Geophysical Investigation of Some Building Foundations in Kano Metropolitan using Resistivity Tomography

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Global Jou nal o Resea ch in Humani ies & Cul u al S udies
ISSN: 2583-2670 (Online)
Volume 05 | Issue 06 | No .-Dec. | 2025
Jou nal homepage: h ps://gj publica ion.com/gj hcs/
Resea ch A icle
Geophysical In es iga ion o Some Building Founda ions in Kano Me opoli an using
Resis i i y Tomog aphy
*Amina Aminu Mado1, Musa Ahmed Abubaka 2
1,2 Depa men o Science Labo a o y Technology, School o Technology, Kano S a e Poly echnic, Nige ia.
*Co esponding au ho : Amina Aminu Mado
Depa men o Science Labo a o y Technology, School o Technology, Kano S a e Poly echnic, Nige ia.
1. In oduc ion
U ban a eas in Kano S a e, Nige ia, a e expe iencing apid expansion, leading o an inc ease in cons uc ion ac i i ies.
Ensu ing he sa e y and s abili y o building ounda ions is c ucial in u ban planning and cons uc ion. Howe e ,
ounda ion ailu es and building collapses ha e been epo ed, o en due o unde ec ed subsu ace anomalies such as weak
soils, ca i ies, o wa e in il a ion. T adi ional geo echnical in es iga ions may no always p o ide comp ehensi e
subsu ace in o ma ion, leading o o e sigh in po en ial haza ds.
Resis i i y omog aphy, a non-in asi e geophysical me hod, has p o en e ec i e in p o iding de ailed images o
subsu ace s uc u es. By measu ing he elec ical esis i i y o subsu ace ma e ials, i can de ec a ia ions ha indica e
po en ial issues, such as soil sa u a ion, oids, o di e en ock ypes. This esea ch aims o u ilize esis i i y omog aphy o
examine building ounda ions ac oss se e al local go e nmen s in Kano me opolis, o e ing insigh s ha can guide sa e
cons uc ion p ac ices.
P oblem S a emen
The in eg i y o building ounda ions is a signi ican conce n in Kano me opoli an a eas due o ins ances o s uc u al
ailu es and collapses. These ailu es a e o en a ibu ed o inadequa e subsu ace in es iga ions du ing cons uc ion
planning. T adi ional geo echnical me hods may no de ec all po en ial issues, leading o unde ec ed soil anomalies,
wa e in il a ion, and o he subsu ace haza ds.
Resis i i y omog aphy p o ides a mo e comp ehensi e analysis o he subsu ace, o e ing high esolu ion images ha
e eal a ia ions in soil and ock p ope ies. By applying his echnique o selec ed si es ac oss Kano me opoli an local
go e nmen s, his s udy aims o iden i y subsu ace condi ions ha could comp omise building ounda ions. The indings
will assis enginee s, a chi ec s, and u ban planne s in making in o med decisions, ensu ing he sa e y and du abili y o
s uc u es in he egion. This esea ch is jus i ied by he need o educe he isk o building collapses, p o ec li es and
p ope y, and imp o e he o e all quali y o cons uc ion in Kano.
Abs ac
The s abili y and sa e y o building ounda ions a e c i ical o u ban de elopmen , especially in apidly g owing
ci ies like Kano, Nige ia. This esea ch p oposes a geophysical in es iga ion using esis i i y omog aphy o assess
he subsu ace condi ions o building ounda ions ac oss selec ed a eas in Kano me opoli an local go e nmen s.
The s udy aims o iden i y po en ial geo echnical issues such as oids, ac u es, and soil he e ogenei y ha can
lead o s uc u al ailu es. By p o iding accu a e subsu ace imaging, his esea ch will help imp o e cons uc ion
p ac ices, in o m u ban planning, and mi iga e isks associa ed wi h building collapses. The indings a e expec ed o
con ibu e o sa e cons uc ion p ac ices, be e planning, and educed isk o s uc u al ailu es in Kano.
Keywo ds: Resis i i y omog aphy; Geophysical su ey; Building ounda ions; Soil s abili y; U ban de elopmen .
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Objec i e(s) o he S udy
The esea ch aims o achie e he ollowing objec i es:
i. To conduc a geophysical in es iga ion using esis i i y omog aphy o assess he subsu ace condi ions o
selec ed building ounda ions in Kano me opoli an local go e nmen s.
ii. To iden i y po en ial geo echnical issues, such as oids, ac u es, and zones o weak soil ha could a ec he
s abili y o building ounda ions.
iii. To p o ide ecommenda ions o sa e cons uc ion p ac ices and ounda ion designs based on he subsu ace
indings.
i . To con ibu e o u ban planning s a egies by o e ing insigh s in o he geological condi ions ac oss he s udied
a eas.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Geophysical me hods ha e become an essen ial componen in ci il and geo echnical enginee ing, enabling non-in asi e
explo a ion o subsu ace condi ions. These echniques include elec ical esis i i y omog aphy (ERT), seismic
e ac ion, g ound-pene a ing ada (GPR), and elec omagne ic su eys. Each o hese me hods o e s unique
ad an ages depending on he ype o subsu ace in o ma ion equi ed and he speci ic si e condi ions.
