - ound
p oduc ion despi e he ac ha he la e is easible unde di e en p oduc ion sys ems and cul i a ion me hods
in di e en al i ude- ela ed meso‑clima es. Towa ds ha goal, he cu en s udy assessed he li e cycle en i-
onmen al impac and li e cycle cos s o wo di e en cul i a ion me hods - open- ield p oduc ion ha ook place
om May o No embe 2022 and p o ec ed cul i a ion in high- unnels, om Augus 2023 o Ap il 2024, using in
bo h cases he same cul i a (Kwanza
®
) and plan ype. The esul s indica ed ha p o ec ed cul i a ion has be e
en i onmen al pe o mance (3.7 mP - milli eco-poin s - pe kg o aspbe y p oduced compa ed o 7.4 mP o
open- ield p oduc ion). No ewo hy, p oduc ion cos is excessi e and subs an ially highe compa ed o o he
coun ies; open- ield p oduc ion has a li e cycle cos o 22.5
€
/kg, while p o ec ed cul i a ion achie ed a lowe
li e cycle cos , equal o 14.0
€
/kg ye s ill high. F om an ou pu pe spec i e, a key obse a ion is he inc eased
yield o aspbe ies in p o ec ed cul i a ion as well as he enhanced wa e use e iciency o he c op, due o a
educ ion o he wa e oo p in by 76 %. I is also impo an o highligh he inc eased ha es e iciency o he
c op unde high unnel, wi h 500 g pe plan compa ed o 350 g on open ield cul i a ion. Hence, i is sa e o
conclude ha despi e he inc eased s a -up cos s and knowledge-in ensi e p ac ices, he p oduc i i y o he c op
is inc eased du ing he o -season mon hs, ha can be sold o a p emium. The esul s highligh he en i on-
men al and economic impac o he wo cul i a ion me hods and will be use ul o p oduce s and c op ad iso s
seeking o expand he aspbe y cul i a ion in clima es ha esembles sou h-eas e n Eu ope and a e cha ac-
e ised as ulne able o ad e se clima e change scena ios.
1. In oduc ion
Raspbe y (Rubus idaeus L.) is an economically signi ican c op wi h a
g owing popula i y and exponen ial g ow h in demand and p oduc ion
olumes (IRO, 2024). This is pa ially due o he ac ha aspbe y ui
ep esen s an excellen na u al sou ce o biologically ac i e componen s
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (G.A. Mangana is), [email p o ec ed] (L.W. DeVe e ), [email p o ec ed] (S. Papadaki),
[email p o ec ed] (M. K okida), [email p o ec ed] (A. Angelis-Dimakis).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/clcb
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.clcb.2025.100150
Recei ed 9 Oc obe 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 May 2025; Accep ed 4 May 2025
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
A ailable online 8 May 2025
2772-8013/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
ha p o ide signi ican heal h-p omo ing bene i s ( e iewed in Man-
gana is e al., 2014 and is also ge ing inc easingly ecognized o i s
e icacy in p e en ing ch onic diseases, including cance and ca dio-
ascula diso de s (Bu on-F eeman e al., 2016).
In he 21s cen u y, se e al comme cially impo an ed aspbe y
cul i a s ha e been de eloped h ough hyb idisa ion o selec i e
b eeding om di e se gene ic sou ces, ex ending hei p oduc i i y and
seasonali y in opical, sub- opical, and Medi e anean egions
(Kemple e al., 2012). These cul i a s a e cha ac e ised by enhanced
ai s, such as la ge ui size, be e la ou , disease esis ance and
ole ance, enhanced ha es e iciency, and adap abili y o di e en
clima es. Such imp o emen s ende ed aspbe y cul i a ion comme -
cially iable and con ibu ed o i s popula i y as a widely cul i a ed ui
(Hall e al., 2011). Mul iple public and p i a e b eeding p og ams
a ound he wo ld con ibu e o he de elopmen and elease o new
cul i a s wi h a g owing numbe o eleases ha ing oyal ies ha in-
c ease a me s’ o e all cos s o p oduc ion.
The consump ion o locally g own ui s minimises ca bon oo p in ;
howe e aspbe ies canno be g own in open ields yea - ound in many
egions (Reisch e al., 2013). On op o ha , a me s mus implemen
cos -e ec i e cul i a ion p ac ices o minimize inancial isks and
main ain p o i abili y. O e all, he yea - ound a ailabili y o a special y
c op like aspbe y equi es a high le el o echnical expe ise and is
achie ed h ough a combina ion o adop ing app op ia e plan ma e ial
(di e en cul i a s), using supe io p oduc ion p o ocols and cul i a ing
ac oss di e en clima es.
Raspbe y is conside ed a pe ennial ui c op, ye i de elops bien-
nial canes ha a y empo ally and spa ially wi h ega ds o ui p o-
duc ion, depending on aspbe y ype. The i s ype is lo icane- ui ing
(i.e., non- emon an o summe -bea ing). This ype p oduces ege a i e
p imocanes in he i s yea . These canes go h ough acclima ion in
au umn and o e win e , accumula ing chilling uni s ha induce lo-
icanes in o bea ing lowe s and ui s on la e al b anches he ollowing
yea . In con as , p imocane- ui ing (i.e., emon an , e e -bea ing, o
all-bea ing) ypes p oduce lowe s and ui s a he op o i s -yea
p imocanes as well as on second-yea lo icanes a e accumula ing
su icien chilling uni s in win e (Mangana is e al., 2024).
