Deliverable D 2.1 Exploring the 15-minute city concept for urban outskirts : a systematic literature review

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P ojec numbe : F-DUT-2022-0088
D i ing Equi able and Accessible 15 Minu e Neighbou hood
T ans o ma ions
WP2. Re iew and compa a i e analysis
T2.1. Re isi ing he de ini ion o 15mC
Deli e able D 2.1
Explo ing he 15-minu e ci y concep o u ban ou ski s : a
sys ema ic li e a u e e iew.
Da e: 10/12/2024
Responsible pa ne : Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Au ho s:
Daniela A ias Molina es, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Ka s Geu s, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Anna G igolon, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Ba an Ulak, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Da id Du an, Technical Uni e si y Munich (TUM)
Ba osz McCo mick, Technical Uni e si y Munich (TUM)
Jel en Bague , Mpac
Cha lo e an Vessem, V ije Uni e si ei B ussel (VUB)
Hey hem Adje oud, Uni e si y Gus a e Ei el (UGE)
Domokos Esz e gá -Kiss, Budapes Uni e si y o Technology and Economics (BME)
Linda Dö zap , Vienna Uni e si y o Technology (TU WIEN)
Geo gia Cha alampidou, Uni e si ä ü Bodenkul u Wien (BOKU)
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DOCUMENT CHANGE RECORD
Ve sion
Da e
S a us
Au ho
Desc ip ion
0.1
03/07/2024
Templa e
Daniela A ias Molina es,
Ka s Geu s, Anna
G igolon, Ba an Ulak
Re ising li e a u e
D a ing s uc u e
Main d a e sion
0.2
03/10/2024
Templa e
Daniela A ias Molina es,
Ka s Geu s, Anna
G igolon, Ba an Ulak,
Cha lo e an Vessem,
Hey hem Adje oud, Da id
Du an, Ba osz
McCo mick, Ana Cla a
Caixe a, Domokos,
Esz e gá -Kiss, Jel en
Bague , Linda Dö zap .
Con ibu ions on
expe ise opics and
edi s
0.3
12/11/2024
Templa e
Yusak Susilo, Roman
Klemen schi z, Da id
Du an, Ba osz
McCo mick.
Final Pee - e iew
Edi s, e ision,
commen s
0.4
10/12/2024
Final e sion
Daniela A ias Molina es,
Ka s Geu s, Anna
G igolon, Ba an Ulak
The DUT Pa ne ship is suppo ed by he Eu opean Commission and unded unde he Ho izon Eu ope
co- unded Pa ne ship scheme (Topic HORIZON-CL5-2021-D2-01-16).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................................. 3
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................................................ 4
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1. Abou he DREAMS P ojec ....................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2. Abou Deli e able 2.1: e isi ing he de ini ion o 15mC............................................................................. 8
2. SETTING THE COMMON GROUND: DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................... 10
1.3. Topic 1: U ban ou ski s ......................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4. Topic 2: Accessibili y, p oximi y and walkabili y ........................................................................................ 11
1.5. Topic 3: mobili y se ices ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.6. Topic 4: Go e nance ................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.7. Topic 5: Business models ....................................................................................................................................... 15
3. SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 18
4. TOWARDS THE 15MN CONCEPT ADAPTATION FOR URBAN OUTSKIRTS ........................................... 20
4.1. The o igins o he 15mC concep ......................................................................................................................... 20
4.2. Exis ing de ini ions o 15mC ................................................................................................................................. 23
4.3. E olu ion o he 15mC concep ............................................................................................................................ 26
4.4. Equi able, and Accessible 15-minu e Ou ski s Neighbou hoods (DREAMS 15mN) .................... 31
4.4.1. Densi y: i ing all sizes h ough he lens o di e en scales ............................................................... 33
4.4.2. Di e si y: quan i y and quali y o ameni ies .............................................................................................. 38
4.4.3. Design: spa ial cha ac e is ics allowing people o each ameni ies................................................. 46
4.4.4. Human pe spec i es and needs....................................................................................................................... 52
4.4.5. Go e nance .............................................................................................................................................................. 61
4.4.6. Business models .................................................................................................................................................... 65
5. THE DREAMS 15MN MIXER: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR 15MN TRANSOFRMATIONS .... 69
6. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................................................. 72
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 1 Sea ches o he e m “15-minu e ci y” on Google Schola (2015-2024). ............................................ 9
Figu e 2 Quick glossa y o e ms o DREAMS p ojec ................................................................................................ 17
Figu e 3 PRISMA lowcha o selec documen s o e iew. .................................................................................... 19
Figu e 4 Timeline o he 15mC concep ............................................................................................................................. 21
Figu e 5 Numbe o s udies e ised discussing he 15mC concep . ....................................................................... 26
Figu e 6 Mapping o li e a u e acco ding o modes/spa ial scope conside ed in he analyses. ................ 27