Elec ical esis i i y omog aphy (ERT), o example, is widely used o map subsu ace esis i i y a ia ions, which can
e eal he p esence o oids, ac u es, and a ying soil composi ions. This me hod is pa icula ly e ec i e o assessing
g oundwa e le els, con amina ion, and s uc u al in eg i y o building ounda ions (Loke e al., 2023). Seismic e ac ion
echniques, on he o he hand, a e use ul o de e mining soil laye hickness and ock quali y, which a e c ucial o
ounda ion design and si e sui abili y assessmen s (Dahlin e al..2021).
G ound-pene a ing ada (GPR) is ano he widely used me hod o shallow subsu ace in es iga ions. GPR is
pa icula ly use ul o iden i ying bu ied objec s, u ili y lines, and assessing pa emen hickness and in eg i y (Ahmed e al.,
2022). The non-in asi e na u e o hese geophysical me hods ensu es ha subsu ace in es iga ions can be conduc ed
wi hou he need o ex ensi e d illing o exca a ion, making hem cos - e ec i e and e icien (Tel o d e al. 2021).
2.1. Impo ance o Geophysical Techniques o Subsu ace In es iga ions in U ban Planning
and In as uc u e De elopmen
The in eg a ion o geophysical echniques in u ban planning and in as uc u e de elopmen is c i ical o sus ainable
cons uc ion p ac ices. In u ban en i onmen s, whe e building densi y and unde g ound u ili y ne wo ks can complica e
con en ional in es iga ion me hods, geophysical su eys p o ide a non-des uc i e means o assessing subsu ace
condi ions. This is essen ial o isk mi iga ion, as i helps in iden i ying po en ial subsu ace haza ds such as sinkholes,
oids, and uns able soil condi ions ha could comp omise s uc u al s abili y (Kib ia & Hossain, 2021; Bu che e al.,
2022).
Geophysical me hods also play a i al ole in he planning phase o cons uc ion p ojec s. By accu a ely cha ac e izing
he subsu ace, enginee s can design mo e s able ounda ions and selec app op ia e cons uc ion me hods. This educes
he isk o pos -cons uc ion issues, such as se ling o ounda ion ailu e, which can lead o signi ican sa e y conce ns
and inc eased main enance cos s (Ogun e al., 2022). Addi ionally, hese echniques a e inc easingly being used o
en i onmen al assessmen s, helping o iden i y and manage soil con amina ion, wa e able le els, and o he c i ical
en i onmen al pa ame e s ha impac cons uc ion p ojec s (Abdou e al., 2023).
The abili y o geophysical me hods o p o ide eal- ime da a is pa icula ly ad an ageous o u ban planne s and
enginee s. Real- ime moni o ing enables he quick iden i ica ion o subsu ace changes, acili a ing imely decision-
making and adjus men s du ing cons uc ion. This educes he likelihood o cos ly delays and ensu es ha in as uc u e
p ojec s a e comple ed on ime and wi hin budge (Lin e al., 2020).
2.2. Recen Ad ancemen s in Geophysical Me hods o Non-In asi e Subsu ace Explo a ion
Recen ad ancemen s in geophysical echniques ha e signi ican ly enhanced hei applica ion in ci il and geo echnical
enginee ing. Inno a ions in ins umen a ion, da a acquisi ion, and p ocessing ha e made hese me hods mo e accu a e,
e icien , and easie o deploy. Fo ins ance, he de elopmen o mul i-channel esis i i y me e s has allowed o he
simul aneous collec ion o da a om mul iple elec odes, inc easing he speed and esolu ion o esis i i y su eys (Loke
e al., 2023; Sha ma & Sen, 2021).
Ad ancemen s in da a p ocessing so wa e ha e also imp o ed he in e p e a ion o geophysical da a. Machine lea ning
(ML) and a i icial in elligence (Al) a e inc easingly being in eg a ed in o geophysical da a analysis, p o iding mo e
accu a e models and p edic ions. Fo example, Al algo i hms can p ocess as amoun s o esis i i y da a o iden i y
pa e ns and anomalies ha may no be immedia ely isible h ough adi ional analysis echniques (Chen & Zhang, 2023;
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Duan e al., 2022). These inno a ions ha e acili a ed mo e p ecise iden i ica ion o subsu ace condi ions, leading o
be e -in o med decision-making in cons uc ion and u ban planning.
Ano he signi ican ad ancemen is he de elopmen o 3D and 4D geophysical imaging. While adi ional geophysical
me hods ypically p oduce 2D subsu ace p o iles, new echnologies can gene a e 3D images ha p o ide a mo e
comp ehensi e iew o subsu ace condi ions. 4D imaging, which includes he ime dimension, allows o he moni o ing
o subsu ace changes o e ime, such as soil consolida ion, g oundwa e low, o he p og ession o con amina ion
plumes (Zhang e al., 2021; Teh e al., 2021).
The po abili y and ease o use o mode n geophysical equipmen ha e also imp o ed. Newe models a e ligh e , mo e
ugged, and capable o wi eless da a ansmission, making hem ideal o use in challenging en i onmen s, such as u ban
a eas wi h limi ed access. These imp o emen s ha e expanded he ange o applica ions o geophysical echniques and
ha e made hem mo e accessible o enginee s and geoscien is s ac oss a ious sec o s (Singh & Gup a, 2023; Abdullahi
e al., 2022).