Raspbe y cul i a ion encompasses se e al labou -in ensi e ech-
niques ha a e ailo ed o aspbe y ype, ma ke equi emen s, and
en i onmen al condi ions. T adi ional aspbe y cul i a ion in ol es
open- ield p oduc ion, whe e plan s a e g own di ec ly in o he soil o
some imes con aine s, and he canopy is suppo ed by ellises o s akes
(Dale e al., 1994). P o ec ed cul i a ion is an al e na i e p oduc ion
me hod ha uses, plas ic high unnels, g eenhouses, o o he co e s ha
ex end he aspbe y p oduc ion season and enable ha es h ough
modi ica ions in he mic oclima e, while p o ec ing agains unp edic -
able wea he pa e ns (Dale 2012; Palonen e al., 2017). P o ec ed
cul i a ion is gene ally mo e dependen on he use o con aine s wi h
soilless media, such as coi and pea , which enables hyd oponic ech-
niques o be used whe eby nu ien s a e dissol ed and p o ided
equen ly in i iga ion wa e (Raga eena e al., 2021). O e all, p o-
ec ed cul i a ion concep ually p o ides many bene i s o aspbe y
p oduc ion, leading o op imised g owing condi ions, bu i is highly
in ensi e and equi es a high inancial in es men om g owe s (Dale,
2012). A ca e ul selec ion o he p oduc ion sys em mus be made o
ensu e maximum p oduc ion and p o i abili y leading o economic
iabili y.
Unde s anding he en i onmen al oo p in o ag icul u al p ac ices
can e eal in o ma ion on whe he he wa e , ene gy, and land a e being
used ine icien ly o excessi ely (G uda e al., 2019; Janick 2003). As a
commodi y wi h a e y sho shel li e ha equi es cooling o maximize
p oduc longe i y and quali y, he aspbe y supply chain has a signi -
ican ly high en i onmen al impac (Blanc e al., 2018). Se e al s udies
ha e been conduc ed o imp o e aspbe y cul i a ion echniques,
ocusing on op imising plan g ow h, inc easing yield, and imp o ing
ui quali y (Gi gen i e al., 2013; Fos e e al., 2015; Kailasam e al.,
2020; Sangio gio e al., 2021; Ponde and Hallmann., 2019; Valian e
e al., 2019). Howe e , all hese s udies ocus on egions loca ed in
mainland Eu ope, whe e he clima e is empe a e.
In he cu en s udy, Cyp us case s udy is cha ac e ized by ex eme
empe a u es and hea wa es compa ed o he es o Eu ope. Addi-
ionally, i s na u e as an island poses signi ican challenges in e ms o
access o esou ces and highe p oduc ion cos s. Mo e speci ically,
Cyp us is a Medi e anean island loca ed in he eas e nmos pa o he
basin. I is cha ac e ised by di e en mesoclima es: a empe a e clima e
in he moun ainous a eas wi h ho and d y summe s, while he mainland
and coas al a eas a e ca ego ised as ho and a id, acco ding o he
K¨
oppen–Geige sys em (Peel e al., 2007; Zi is e al., 2017). The mean
annual p ecipi a ion is app oxima ely 470 mm, and mos o he wa e
esou ces o igina e in he T oodos moun ains, co e ing nea ly 30 % o
he island (Ch is o i e al., 2020). The a e age p ecipi a ion in moun-
ainous Cyp us is es ima ed o be 600 mm (Ka sanos e al., 2016;
Michaelides e al., 2009). O e he las decades, he obse ed ain all
ends in his pa o he Medi e anean ha e been mos ly declining
(Papadaskalopoulou e al., 2020). Cyp us is among he EU Membe
S a es wi h he leas a ailable wa e pe capi a and emains ulne able
o clima e change due o d ough s and wa e sca ci y (RoC, 2021),
he e o e he selec ion o sus ainable cul i a ion p ac ises ha mini-
mizes he use o wa e is c ucial o he o e all sus ainabili y o Cyp io
ag icul u e (EC, 2023). The ise o a e age ai empe a u es and mo e
equen hea wa es du ing he ha es season ha e caused p oblems o
a me s who a e s ill using adi ional cul i a ion p ac ices. Conside ing
hese challenges, he e is an eme ging need o explo e al e na i e s a-
egies ha sa egua d a me s’ li elihoods (del Pozo e al., 2019).
Despi e clima e change conce ns, he p oduc ion o small ui s has
expanded in he pas wo decades in he moun ainous egions o Cyp us.
In hese a eas he milde summe mon hs and he ela i ely colde
win e condi ions pe mi open- ield cul i a ion in he soil, which is
conside ed an easie , low-cos p oduc ion me hod. G owe s use
p imocane- ui ing cul i a s, and he p oduc ion seasonali y is limi ed
o ew mon hs, mainly spanning om May un il Sep embe (Lazoglou
e al., 2024). Ex eme hea wa es (o e 30 ◦C) and lack o p ecise e i-
ga ion managemen echniques accele a e he ipening p ocess, ha ing a
de imen al e ec on ui quan i y and quali y. Addi ionally, he in-
duc ion o new lowe s o nex yea ’s p oduc ion is usually dis up ed by
high all and win e empe a u es, esul ing in ela i ely small yields
om he lo icane c op.
As a di ec esponse o hese challenges, he es ablishmen o low-
cos high unnels made o plas ic (“poly”) has eme ged as a p omising
solu ion, pa icula ly in he la lands o Cyp us. No ably, hese egions
expe ience signi ican ly highe empe a u es, eaching up o 40 ◦C
du ing summe and ca. 17 ◦C du ing win e pe iods. These passi ely
modi ied en i onmen al condi ions ex end he cul i a ion pe iod o
plan s and pe mi o -season p oduc ion om all h ough sp ing when
condi ions a e gene ally un a ou able o adi ional, open- ield cul i-
a ion. Due o lowe sola adia ion and wind speeds, high- unnel-g own
plan s a e likely o equi e a educed amoun o wa e owing o hei
ela i ely lowe apou p essu e de ici .
Ano he challenge o Cyp us is ha due o i s emo e na u e, as an
island, all esou ce and ene gy p ices a e signi ican ly highe han he
a e age Eu opean ones. This is also e lec ed in he compe i i e p ices o
impo ed aspbe ies. The objec i e o his s udy was o compa e
Kwanza® p imocane aspbe y p oduc ion in wo dis inc en i onmen s
wi h di e en cul i a ion echniques and associa ed p oduc ion pe iods
in Cyp us: (i) open- ield cul i a ion om May un il Decembe 2022 and
(ii) p o ec ed cul i a ion in high unnels om Augus 2023 un il Ap il
2024. The o e a ching aim was o compa e he wo cul i a ion ech-
niques and gene a e ecommenda ions whe he a me s can conside
eplacing o complemen ing adi ional open- ield cul i a ion wi h
p o ec ed cul i a ion wi hou jeopa dising yield and p o i abili y, while
minimizing hei en i onmen al impac . To ou knowledge, his is he
i s epo ed a emp o e alua e he cul i a ion o aspbe ies in a
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
2
decen alised loca ion wi h empe a u e ex emes and wa e sca ci y
such as he condi ions ound in Cyp us. Ano he con ibu ion o ou
s udy is he use o eal-wo ld da a collec ed om he ege a i e s age o
a young Kwanza
®
plan ing un il he end o p imocane ha es in wo
dis inc en i onmen s, wi h unique clima ic condi ions and cul i a ion
me hods in o de o de e mine which is mo e p o i able o Cyp us’s ed
aspbe y cul i a ion.