Figu e 1.1: Sa elli e Image Showing Loca ion Map (Google Ea h P o)
Figu e 1.2: Geological Map Showing he S udy A ea (A e McCu y, 1970)
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Resis i i y omog aphy is a geophysical me hod used o in es iga e subsu ace ea u es by measu ing he elec ical
esis i i y o he g ound. The undamen al p inciple in ol es injec ing an elec ical cu en in o he g ound h ough a pai
o elec odes and measu ing he esul ing po en ial di e ence be ween o he elec ode pai s. The esis i i y, which is he
ma e ial's abili y o esis elec ical low, a ies based on he subsu ace composi ion, mois u e con en , and o he ac o s.
The me hod elies on Ohm's Law, whe e esis i i y (p) is de e mined using he o mula:
Whe e (V) is he measu ed po en ial di e ence, (I) is he injec ed cu en , and (K) is he geome ic ac o based on he
elec ode a angemen (Tel o d e al., 2021). Di e en ma e ials ha e a ying esis i i ies; o example, clayey soils ha e
lowe esis i i ies due o high mois u e con en , while ocky and d y o ma ions ha e highe esis i i ies (Reynolds,
2020). By sys ema ically mo ing he elec odes ac oss he su ey a ea, a esis i i y p o ile is de eloped, e ealing he
dis ibu ion o di e en subsu ace ea u es.
Key concep s such as cu en injec ion (sending an elec ical cu en in o he g ound) and Po en ial measu emen
( eco ding he ol age di e ence be ween elec odes) a e in eg al o esis i i y omog aphy. Mode n ins umen s allow
he collec ion o da a om mul iple elec ode a ays, making i possible o build de ailed images o subsu ace esis i i y
dis ibu ions (Dahlin & Zhou, 2021).
Ad an ages o Resis i i y Tomog aphy O e T adi ional Bo ehole Me hods
Resis i i y omog aphy o e s se e al ad an ages o e adi ional bo ehole d illing me hods. One o he p ima y bene i s
is i s **non-in asi e** na u e, which allows o ex ensi e subsu ace explo a ion wi hou he need o di ec physical
in usion. This is especially ad an ageous in u ban en i onmen s whe e exca a ion can be expensi e, dis up i e, and
logis ically challenging (Abubaka & Yilmaz, 2019). Addi ionally, esis i i y omog aphy can co e la ge a eas in less
ime compa ed o bo ehole me hods, p o iding a b oade unde s anding o subsu ace condi ions (Dahlin e al., 2020).
Ano he signi ican ad an age is he abili y o de ec and cha ac e ize he e ogeneous subsu ace ea u es. Bo eholes
p o ide only poin da a a disc e e loca ions, po en ially missing a ia ions be ween d illed poin s. Resis i i y
omog aphy, on he o he hand, can iden i y a ia ions in soil composi ion, mois u e le els, and he p esence o oids,
ac u es, o con aminan s o e a con inuous a ea (Olayinka &Akanmu, 2022). This makes i ideal o applica ions such as
iden i ying weak zones unde building ounda ions, mapping g oundwa e con amina ion, and assessing a eas p one o
subsidence.
Fu he mo e, cos -e iciency is a no able bene i . Since esis i i y su eys equi e ewe pe sonnel and less equipmen
compa ed o ex ensi e d illing ope a ions, i is a mo e economical op ion o la ge-scale p ojec s. I also educes sa e y
isks, as he e is no need o wo ke s o be p esen in haza dous en i onmen s (Teixei a e al., 2021).
De elopmen o 2D and 3D Resis i i y Imaging and I s Signi icance
The de elopmen o 2D and 3D esis i i y imaging has e olu ionized he way subsu ace in es iga ions a e conduc ed.
T adi ional 1D esis i i y su eys could only p o ide limi ed da a, o en equi ing assump ions abou subsu ace
homogenei y. The e olu ion o 2D and 3D imaging has allowed o a much mo e de ailed and accu a e ep esen a ion o
subsu ace s uc u es, leading o be e in e p e a ion and decision-making (Tel o d e al., 202 1; Olayinka e al., 2023).
2D esis i i y imaging in ol es placing a linea a ay o elec odes along he su ace, which cap u es e ical sec ions o
he subsu ace. This me hod is ideal o iden i ying la e al changes, such as aul s, dikes, o bu ied channels. Howe e , o
mo e complex geological scena ios, 3D esis i i y imaging is p e e ed. In 3D su eys, elec odes a e a anged in a g id
pa e n, and da a is collec ed om mul iple pe spec i es, allowing he cons uc ion o a olume ic model o subsu ace
esis i i y. This p o ides insigh s in o he shape, size, and o ien a ion o subsu ace anomalies, leading o mo e accu a e
in e p e a ions (Dahlin & Loke, 2022).
Recen ad ancemen s in so wa e and ha dwa e ha e imp o ed he speed and accu acy o da a acquisi ion and p ocessing.
Mode n esis i i y omog aphy sys ems now include au oma ed da a collec ion and eal- ime imaging capabili ies, which
can be pa icula ly use ul du ing ield ope a ions. So wa e ad ancemen s ha e also acili a ed mo e sophis ica ed
**in e sion modeling** Con e ing aw esis i i y da a in o isual omog ams ha accu a ely e lec he sub
su ace's elec ical p ope ies (Teixei a & San os, 2022).