2. Me hodology
A Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) was employed o e alua e he en i-
onmen al pe o mance o he wo di e en aspbe y cul i a ion
me hods. The cu en s udy adop ed a me hodological app oach aligned
wi h he LCA amewo k ou lined in ISO14040/44:2006 (ISO, 2006),
which includes ou key s ages:
1. Goal and Scope De ini ion, by es ablishing he s udy’s objec i e and
delinea ing he spa ial and empo al bounda ies o he chosen
sys em.
2. Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI), by compiling an inclusi e in en o y o all
incoming and ou going exchanges be ween he sys em and he
en i onmen .
3. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen (LCIA), by calcula ing he en i on-
men al impac indica o s, d awing om he in en o y lows, and
co esponding cha ac e isa ion ac o s.
4. In e p e a ion o Resul s o disce n he b oade signi icance o he
LCA assessmen indings.
The Li e Cycle Assessmen was pe o med using he SimaP o 9.2
Academic License, wi h he ecoin en 3.7 da abase. The En i onmen al
Foo p in 3.0 was chosen as he assessmen me hod. En i onmen al
Foo p in 3.0 is a ilia ed wi h he En i onmen al Foo p in ini ia i e
and is he p e e ed me hod o LCA p ac i ione s, since i p o ides bo h
midpoin and endpoin indica o s, and i is widely used by ecen s udies
on he same sec o (Valian e e al., 2019). The midpoin impac in-
dica o s employed o e alua e he en i onmen al impac o aspbe y
p oduc ion in his s udy, oge he wi h he abb e ia ions used and he
uni s o measu emen , a e illus a ed in Table 1. The endpoin single
sco e indica o o his impac assessmen me hod is he En i onmen al
Foo p in , and i is exp essed in ecopoin s (P ). One milli ecopoin (mP )
co esponds o he annual en i onmen al impac o an a e age Eu opean
ci izen.
2.1. Goal and scope de ini ion
As p e iously men ioned, he scope o he s udy was o compa e he
en i onmen al impac o aspbe y p oduc ion using wo dis inc cul i-
a ion me hods: (a) soil-less open- ield cul i a ion, wi h lowe es ab-
lishmen cos s bu possibly highe wa e usage and lowe yield, and (b)
soil-less p o ec ed cul i a ion wi h a high- unnel, en ailing highe ini ial
in es men bu wi h highe yield po en ial while conse ing wa e . The
esea ch seeks o guide p oduce s owa d mo e cos -e ec i e and eco-
e icien p oduc ion op ions, pa icula ly in Medi e anean decen al-
ized mic oclima es, as exempli ied by he case s udy in Cyp us. Hence,
he geog aphical scope e e s o Sou heas e n Eu ope.
A c adle- o-ga e app oach was adop ed o compa ing bo h cul i a-
ion sys ems, ocusing speci ically on p e-ha es ac i i ies om nu se y
supply o p imocane ha es . Da a o he soil-less open- ield cul i a ion
me hod was sou ced om a ield loca ed in Chand ia illage (al i ude ca.
1200 m) in he uppe highlands o T oodos, Cyp us (Fig. 1a). This
cul i a ion cycle spanned om May o Decembe 2022. Da a o he
p o ec ed cul i a ion sys em was sou ced om an ope a ion, loca ed in
Pe is e ona (al i ude ca. 600 m), si ua ed no hwes o Nicosia (Fig. 1b).
The p o ec ed cul i a ion cycle spanned om Augus 2023 o Ap il
2024.
The sys em bounda ies include all in- ield p ocesses (i iga ion, e -
ilise applica ion and plan p o ec ion), while pos -ha es p ocesses
all beyond he scope o he s udy and a e assumed o be he same
ega dless o he cul i a ion me hod (Fig. 2). Du ing he cul i a ion
pe iod, a mix o di e en e ilize s and pes icides was applied o
main ain plan g ow h while elec ici y was consumed by i iga ion
pumps and sma a m managemen equipmen .
Table 1
Selec ed se o midpoin impac indica o s.
Impac ca ego y Impac ac onym Uni
Clima e change GWP kg CO
2,eq
Ozone deple ion ODP kg CFC-11
eq
Ionising adia ion IRP kBq U-235
eq
Pho ochemical ozone o ma ion PCOP kg NMVOC
eq
Pa icula e ma e PM disease incidence
Human oxici y, non-cance HTPNC CTUh
Human oxici y, cance HTPC CTUh
Acidi ica ion AP mol H
+
eq
Eu ophica ion, eshwa e FEP kg P
eq
Eu ophica ion, ma ine MEP kg N
eq
Eu ophica ion, e es ial TEP mol N
eq
Eco oxici y, eshwa e ETP CTUe
Land use LU P
Wa e use WDP m
3
Resou ce use, ossils ADPF MJ
Resou ce use, mine als ADPM kg Sb
eq
Fig. 1. (a) Open- ield cul i a ion a ha es ing s age and (b) P o ec ed cul i a ion a lowe ing s age.
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
3
The unc ional uni (FU) is de ined as he physical quan i y ha is
used o p o ide he e e ence o which all da a in he sys em a e
no malized and enables he compa ison o he indings. In his s udy, he
FU was chosen o be 1 kg o esh ui p oduced (mass-based FU), which
is he mos used uni o ag icul u al p oduc s (Pe gola e al., 2017;
Vinyes e al., 2015).
2.2. Li e cycle in en o y (LCI)
The LCI was cons uc ed using da a om he wo cul i a ion models
being compa ed and i was assumed hey we e ep esen a i e o small
ui cul i a ion in he g ea e a ea. To collec hese da a, a ques ion-
nai e was dis ibu ed o a local ag onomis , and he esponses we e
p ocessed and u ilized acco dingly.
The Li e Cycle In en o y is illus a ed in Table 2, using no malized
da a pe hec a e (ha) o cul i a ed a ea. As a as he use o land is
conce ned, he o al numbe o hec a es pe a m was 0.2 hec a es,
ypical o small-scale a m holdings. Howe e , he da a p o ided in
Table 2 we e no malised o 1 hec a e o cul i a ed land. The da a
p esen ed a e e e ing o he mos ecen ag icul u al yea ha con-
sis ed o wo indi idual cycles, om May 2022 o Decembe 2022 and
om Augus 2023 o Ap il 2024. The assump ions used o he o mu-
la ion o he in en o y a e p esen ed in he ollowing sec ions. I needs o
be no ed ha he quan i ies p esen ed in he ma e ial sec ion o Table 2
co espond o he annual equi alen alue. Fo example, since he d ip
emi e s a e eplaced e e y i e yea s, hen he annual equi alen alue
is one i h o he o al numbe o d ip emi e s used.
2.2.1. Plan sou cing and po ing
Ju enile plan s we e ini ially p opaga ed and g own in The
Ne he lands. Each plan was p o ided as a esh ay plan wi h heal hy
lea es and oo s (a e age oo leng h 5 cm). P opaga ion and nu se y
p oduc ion a e beyond he scope o his analysis, as hese a e no di ec ly
ela ed o he ope a ion in Cyp us and a e he same ega dless o he
p oduc ion sys em. The same cul i a (Kwanza®) and plan ype we e
plan ed in bo h loca ions bu a di e en ime poin s o each loca ion.
Plan le s we e ansplan ed in o po s as soon as possible o a oid plan
s ess. Speci ically, o he open ield, he ay plan s we e anspo ed
by uck om The Ne he lands o G eece and hen om G eece o
Cyp us by ship, eaching he plo (Chand ia, 1200 m al i ude) by uck .
The ay plan s we e ansplan ed in o 10 L po s in May 2022 and placed
in he open ield (Fig. 3). This ip om The Ne he lands o he ield
akes abou a week o comple e. Howe e , when plan ing akes place
du ing he summe , ai eigh is impe a i e due o wea he condi ions
so ha he plan s a i e wi hin a day wi hou being a ec ed by he high
empe a u es. Thus, o he p o ec ed cul i a ion scena io, he ay
plan s we e anspo ed by ai plane om The Ne he lands o Cyp us
di ec ly and hen by uck o he plo (Pe is e ona) and we e ans-
plan ed in 10 L po s in Sep embe 2023 unde p o ec ed cul i a ion
condi ions in a high- unnel. In bo h cases, po dimensions we e 24.7 ×
24.7 ×25.6 cm and we e made o polyp opylene.
2.2.2. Fe ilize and plan p o ec ion
Be o e plan ing, a space o 1.8 m be ween lines o plan s was c ea ed,
while 4 po s we e pu in one linea me e . The e was no ploughing,
illage, ha owing, o hoeing because p opylene g ound co e o 50–100
μ
m was used unde he po s o a oid weed eme gence. P imocane yield
was de e mined a di e en pe iods o he yea o each plo . In he
p o ec ed cul i a ion sys em (Pe is e ona), ha es was conduc ed
weekly om Decembe 2023 un il Ap il 2024, while in he open ield
sys em (Chand ia) ha es was conduc ed e e y wo days om Oc obe
o Decembe 2022. Fe iga ion was ca ied ou using a s anda d
d ainage calcula ion ha ac o ed in e en ion o app oxima ely 25 %
du ing he ege a i e s age om po s a e he i iga ion in e al o he
day. Howe e , o a oid accumula ion o sal s om lowe ing o he end
o ha es , 35 % o d ainage was applied (Ben Hadj Daoud e al. 2024).
Common p ac ices including pes managemen h ough he u i-
lisa ion o a backpack mis blowe and necessa y weed and canopy
managemen we e ca ied ou manually. I iga ion and e ilisa ion
we e conduc ed mul iple imes e e y day using a d ip i iga ion sys em.
Fe ilisa ion was se using a ge ed Elec ical Conduc i i y (EC) and pH
alue was adjus ed a 6. EC alues luc ua ed a ound 2
μ
S/cm du ing he
ege a i e s a e, 1.6
μ
S/cm du ing lowe ing, and 1.4
μ
S/cm du ing
ha es . C op managemen in ol ed se e al ea men s agains pes s
( i e pe yea ) and diseases ( i e pe yea ) ha we e ca ied ou by
ope a o s equipped wi h a po able sp aye . Two al e na i e pes icides
we e used, wi h ac i e ing edien s sulphu (70 %), na u al py e h ins (5
%), and lupy adi u one o he i s one and coppe o he second one.
Monopo assium phospha e (0–52–34), po assium sulpha e (0–0–50),
po assium ni a e (13–0–36), calcium ni a e (15.5–0–0–26.5Ca) and
ace elemen s we e used as solid e ilise s dissol ed in 1000 L anks
and injec ed a 1 % a e in each i iga ion (Malghani e al., 2010). The
subs a e used was a combina ion o coco pea (40 %), pea -moss (40 %)
and pe li e (20 %). Fe ilize un-o was assumed o be 5 % o N (ni-
a es) and 2 % o P and K, (Song e al., 2023). No speci ic e ilise
un-o da a we e collec ed in his s udy gi en he sys em used, d ip
e iga ion and he e we e no measu emen s om he ield.
Fig. 2. Sys em bounda ies o he wo examined scena ios. Ma ke alues we e used as he cha ac e isa ion ac o s o all esou ces used ( e ilise s, pes icides, soil,
po s, i iga ion and cons uc ion ma e ial, co e , po s). Such alues conside bo h he impac o he p oduc ion p ocess o each esou ce and a ypical anspo a ion
impac . Howe e , a sepa a e conside a ion was made o plan deli e y om he nu se y loca ed in The Ne he lands (ei he ia ship o plane) and anspo a ion o
plan ma e ial ia uck o he ield, since he i ine a y is di e en o each ype o cul i a ion.