The signi icance o hese ad ancemen s is e iden in applica ions anging om en i onmen al assessmen s o
in as uc u e planning. Fo ins ance, 3D esis i i y imaging has been success ully used o map complex ka s sys ems,
which can pose isks o cons uc ion p ojec s i no p ope ly unde s ood (Olayinka e al., 2023). These echnological
imp o emen s ha e made esis i i y omog aphy a c ucial ool o enginee s, geologis s, and en i onmen al scien is s
seeking eliable subsu ace in o ma ion.
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Applica ions o Resis i i y Tomog aphy in Building Founda ion Analysis
In es iga ing Subsu ace Condi ions Impac ing Building Founda ions**
Resis i i y omog aphy has eme ged as a i al ool o assessing subsu ace condi ions ha signi ican ly impac building
ounda ions. By mapping he elec ical esis i i y o soil and ock laye s, enginee s and geologis s can iden i y c ucial
ac o s such as soil composi ion, mois u e con en , and he p esence o oids o ac u es, hese ac o s di ec ly in luence
he s abili y and in eg i y o ounda ions.
Soil composi ion plays a pi o al ole in de e mining he load-bea ing capaci y o a ounda ion. Di e en soil ypes, such
as clay, sil , and sand, exhibi dis inc esis i i y alues due o a ia ions in mine al con en , g ain size, and po osi y. Fo
ins ance, clayey soils ypically display lowe esis i i y alues due o hei highwa e e en ion capaci y, while sandy soils
p esen highe esis i i y due o g ea e d ainage capabili ies (Olayinka e al., 2022). Mois u e con en is ano he c i ical
pa ame e , as inc eased wa e sa u a ion can educe he e ec i e s ess and s eng h o soil, leading o po en ial
ounda ion se lemen (Adewumi e al., 2020).
Mo eo e , esis i i y omog aphy can e ec i ely iden i y subsu ace oids and ac u es ha may pose isks o
ounda ion s abili y. The p esence o hese anomalies can indica e geological ea u es such as sinkholes o abandoned
mine sha s, which can comp omise he sa e y o s uc u es buil abo e hem (Baba e al., 2022). By employing esis i i y
omog aphy du ing he si e in es iga ion phase, s akeholde s can make in o med decisions ega ding ounda ion design,
cons uc ion me hods, and po en ial mi iga ion s a egies.
Case S udies Demons a ing Success ul Applica ions
Nume ous case s udies highligh he success ul applica ion o esis i i y omog aphy in u ban se ings, demons a ing i s
e ec i eness in e alua ing building ounda ion condi ions. Kib ia and Hossain (2021) conduc ed a esis i i y su ey
in Dhaka, Bangladesh, whe e hey mapped subsu ace condi ions o a p oposed mul i-s o y building. The s udy e ealed
a ia ions in soil esis i i y, allowing he iden i ica ion o zones wi h high mois u e con en and po en ial oids. This
in o ma ion was c i ical o designing a ounda ion ha could wi hs and an icipa ed loads and a oid se lemen issues.
Simila ly, Adewumi e al. (2020) in es iga ed a cons uc ion si e in Lagos, Nige ia, using esis i i y omog aphy o
assess subsu ace condi ions p io o building ounda ion cons uc ion. The esul s indica ed signi ican la e al a ia ions
in esis i i y, co ela ing wi h changes in soil ype and mois u e le els. These indings in o med he design o ounda ion
oo ings, ensu ing adequa e suppo o he s uc u e while mi iga ing he isk o u u e se lemen .
These case s udies illus a e he p ac ical bene i s o in eg a ing esis i i y omog aphy in o ounda ion analysis, as hey
p o ide comp ehensi e subsu ace p o iles ha a e essen ial o in o med decision-making in cons uc ion p ojec s.
Recen T ends in P e-Cons uc ion and Pos -Cons uc ion Moni o ing
Recen ends indica e a g owing eliance on esis i i y omog aphy o bo h p e-cons uc ion si e assessmen s and pos -
cons uc ion moni o ing. P e-cons uc ion assessmen s u ilize esis i i y omog aphy o iden i y po en ial geo echnical
challenges be o e cons uc ion begins. This p oac i e app oach helps enginee s design app op ia e ounda ions ailo ed o
he speci ic si e condi ions, educing he isk o unexpec ed p oblems du ing cons uc ion (Baba e al., 2022),
Pos -cons uc ion moni o ing is equally c ucial, as i allows o he ongoing assessmen o ounda ion pe o mance o e
ime. Changes in subsu ace esis i i y can signal issues such as inc eased mois u e in il a ion o g ound mo emen ,
p omp ing imely in e en ion be o e signi ican s uc u al damage occu s. Fo ins ance, esis i i y measu emen s can be
employed o moni o he e ec s o ain all o nea by cons uc ion ac i i ies on exis ing ounda ions, enabling apid
esponse o po en ial haza ds (Olayinka e al., 2023).
The in eg a ion o ad anced da a acquisi ion echnologies and p ocessing so wa e has u he enhanced he applica ion
o esis i i y omog aphy in bo h p e- and pos -cons uc ion se ings. Real- ime da a analysis and isualiza ion ools
p o ide s akeholde s wi h immedia e insigh s in o subsu ace condi ions, acili a ing be e p ojec managemen and isk
mi iga ion s a egies (Kib ia & Hossain, 202 1).