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
4
2.2.3. U ili ies and esou ces
Fo pumping pu poses, elec ici y was used o ope a e a subme sible
pump (F anklin Elec ic, Model n. 236 616 9061 a 50 Hz). Le elling/
e acing ook place wo imes pe yea , each one be o e he beginning o
each cycle. Rega ding wa e consump ion, he alues di e signi ican ly
o he wo cul i a ion me hods (Table 2). Fo pes icide applica ion, i
was calcula ed ha 250 L/ha o diesel we e used in he open- ield while
200 L/ha we e used in p o ec ed cul i a ion. Rega ding i iga ion, PVC
pipelines p o ide wa e h ough he d ippe s wi h he boos o a sub-
me sible pump. I is es ima ed ha 1640 emi e s we e equi ed o 0.1
ha o bo h cul i a ion ypes. A gu e made o polyp opylene, wi h 0.8
mm hickness and 150–600 mm wide was used in bo h p oduc ion
scena ios.
The high unnel consis s o 7 a ches in a ow, wi h ne ing on he
side, while he on and back we e closable wi h plas ic and we e sealed
du ing pe iods wi h win e os isks. The a ches a e made o gal anised
i on, and consis s o 6 m o DN50 pipes, 6 m o DN32 pipes and 6 m o
DN20 pipes. The o al weigh o he pipes is 40 onnes. Each a ch was 5.4
m wide, and he unnel leng h was 42 m This means ha he o al a ea
co e ed by he high unnel was 7 ×5.4 ×42 m o app oxima ely 1600
m
2
. The peak o he a ch was 3.5 m in heigh , so he plas ic (poly-
e hylene) co e equi ed is app oxima ely 2300 m
2
o 400 kg, assuming
170 gsm o he high unnel co e . The plas ic co e and he pipes
equi e eplacemen e e y 5 yea s.
2.2.4. Backg ound sys ems
Backg ound sys ems in he ecoin en da abase e e o he p e-
exis ing da a and p ocesses used in LCA o model he b oade en i on-
men al impac s o a p oduc o se ice. These sys ems e e o he en i e
supply chain, including he p oduc ion o aw ma e ials, ene gy, ans-
po a ion, and o he inpu s, p o iding comp ehensi e co e age o up-
s eam and downs eam ac i i ies. They ely on global (GLO) o egional
a e age da a, ensu ing consis ency and s anda diza ion ac oss LCA
s udies. By connec ing wi h he o eg ound sys em, i.e. he p ocesses
di ec ly unde s udy, backg ound sys ems o e a holis ic iew o en i-
onmen al impac s, essen ial o anspa ency, compa abili y, and
in o med decision-making in LCA. Table 3 summa ises all he back-
g ound sys ems e ie ed om he ecoin en da abase o he modelling.
The Alloca ion a he Poin o Subs i u ion (APOS) ac o s we e selec ed,
since hese we e he only ones a ailable wi h he academic license.
Howe e , since he e he sys em s udied does no in ol e mul i unc-
ional p ocesses, hen he choice be ween Alloca ion a he Poin o
Subs i u ion (APOS) and Consequen ial (CONS) alloca ion does no ha e
a signi ican impac o he esul s.
2.3. Li e cycle cos ing da a
The Li e Cycle Cos ing (LCC) me hodology in e na ional s anda ds
published in 2008 (ISO15686–5) de ine he gene al app oach o an LCC
Table 2
Li e Cycle In en o y o he wo aspbe y cul i a ion me hods in Cyp us, open-
ield and p o ec ed cul i a ion. Da a we e collec ed om May o Decembe 2022
and om Augus 2023 o Ap il 2024, espec i ely.
Resou ce Uni Open-
ield
P o ec ed-
cul i a ion
Land ha 1 1
Plan s Uni 18,200 18,200
Plan s kg 3640 3640
Pe li e kg 36,400 36,400
Coco pea kg 72,800 72,800
Pea moss kg 72,800 72,800
T anspo a ion
Ai anspo o ay plan s (NL o CY) km N/A 10,920
Road anspo o ay plan s (NL o
GR)
km 10,192 N/A
Ship anspo o ay plan s (GR o CY) km 3640 N/A
Road anspo o ay plan s (In e nal
CY)
km 146 146
Ma e ial
Con aine s (Polyp opylene) Uni 3640 3640
Con aine s (Polyp opylene) kg 3640 3640
I iga ion Pipes (Poly inyl chlo ide) m 910 910
I iga ion Pipes (Poly inyl chlo ide) kg 364 364
D ip Emi e s (Poly inyl chlo ide) Uni 3280 3280
D ip Emi e s (Poly inyl chlo ide) kg 1640 1640
G ound Co e (Polyp opylene) kg 250 250
High- unnel A ches (I on) kg N/A 8000
High- unnel Ma e ial (Polye hylene) kg N/A 80
Fe ilize s & Pes icides
P kg 108 96
K kg 324 288
N kg 216 192
Pes icides kg 198 158
Wa e and Ene gy
Elec ici y o i iga ion kWh 19,980 3960
Diesel o i iga ion L 250 200
Wa e o i iga ion m
3
52,998 17,666
Run-o Emissions
P kg 10.8 9.6
K kg 6.48 5.76
N kg 2.16 1.92
P oduc s
Raspbe ies kg 6370 9100
Fig. 3. (a) Roo ed ay plan in 10 L po wi h d ip i iga ion 15 days a e plan ing (b) Raspbe y canes 2 mon hs a e plan ing.
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
5
analysis. Howe e , since he e a e no sha ed me hodologies o pe o m
he analysis (Mohamad e al., 2014), o his s udy we ha e adop ed an
ad hoc me hod, including he cos s o he whole li e cycle o aspbe y
p oduc ion “ om c adle o ga e”, ollowing he “whole li e cos ing”
me hod exp essed by Gluch and Baumann (2004). The LCC analysis uses
he same unc ional uni and has he same sys em limi a ions ha ha e
been conside ed in he LCA. Table 4 epo s he pu chase cos s pe uni
o aw ma e ials, u ili ies, and chemicals ha we e used du ing he wo
cul i a ion pe iods o each me hod. These ha e been collec ed by a
ques ionnai e ha was dis ibu ed o local a ms, and he a e age alues
we e u ilised. Fo p o ec ed cul i a ion, he e is an ex a labou cos o 5
wo ke s o wo wo king weeks a 5
€
/h.