Geophysical In es iga ions o Building Founda ions: Global Pe spec i es
Re iew o Geophysical S udies Focusing on Building Founda ion Assessmen
Geophysical in es iga ions o building ounda ion assessmen ha e gained global ac ion, wi h nume ous s udies
highligh ing he applicabili y o a ious me hods ac oss di e se geological se ings. Fo ins ance, Kah aman e al. (2021)
conduc ed a comp ehensi e analysis o esis i i y and seismic me hods in Tu key, emphasizing hei e ec i eness in
e alua ing soil condi ions and de ec ing subsu ace anomalies. Thei indings e ealed ha in eg a ed app oaches yield
mo e eliable da a o ounda ion design, pa icula ly in a eas p one o seismic ac i i y.
In Eu ope, Xie e al. (2020) explo ed he use o g ound-pene a ing ada (GPR) in ounda ion assessmen s ac oss se e al
cons uc ion si es in he UK. Thei s udy demons a ed GPR'S capaci y o p o ide high- esolu ion images o subsu ace

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s uc u es, helping iden i y po en ial ounda ion issues, such as oids o laye ing a ia ions. These s udies illus a e he
e sa ili y o geophysical me hods in di e en con ex s, showcasing how echniques like esis i i y omog aphy and GPR
can be ailo ed o mee egional challenges. Mo eo e , esea ch om A ica highligh s he inc easing adop ion o
geophysical echniques. Fo example, a s udy in Sou h A ica in es iga ed he use o elec ical esis i i y imaging o
ounda ion assessmen s in a coas al ci y. The esea che s ound signi ican co ela ions be ween esis i i y p o iles and
soil ypes, unde sco ing he me hod's e icacy in complex geological en i onmen s (Abiola e al., 2021). This global
pe spec i e unde sco es he uni e sal ele ance o geophysical me hods in add essing ounda ion- ela ed challenges.
Compa a i e Analysis o Me hodologies and Challenges in Di e en Geological Se ings
A compa a i e analysis o me hodologies employed in geophysical in es iga ions e eals signi ican a ia ions in luenced
by geological se ings. Fo ins ance, in egions wi h he e ogeneous geology, such as he Andes Moun ains, esis i i y
omog aphy o en needs o be complemen ed wi h seismic su eys o achie e comp ehensi e subsu ace imaging
(Kah aman e al., 2021). This in eg a ed app oach allows o he iden i ica ion o weak zones and he assessmen o
ounda ion s abili y in challenging e ains.
In con as , u ban en i onmen s wi h high le els o an h opogenic in luence, such as majo ci ies in Asia, p esen unique
challenges. Xie e al. (2020) no ed ha elec omagne ic in e e ence om nea by s uc u es o en complica es da a
acquisi ion o esis i i y su eys. To mi iga e hese challenges, esea che s ha e inc easingly u ned o ad anced
p ocessing echniques and mul i-me hod app oaches ha combine esis i i y omog aphy wi h o he geophysical
echniques, enhancing da a eliabili y and in e p e a ion.
Fu he mo e, s udies conduc ed in so e sedimen a y basins highligh challenges such as dep h o
in es iga ion and esolu ion limi a ions inhe en in esis i i y me hods. Resea ch by Dahlin and Loke (2023) emphasizes
he impo ance o selec ing app op ia e su ey con igu a ions and elec ode a angemen s o imp o e esolu ion in
such con ex s. Compa a i e analyses like hese no only shed ligh on e ec i e me hodologies bu also illus a e he
adap abili y o geophysical echniques o mee si e-speci ic challenges.
Insigh s in o he Limi a ions o Resis i i y Tomog aphy and Recen Ad ancemen s
Despi e i s ad an ages, esis i i y omog aphy aces inhe en limi a ions ha can impac i s e ec i eness in ounda ion
assessmen s. Common challenges include he di icul y o in e p e ing da a in he p esence o high soil he e ogenei y and
a iable mois u e con en , which can lead o ambigui ies in esis i i y p o iles. Recen ad ancemen s ha e aimed o
add ess hese challenges. Fo ins ance, Dahlin and Loke (2023) discuss he in eg a ion o machine lea ning algo i hms
wi h adi ional da a p ocessing echniques, which enhances he accu acy esis i i y in e p e a ion by au oma ing
anomaly de ec ion and classi ica ion.
Mo eo e , Sen and Sha ma (2022) highligh he de elopmen o hyb id geophysical me hods ha combine esis i i y
omog aphy wi h seismic e ac ion and GPR. This mul i- echnique app oach allows o he c oss- alida ion o esul s,
imp o ing he o e all eliabili y o subsu ace assessmen s. Such ad ancemen s a e c ucial in e ining esis i i y
omog aphy's applicabili y and o e coming i s limi a ions in complex geological en i onmen s.
Recen inno a ions in equipmen design, such as he in oduc ion o high-densi y esis i i y a ays, also con ibu e o
imp o ed da a esolu ion and in e p e a ion (Xie e al, 2020). These ad ancemen s acili a e mo e accu a e mapping o
subsu ace ea u es, he eby enhancing he e ec i eness o geophysical in es iga ions o building ounda ions.
Geophysical Su eys and U ban De elopmen in No he n Nige ia
O e iew o Geo echnical Challenges in he Kano Me opoli an A ea
The Kano me opoli an a ea aces signi ican geo echnical challenges ha impac u ban de elopmen . These challenges
s em om di e se soil ypes, a iable mois u e condi ions, and he e ec s o u ban sp awl. Ib ahim and Suleiman (2021)
highligh ha he egion's soil a iabili y o en leads o di e en ial se lemen in s uc u es, complica ing ounda ion
design and cons uc ion. The luc ua ing wa e able, exace ba ed by seasonal ain all and g oundwa e ex ac ion, u he
complica es he geo echnical landscape. Musa e al. (2020) discuss how hese ac o s con ibu e o ins abili y in
buildings, leading o s uc u al ailu es ha jeopa dize public sa e y and inc ease economic cos s.
Addi ionally, apid u baniza ion in Kano has led o unplanned de elopmen s, pu ing p essu e on exis ing in as uc u e
and demanding e icien geo echnical in es iga ions. The challenges p esen ed by u ban sp awl include inc eased loading
on ounda ions, inadequa e d ainage, and soil e osion, which u he comp omise he in eg i y o s uc u es (Ib ahim &
Suleiman, 2021). Add essing hese issues h ough comp ehensi e geophysical su eys is c i ical o sus ainable u ban
de elopmen and in as uc u e managemen in he egion.
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P e ious S udies on Founda ion P oblems and he Role o Geophysical Techniques
P e ious s udies ha e documen ed a ious ounda ion p oblems in he Kano me opoli an a ea, highligh ing he need o
e ec i e geo echnical in es iga ions. Abubaka e al. (2019) in es iga ed s uc u al ailu es in esiden ial buildings and
a ibu ed many o hese issues o inadequa e ounda ion assessmen s p io o cons uc ion. The au ho s emphasize
ha many builde s o en neglec geo echnical su eys, leading o cos ly e o i ing and epai s.
Geophysical echniques ha e eme ged as aluable ools in mi iga ing isks associa ed wi h ounda ion ailu es. Usman and
Alao (2021) conduc ed a s udy u ilizing esis i i y omog aphy o assess subsu ace condi ions in a eas wi h known
ounda ion issues. Thei indings e ealed signi ican co ela ions be ween esis i i y anomalies and s uc u al p oblems,
unde sco ing he e ec i eness o geophysical me hods in p o iding c i ical in o ma ion o ounda ion design. This body
o esea ch emphasizes he impo ance o in eg a ing geophysical su eys in o he planning s ages o cons uc ion
p ojec s o enhance ounda ion s abili y and minimize isks.
Impo ance o Non-in asi e Geophysical Me hods in Add essing In as uc u e De elopmen
Challenges
Non-in asi e geophysical me hods play a c ucial ole in add essing in as uc u e de elopmen challenges in u ban
cen e s, pa icula ly in egions like Kano. Abdullahi e al. (2022) highligh he ad an ages o hese echniques, including
educed en i onmen al impac , cos -e ec i eness, and he abili y o ga he da a wi hou dis up ing exis ing s uc u es.
These me hods allow o comp ehensi e subsu ace in es iga ions ha in o m enginee ing decisions and imp o e he
sa e y and du abili y o u ban in as uc u e.
Fu he mo e, he applica ion o non-in asi e echniques acili a es imely assessmen s o exis ing ounda ions, enabling
main enance planning and isk managemen (Abdullahi e al., 2022). The in eg a ion o geophysical su eys in o u ban
planning amewo ks can p o ide s akeholde s wi h essen ial in o ma ion o de elop esilien in as uc u e ha can
wi hs and he geo echnical challenges posed by he egion's unique soil and hyd ological condi ions. As u ban cen e s
con inue o expand, he eliance on non-in asi e geophysical me hods will be pi o al in ensu ing sus ainable
de elopmen and enhancing u ban esilience.
The Role o Resis i i y Tomog aphy in De ec ing Subsu ace Anomalies
Iden i ying Common su ace Anomalies
Resis i i y omog aphy is a powe ul echnique o iden i ying a ious subsu ace anomalies ha can signi ican ly impac
enginee ing p ojec s, pa icula ly building ounda ions. I e ec i ely de ec s ac u es、 oids, and zones o high
mois u e con en , which a e c i ical ac o s in e alua ing subsu ace s abili y. He e al. (2021) demons a ed ha
esis i i y omog aphy can delinea e ac u e zones ha could comp omise ounda ion in eg i y. By measu ing he
elec ical esis i i y o he subsu ace ma e ials, he me hod allows esea che s o dis inguish be ween di e en
geological ea u es and mois u e condi ions, p o iding essen ial in o ma ion o cons uc ion planning.
Yousse e al. (2020) u he emphasize he u ili y o esis i i y omog aphy in iden i ying high mois u e zones, which can
lead o soil weakening and inc eased se lemen isk. Thei s udy e ealed how esis i i y p o iles co ela e wi h a eas o
sa u a ion, enabling enginee s o make in o med decisions ega ding d ainage and ounda ion design. O e all, he abili y
o esis i i y omog aphy o isualize subsu ace anomalies enhances unde s anding and managemen o ounda ion isks,
con ibu ing o sa e u ban de elopmen .