3. Resul s and discussion
3.1. En i onmen al impac assessmen
Fig. 4 p esen s he en i onmen al impac o he wo aspbe y
cul i a ion me hods in Cyp us. P o ec ed cul i a ion led o an imp o ed
en i onmen al pe o mance, educed by 49.6 % compa ed o open- ield
cul i a ion. Mo e speci ically, he en i onmen al oo p in o p o ec ed
cul i a ion was a 3.7 mP pe kg o aspbe y p oduced, whe eas he
en i onmen al oo p in o open- ield cul i a ion was 7.4 mP pe kg o
aspbe y p oduced.
Fu he mo e, p o ec ed cul i a ion was supe io in all 17 indica o s.
Among all 17 indica o s, land use and wa e use we e he mos dominan
componen s, ollowed by esou ce usage ( ossil uels) and clima e
change.
Table 5 p esen s he absolu e alues o hese ou indica o s o he
wo scena ios, exp essed in physical uni s pe kg o aspbe y p oduced.
Wa e usage is he indica o wi h he highes ela i e imp o emen be-
ween he wo ypes o cul i a ion (d opping om 0.361 m
3
o 0.085 m
3
pe kg o aspbe y, hus imp o ing by 76 %), which was an icipa ed
since he p o ec ed cul i a ion has signi ican ly lowe wa e demand.
The o he h ee indica o s a e imp o ed by 30 % (global wa ming po-
en ial), 37 % (land use) and 33 % ( ossil uel deple ion) and a e he
main esponsible ac o s o he supe io pe o mance o p o ec ed
cul i a ion.
Fig. 5 illus a es he same esul s wi h a di e en poin o iew. The
o e all en i onmen al oo p in (exp essed in ecopoin s pe cul i a ed
hec a e) is b oken down in o he di e en esou ce ypes con ibu ing o
i . This allows o he iden i ica ion o en i onmen al ho spo s among
he wo cul i a ion me hods. While he ma e ial and he anspo a ion
impac s a e inc eased ( he la e almos doubled) o he p o ec ed
cul i a ion scena io, due o high unnel ma e ial and he ai ans-
po a ion o he plan s espec i ely, hei ela i e impo ance is e y
small compa ed o he impac o wa e , e ilise s and soil used (in ha
o de ). Al hough he subs a e impac is he same o bo h scena ios, he
wa e and he plan p o ec ion con ibu ions a e signi ican ly educed,
leading o an o e all imp o ed en i onmen al pe o mance o he
p o ec ed cul i a ion me hod. These esul s ag ee wi h he indings by
Fos e e al. (2015) and Valien e e al. (2019), who iden i ied he wa e
oo p in and he use o e ilise s as he main ac o s ha con ibu e o
he o e all en i onmen al impac o aspbe y cul i a ion. Simila ly,
V´
asquez-Iba a e al. (2021) unde sco ed he c ucial ole o i iga ion
sys ems, cul i a ion suppo , and co e ings o he o e all en i onmen al
impac .
3.1.1. Impac o ain all
Since wa e is he mos c i ical esou ce a ec ing he en i onmen al
pe o mance, one en i onmen al ac o ha could po en ially imp o e
he pe o mance o open ield cul i a ion is he ain all. The p e ious
scena ios ha e assumed ha he open- ield wa e equi emen s a e ully
co e ed by i iga ion. This assump ion is based on he ac ha du ing
he cul i a ion pe iod o he open ield sys em he e is no signi ican
ain all and supplemen al i iga ion is necessa y. Rain all o he open
ield cul i a ion in he moun ains occu s only be ween No embe and
May, so he only mon hs ha can be a ec ed a e No embe and
Decembe . E en i we conside he ex eme, whe e he en i e wa e e-
qui emen s o 2 mon hs a e sa is ied by ain all, he o e all en i on-
men al oo p in o open- ield cul i a ion will d op o 6.4 mP pe kg o
aspbe y p oduced, which is s ill signi ican ly highe compa ed o he
en i onmen al oo p in o p o ec ed cul i a ion (3.5 mP pe kg o
aspbe y p oduced).
3.2. Economic analysis
Based on he p ice o he esou ces and u ili ies (Table 4) and he li e
cycle in en o y (Table 2), he cos b eakdown o he compa ed asp-
be y cul i a ion me hods is p esen ed in Table 6. The ac ha ce ain
esou ces need o be eplaced a e a ce ain ime pe iod is also
conside ed. The esul s e eal ha he li e cycle cos o p o ec ed
cul i a ion is 37.8 % lowe compa ed o he open- ield p oduc ion (14.0
€
/kg o he high- unnel compa ed o 22.5
€
/kg o he open- ield). E en
hough he o al annual expenses a e simila o he ype o cul i a ion
(127,262
€
o p o ec ed cul i a ion and 143,341
€
o open- ield), he
Table 3
Backg ound sys ems – emission ac o s (Sou ce: ecoin en da abase 3.7).