Bene i s o Mul i-Elec ode Resis i i y Se ups
The implemen a ion o mul i-elec ode esis i i y se ups o e s signi ican ad an ages o de ec ing subsu ace ea u es ha
a ec ounda ion s abili y. Abdou e al. (2023) highligh ha using mul i-elec ode a ays inc eases he spa ial esolu ion
and co e age o esis i i y su eys enabling de ailed imaging o complex subsu ace condi ions. This app oach allows
o mo e accu a e iden i ica ion o anomalies such as oids and ac u es, which adi ional me hods may o e look.
Kizil and Va da (2021) discuss he e iciency o mul i-elec ode con igu a ions in u ban en i onmen s, whe e space
cons ain s can limi su ey op ions. The adap abili y o hese se ups allows o ailo ed su ey designs ha can add ess
speci ic geo echnical challenges encoun e ed in building ounda ions. By enhancing da a quali y and in e p e a ion,
mul i-elec ode esis i i y sys ems p o ide enginee s wi h c i ical insigh s in o subsu ace condi ions, hus imp o ing
ounda ion sa e y and s abili y.
Recen Ad ancemen s in Da a P ocessing and Modeling Techniques
Recen ad ancemen s in da a p ocessing, in e sion echniques, and 3D modeling ha e signi ican ly enhanced he
e ec i eness o esis i i y omog aphy in de ec ing subsu ace anomalies. Loke e al. (2023) p o ide insigh s in o
imp o ed in e sion algo i hms ha acili a e mo e accu a e econs uc ion o subsu ace esis i i y dis ibu ions om
collec ed da a. These de elopmen s enable geoscien is s o e ine hei analyses and ob ain clea e ep esen a ions o
subsu ace ea u es.
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Teh e al. (2021) discusses he in eg a ion o machine lea ning echniques in da a p ocessing. which s eamlines he
in e p e a ion o esis i i y da a and enhances anomaly de ec ion capabili ies. By le e aging a i icial in elligence,
esea che s can iden i y pa e ns wi hin complex da ase s, u he imp o ing he eliabili y o esis i i y omog aphy
indings Addi ionally, ad ancemen s in 3D modeling allow o mo e in ui i e isualiza ions o subsu ace s uc u es,
aiding enginee s in unde s anding he spa ial ela ionships be ween di e en geological ea u es.
These echnological ad ancemen s collec i ely bols e he applica ion o esis i i y omog aphy in enginee ing geology,
enabling p ac i ione s o de ec and in e p e subsu ace anomalies wi h g ea e p ecision and con idence.
Challenges and Limi a ions o Resis i i y Tomog aphy in U ban A eas
Common Challenges in Dense U ban Se ings
Resis i i y omog aphy p esen s se e al challenges when applied in dense u ban en i onmen s. One o he mos
signi ican issues is noise in e e ence om a ious sou ces, such as elec ical equipmen , a ic, and nea by s uc u es,
which can dis o esis i i y measu emen s. Ogun e al (2022) highligh ha hese in e e ences can lead o inaccu acies
in da a collec ion, complica ing he in e p e a ion o subsu ace condi ions.
Addi ionally, he limi ed space o elec ode deploymen in u ban a eas can hinde he e ec i eness o esis i i y
su eys. Lin e al. (2020) poin s ou ha u ban landscapes o en ha e obs acles such as buildings, oads, and u ili ies,
making i di icul o a ange elec odes in op imal con igu a ions. Fu he mo e, complex subsu ace laye ing due o he
p esence o a ious cons uc ion ma e ials and ill can complica e da a in e p e a ion, as o e lapping signals may obscu e
unde lying geological ea u es.
S a egies o O e coming Limi a ions
To add ess hese challenges, esea che s ha e explo ed s a egies ha in eg a e esis i i y omog aphy wi h o he
geophysical me hods, such as G ound Pene a ing Rada (GPR) and seismic su eys. Chen and Zhang (2023) discuss
how combining hese echniques can enhance he o e all unde s anding o subsu ace condi ions by le e aging he
s eng hs o each me hod. Fo ins ance, while esis i i y omog aphy p o ides de ailed in o ma ion abou elec ical
p ope ies, GPR can e ec i ely iden i y s uc u al ea u es and s a ig aphy.
Aliyu e al. (2021) emphasize he impo ance o using a mul i-me hod app oach in u ban geophysical in es iga ions. By
in eg a ing di e en echniques, esea che s can c oss- alida e indings and imp o e he eliabili y o subsu ace
assessmen s. This hyb id me hodology no only helps o e come he limi a ions o indi idual echniques bu also allows
o a mo e comp ehensi e analysis o u ban en i onmen s, ul ima ely leading o be e -in o med enginee ing decisions.
In conclusion, while esis i i y omog aphy aces a ious challenges in u ban se ings, s a egic in eg a ion wi h o he
geophysical me hods can signi ican ly enhance i s e icacy and p o ide aluable insigh s in o subsu ace condi ions ha
a e c i ical o u ban in as uc u e de elopmen .
3. METHODOLOGY
3.0 Eme ging T ends in Geophysical Techniques o Building Founda ion Analysis
3.1 In eg a ion o A i icial In elligence (AI) and Machine Lea ning (ML) in Da a In e p e a ion
The in eg a ion o A i icial In elligence (AI) and Machine Lea ning (ML) in o geophysical da a in e p e a ion ep esen s
a ans o ma i e end in he ield. Singh and Gup a (2023) highligh how Al algo i hms can enhance he analysis o
complex da ase s, allowing o quicke and mo e accu a e in e p e a ion o subsu ace condi ions. By aining models on
his o ical geophysical da a, Al can iden i y pa e ns and anomalies ha may no be eadily appa en h ough adi ional
analysis me hods.
Zhang e al. (2021) u he emphasize he po en ial o ML echniques o au oma e he in e p e a ion p ocess, educing he
ime and expe ise equi ed o da a analysis. These ad ancemen s enable geophysicis s o ocus on c i ical decision-
making a he han being bogged down in he in icacies o da a p ocessing. Addi ionally, Al-d i en app oaches can
con inuously imp o e as hey inges new da a, making hem adap able o di e en geological se ings and challenges.
3.2 De elopmen o Po able and Wi eless Resis i i y Tomog aphy Equipmen
Recen ad ancemen s in echnology ha e led o he de elopmen o po able and wi eless esis i i y omog aphy
equipmen , signi ican ly imp o ing he easibili y o geophysical su eys in u ban en i onmen s. Duan e al. (2022)
discusses how hese inno a i e ools acili a e easie deploymen and da a collec ion, minimizing dis up ion o u ban
in as uc u e while p o iding high-quali y da a. Wi eless echnology allows o g ea e lexibili y in elec ode placemen
and can educe he logis ical challenges associa ed wi h adi ional wi ed sys ems.
Mo eo e , po able equipmen o en comes wi h use - iendly in e aces and eal- ime da a p ocessing capabili ies,
allowing o immedia e isualiza ion o esul s. This end no only enhances ield e iciency bu also encou ages he
adop ion o geophysical me hods among p ac i ione s who may lack ex ensi e echnical expe ise.
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3.3 Use o Geophysical Me hods o Long-Te m Moni o ing o S uc u al Heal h
The applica ion o geophysical echniques o long- e m moni o ing o s uc u al heal h in buildings is gaining ac ion as
an essen ial p ac ice in ci il enginee ing. Ahmed and Khed (2023) emphasize he ole o geophysical su eys in assessing
he condi ion o building ounda ions o e ime, enabling p oac i e main enance s a egies. By implemen ing con inuous
moni o ing sys ems, enginee s can de ec ea ly signs o s uc u al dis ess, such as shi s in mois u e con en o changes
in soil esis i i y, which could indica e po en ial ailu e.
This p oac i e app oach no only enhances he sa e y and longe i y o s uc u es bu also p o ides aluable da a o
u u e cons uc ion p ojec s. The use o geophysical me hods in moni o ing aligns wi h he ine easing emphasis on
sus ainabili y and esilience in u ban de elopmen , ensu ing ha in as uc u e emains obus amids changing
en i onmen al condi ions.
In summa y, he eme ging ends in geophysical echniques o building ounda ion analysis highligh he in eg a ion o
ad anced echnologies such as Al and ML, he de elopmen o po able equipmen , and he applica ion o con inuous
moni o ing p ac ices. These inno a ions p omise o enhance he e ec i eness o geophysical in es iga ions and
con ibu e o sa e and mo e sus ainable u ban in as uc u e.
3.4 Me hodology (Should include desc ip ion o s udy a ea/si e/subjec s, da a collec ion and
da a analysis): The ela i e abili ies o ma e ials o conduc elec ici y whe e a ol age is applied a e exp essed as
conduc i i ies. Con e sely, he esis ance o e ed by a ma e ial o cu en low is exp essed in e ms o esis i i y. Fo
almos all elec ical geophysical me hods, he ue o mo e scien i ically, he speci ic esis i i y o he ock is o in e es .
The ue esis i i y o a ock uni is de ined as being equal o he esis ance o a uni cube o he ock.
All esis i i y me hods employ an a i icial sou ce o cu en . Which is in oduced in o he g ound h ough poin
elec odes o long line con ac s; he la e a angemen is a ely used nowadays. The p ocedu e is o measu e po en ials a
o he elec odes in he icini y o he cu en low because he cu en is measu ed as well. I is possible o de e mine an
e ec i e o appa en esis i i y o he subsu ace. In his ega d he esis i i y echnique is supe io , a leas heo e ically,
o all he o he elec ical me hods, because quan i a i e esul s a e ob ained by using a con olled sou ce o speci ic
dimensions. P ac ically, as in o he geophysical me hods, he maximum po en iali ies o esis i i y a e ne e ealized
(Tel o d e al. 1990).
3.4 Elemen a y Theo y
Conside a cu en lowing in a cylind ical conduc o o leng h L., c oss-sec ional a ea A, wi h cu en I, lowing h ough
i , as p esen ed in Figu e 2.3
The esis ance R om ohm's law is exp essed as:
3.1
Ra 𝐿
𝐴
3.2
R = 𝑝𝐿
𝐴
Whe e p is he cons an o p opo ionali y called esis i i y A is he uni c oss-sec ional a ea (m²)
L is he leng h (m)
R is he Resis ance o medium be ween wo poin s measu ed in ohms.
Figu e 2.3: Cu en low in a cylind ical conduc o