Resou ce Emission Fac o Re e ence
Con aine s Polyp opylene, g anula e {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
G ound co e Polyp opylene, g anula e {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
High- unnel ma e ial Polye hylene, high densi y, g anula e {GLO}| ma ke o
| APOS, U
High- unnel a ches Pig i on {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
I iga ion emmi e s Poly inylchlo ide, bulk polyme ised {GLO}| ma ke o
| APOS, U
Fe ilise Ni ogen e ilise , as N {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
Phospha e e ilise , as P2O5 {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS,
U
Po assium e ilise , as K2O {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS,
U
Pes icide Pes icide, unspeci ied {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
Pe li e Pe li e {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
Pea moss Pea moss {GLO}| ma ke o | APOS, U
Fe ilise applica ion Applica ion o plan p o ec ion p oduc , by ield sp aye
{RoW}| p ocessing | APOS, U
Elec ici y Elec ici y, medium ol age {CY}| ma ke o | APOS, U
Diesel Diesel {Eu ope wi hou Swi ze land}| ma ke o |
APOS, U
Wa e Tap wa e {Eu ope wi hou Swi ze land}| ma ke o |
APOS, U
In e na ional
anspo a ion ( oad)
T anspo , eigh , lo y 16-32 me ic on, eu o5 {RER}|
ma ke o anspo , eigh , lo y 16-32 me ic on,
EURO5 | APOS, U
Na ional anspo a ion
( oad)
T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5-7.5 me ic on, eu o5
{RER}| ma ke o anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5-7.5
me ic on, EURO5 | APOS, U
In e na ional
anspo a ion (ai )
T anspo , eigh , ai c a , unspeci ied {GLO}| ma ke
o anspo , eigh , ai c a , unspeci ied | APOS, U
In e na ional
anspo a ion (sea)
T anspo , eigh , sea, con aine ship {GLO}| ma ke
o anspo , eigh , sea, con aine ship | APOS, U
Table 4
Pu chase cos o esou ces o open- ield and p o ec ed cul i a ion using high
unnels o aspbe ies in Cyp us.
Resou ce P ice Uni
Raspbe y plan s 2
€
/uni
Con aine s 2.5
€
/uni
Subs a e 0.09
€
/kg
High- unnel co e 0.8
€
/m
2
Nozzles and ubes 2.5
€
/m
2
Pes icides 300
€
/kg
Fe ilise s 0.5
€
/kg
Wa e 0.45
€
/m
3
Elec ici y 0.2
€
/kWh
Diesel 1.7
€
/L
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
6
c i ical ac o he e is he imp o ed yield and wa e use e iciency o
p o ec ed cul i a ion.
4. Conclusions and u he pe spec i es
Cu en ly in Cyp us, he e is a ela i ely small numbe o aspbe y
and o he small ui g owe s, mos ly loca ed in he moun ainous and
mo e empe a e pa s o he island, e en hough he di e en meso-
clima es can be conside ed app op ia e o yea - ound p oduc ion. This
is mainly due o he lack o knowledge and isk-ad e se na u e o
a me s, as hey a e conce ned abou he cos s o in oducing new cul-
i a s and cul i a ion me hods. Addi ionally, conce ns o e economic
losses due o en i onmen al ac o s, including hea s ess du ing he
summe pe iod o hea y ains du ing win e , a e impo an ac o s
in luencing a me s choice o use he moun ainous a eas o p oduc ion.
Mo eo e , small-scale en e p ises in he ag icul u al sec o in Cyp us
and wo ldwide lack specialised and scien i ic guidance o make
e idence-based decisions ha would enable hem o lou ish (Bech sis
e al., 2022; Kasima i e al., 2024).
The selec ion o plan ma e ial, plan ing pe iod, and cul i a ion
me hod be ween p o ec ed cul i a ion in poly unnels and open- ield
depends on a ious ac o s like he local clima e, he a ailabili y o
human esou ces, and ma ke demand. While open- ield cul i a ion is
Fig. 4. En i onmen al impac assessmen o he wo cul i a ion me hods, open- ield and p o ec ed cul i a ion using high unnels in Cyp us (exp essed in mP pe kg
o aspbe y p oduced).
Table 5
Selec ed midpoin impac indica o s o he wo cul i a ion me hods, open- ield
and p o ec ed cul i a ion using high unnels in Cyp us (exp essed in uni pe kg
o aspbe y p oduced).
Indica o Open- ield cul i a ion P o ec ed cul i a ion Uni
GWP 0.037 0.026 kg CO
2
eq
LU 25.118 15.724 P
WDP 0.361 0.085 m
3
dep i .
ADPF 0.498 0.336 MJ
Fig. 5. En i onmen al ho spo s o he wo cul i a ion me hods, open- ield and p o ec ed cul i a ion using high unnels in Cyp us (exp essed in mP pe ha o
cul i a ed a ea) o open- ield and p o ec ed cul i a ion in high- unnels in Cyp us.
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
7
belie ed o be sui able o a mo e concen a ed, cos -e icien ha es ,
p o ec ed cul i a ion wi h high unnels has he po en ial o highe
yields, wi h imp o ed wa e use e iciency, while ex ending he asp-
be y ha es season h oughou he yea which in u n may allow
g owe s o sell hei ui s o he ma ke du ing he “o season” o a
p emium. The ca e ul selec ion o cul i a ion me hods holds he po-
en ial o mi iga e he ad e se impac s o clima e change o small ui
cul i a ion in Cyp us while s ill main aining on- a m p o i abili y. By
emb acing inno a i e solu ions, a me s may no only adap o he
changing en i onmen bu also secu e hei economic p ospe i y in he
yea s o come.
Ou analysis has e ealed ha complemen ing o eplacing adi-
ional open- ield cul i a ion in he moun ains wi h p o ec ed cul i a ion
using plas ic high unnels on he plains will ha e a lowe en i onmen al
impac while being mo e inancially p o i able o he a me . Mo e
speci ically, p o ec ed cul i a ion will ha e a 49.6 % lowe o al en i-
onmen al oo p in . Addi ionally, he yield in p o ec ed cul i a ion is
43 % highe han open- ield cul i a ion esul ing o g ea e p o i
ma gin o g owe s. Mo e impo an ly, he amoun o wa e used is 4-
imes less in p o ec ed cul i a ion, subsequen ly limi ing he elec-
ici y cos s o he p oduc ion. This is a e y c i ical poin o Cyp us,
since wa e usage is c ucial o sus ainable p oduc ion, especially in
a eas wi h wa e sca ci y issues (Dale, 2012; Jain and Janaki am, 2016).
In addi ion o highe yield e iciency, wa e use i mo e e ec i e due
o lowe e apo anspi a ion losses. The aspbe y cul i a Kwanza is
cul i a ed globally wi h an obse ed yield o 1.5 o 2.5 kg pe plan in a
clima e-con olled Du ch Glasshouse (He ckens e al., 2019), while a
yield o 1.8 o 2.4 kg pe plan s has been obse ed unde Cali o nian
Medi e anean Clima e (Daugo ish e al., 2021). The a ia ions a e due
o he plan ing densi y, plan ing da e and he local mesoclima e. The
li e a u e ag ees wi h ou indings ha Kwanza is mo e sui ed o a
p o ec ed en i onmen , a he han open ield, since i allows highe
p ecision in clima e and i iga ion managemen , highe yield and less
wa e usage.
The li e cycle p oduc ion cos o 1 kg o aspbe ies is 37.8 % lowe
o he p o ec ed cul i a ion compa ed o open ield. Highe p o i abili y
is achie ed om o -season as well as limi ed ope a ional cos s, despi e
he inc eased s a -up and wo ke cos s which can be dep ecia ed and
managed mo e e icien ly. I mus be no ed hough ha he p oduc ion
cos pe kg is s ill ela i ely high compa ed o o he Eu opean coun ies
whe e esh aspbe ies a e sold a ound 16
€
pe kg. The emo e na u e
o he island o Cyp us, wi h no oad in e connec ions o mainland, e-
sul s o signi ican ly highe esou ce and ene gy p ices (on a e age 30 %
highe han in Eu ope), as i can be obse ed in Table 5. This also means
ha impo ed aspbe ies, al hough hey may a i e in Cyp us in bad
shape, a e s ill sold a highe p ices compa ed o he es o he Eu ope
(a app oxima ely 21–22
€
pe kg). Addi ionally, he yield o each plan
o he con en ional cul i a ion echniques is ela i ely low, esul ing in
high ope a ional labou cos o ha es . Fo example, ha es ing e i-
ciency in Eu ope is 4–6
€
pe hou pe pe son while in Cyp us i is no
mo e han 2
€
pe hou pe pe son. Thus, he ini ial ocus o he local
a me s is o compe e wi h he impo ed be ies.
The local p oduc ion o aspbe ies in p o ec ed cul i a ion using
high unnels in Cyp us (no only in he plains, bu po en ially in he
moun ains) can also ha e a lowe en i onmen al oo p in , compa ed o
impo ed ui s om o he coun ies. Also, mo e hea - ole an and sho -
cycle c ops can be used as an al e na i e when aspbe ies a e no being
p oduced and bu e agains plas ic en i onmen al oo p in . Recycling
o used unnel plas ic a he end o i s useable li e will also lessen he
en i onmen al impac o p o ec ed cul i a ion.
In e ms o he limi a ions o ou s udy, he analysis is pe o med on a
c adle- o-ga e basis ( om he acquisi ion o nu se y plan s un il he
aspbe ies lea e he ga e o he ield a he end o hei p oduc i e
li espan), and he Li e Cycle In en o y is popula ed using eal da a o
he yea s 2022, 2023 and 2024, collec ed om wo a ms loca ed on he
island o Cyp us. One main limi ing ac o is ha hese alues encompass
da a om only one p imocane ha es cycle (8-mon h du a ion), which
may no e lec condi ions o e a longe e m due o yea - o-yea a i-
a ions. A wide sample, ei he o mul iple ha es ing cycles, om
mul iple a ms in Cyp us and ab oad would be an app op ia e nex s ep
o alida e he esul s. Mo eo e , he use o da a om ques ionnai es
(sou ced in hei majo i y om u ili ies/supplie s’ bills and sma me-
e s on he ield) may o e a e y ealis ic and ep esen a i e iew o he
p oblem bu does no allow a comple e unde s anding o he ela ionship
be ween di e en ac o s and hei po en ial u he imp o emen o he
si ua ion. Thus, a model o he cul i a ion sys ems could be de eloped,
ela ing i iga ion, e ilisa ion, choice o subs a e mix u e in po s, and
o he p e-ha es ac o s on ield ac i i ies wi h he expec ed aspbe y
yield, o enable us o analyse al e na i e scena ios.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Angeliki Xyde ou Male aki: W i ing – o iginal d a , Visualiza ion,
So wa e, Resou ces, In es iga ion, Da a cu a ion. Nicolas Valanides:
W i ing – o iginal d a , In es iga ion, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Geo ge A Mangana is: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Supe ision, Re-
sou ces, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding acquisi ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Lisa Wasko DeVe e : W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Valida ion, Supe -
ision. So ia Papadaki: W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, In es i-
ga ion, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Magdalini K okida: W i ing
– e iew & edi ing, Supe ision, Funding acquisi ion. An onia Vy kou:
W i ing – o iginal d a , Visualiza ion, So wa e, Resou ces, Me hodol-
ogy, Da a cu a ion. A hanasios Angelis-Dimakis: W i ing – e iew &
edi ing, Supe ision, So wa e, Resou ces, Me hodology,
Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch has ecei ed unding om Ho izon Eu ope (p ojec
ac onym ‘PRIMESOFT’, G an Ag eemen No 101079119), and Ho izon
2020 (p ojec ac onym: ‘FRIETS’, G an Ag eemen No 101007783).
Da a a ailabili y
Da a will be made a ailable on eques .
Table 6
O e all cos analysis o open- ield and p o ec ed aspbe y cul i a ion me hods
using high unnels in Cyp us.
Resou ce P ice Change
e e y
Open-
ield
P o ec ed
cul i a ion
G ound co e 8000
€
/ha 5 yea 1600 1600
High- unnel
co e
13,600
€
/ha 5 yea 0 2720
Nozzle/ ubes 25,000
€
/ha 5 yea 5000 5000
Plan s 2
€
/uni 1 yea 36,400 36,400
Po s 2.5
€
/uni 5 yea 9100 9100
Subs a e 0.09
€
/L 1 yea 16,380 16,380
Elec ici y 0.2
€
/kWh 1 yea 3996 792
Wa e 0.15
€
/m
3
1 yea 7950 2650
Diesel 1.7
€
/L 1 yea 425 340
Pes icides 300
€
/L 1 yea 59,250 47,400
Fe ilise s 0.50
€
/kg 1 yea 3240 2880
Labou 5
€
/h 1 yea 0 2000
To al Cos (
€
)143,341 127,262
Yield (kg) 6370 9100
Cos pe kg (
€
/kg) 22.5 14.0
A.X. Male aki e al.
Cleane and Ci cula Bioeconomy 11 (2025) 100150
8
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