Figu e 7 O e iew o gene al li e a u e (u ban ocus): Publica ion yea , e ms used o de ine 15mC,
ocus and modes/ unc ions conside ed. ............................................................................................................................ 29
Figu e 8 O e iew o ou ski s li e a u e: Publica ion yea , e ms used o de ine 15mC, ocus and
modes/ unc ions conside ed.................................................................................................................................................. 30
Figu e 9 Mo eno’s 15mC o iginal concep componen s and DREAMS 15mN adap a ion. ........................... 32
Figu e 10 T ansec o U banism. .......................................................................................................................................... 35
Figu e 11 The 15-minu e neighbou hood ypologies based on esiden ial densi y. ...................................... 37
Figu e 12 Examples o lowe s o p oximi y p oposed by au ho s o s udy 8, 15 and 67. ........................... 42
Figu e 13 Ameni ies and hei impo ance men ioned on s udies e ised. ........................................................ 45
Figu e 14 DREAMS Theo e ical amewo k o 15mN ans o ma ions. ............................................................. 71
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Di e ences be ween business models and social business models ...................................................... 16
Table 2 Scopus que ies used o conduc ing he li e a u e e iew. ....................................................................... 18
Table 3 Second ca ego isa ion o s udies based on hei main ocus and opic. ............................................... 19
Table 4 Examples o 15mC de ini ions o e ed in he gene al and ou ski s li e a u e ................................. 25
Table 5 O igins, ameni ies and da a sou ces conside ed in he li e a u e e iewed. ..................................... 39
Table 6 Ameni ies conside ed in he s udies e ised. .................................................................................................. 44
Table 7 Buil en i onmen a iables conside ed in s udies e iewed.................................................................. 47
Table 8 T anspo modes included in s udies e iewed ............................................................................................. 49
Table 9 Summa y o me hodological app oaches o e alua e 15mC concep on s udies e iewed. ........ 51
Table 10 Ta ge popula ion, ameni ies and indings om humanis ic s udies e iewed. ............................ 55
Table 11 Socio-demog aphic a iables conside ed in he p ac ical s udies ...................................................... 56
Table 12 Two s udies ha conduc ed su eys on ci izens ‘pe cep ions .............................................................. 60
Table 13 Findings om go e nance s udies. ................................................................................................................... 61
Table 14 S a egies ecommended o applied in ci ies om he li e a u e ........................................................ 68

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SUMMARY
This epo summa ises he indings om a conduc ed sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o he 15-minu e
ci y concep (15mC), i s key componen s and i s adap a ion o he neighbou hoods loca ed in he u ban
ou ski s. This epo i is pa o he DREAMS p ojec , which aims o c ea e sus ainable, accessible, and
inclusi e neighbou hoods in he ou ski s h ough p oximi y-cen ed u ban planning. The DREAMS
p ojec ocuses on he 15-minu e planning concep o neighbou hoods in he u ban ou ski s, we aim o
del e in o he key componen s necessa y o implemen 15-minu e neighbou hood (15mN) p inciples
beyond i s o iginal se ing: he u ban co e. U ban ou ski s a e de ined in his epo as medium-sized
a eas o neighbou hoods in he nea con ex o an u ban a ea, whe e high ca dependency is p esen
and a s ong economical and unc ional connec ion o he ci y is obse ed, p ima ily h ough daily wo k
commu es. The cu en academic li e a u e and 15-minu e ci y p ac ices a e mainly ocused on he
u ban ci y cen es, whe e he concep eme ged, bu new con ibu ions and esea che s a e s a ing he
need o look deepe in o how he concep e ol es in he con ex o he u ban ou ski s.
This epo aims o answe he ques ions: wha a e he componen s o elemen s o conside when
ying o achie e 15-minu e neighbou hoods in he u ban ou ski s? How simila o di e en a e
hese elemen s in an u ban co e s u ban ou ski s?
To his end, we i s ame ou esea ch scope in he e ms ha appea when desc ibing he 15-minu e
neighbou hood concep , o se he common unde s anding o de ini ions along he es o he p ojec .
We he e o e p o ide de ini ions on ou e ms ( opics): 1) u ban ou ski s, 2) accessibili y, 3) mobili y
se ices, 4) go e nance and 5) business models. Fi s ly, we de ine he spa ial scope o DREAMS wi h he
p e ious men ioned de ini ion o ou ski s as hose mid-dense a eas in he nea p oximi y o ci y.
Secondly, we desc ibe he e m accessibili y (and ela ed e ms walkabili y and p oximi y) and hei
ela ionships due o hei common appea ance when de ining 15-minu e neighbou hoods. Fo he case
o ou p ojec , we unde s and p oximi y as physical dis ance be ween wo poin s, while walkabili y is
he ex en o which he cha ac e is ics o he buil en i onmen and land use may be conduc ed o
esiden s walking. And accessibili y as he ex en o which he land-use anspo sys em enables
(g oups o ) indi iduals o goods o each ac i i ies o des ina ions by means o a (combina ion) o
anspo mode(s). Accessibili y is he umb ella concep o 15-minu e planning concep s whe e
p oximi y-cen ed planning (planning o sho dis ances) and ac i e mobili y (walk and cycle) becomes
c ucial. Thi dly, we desc ibe he di e en mobili y solu ions o se ices ha can suppo he
de elopmen o sus ainable and inclusi e 15-minu e neighbou hoods in he u ban ou ski s, including
on-demand mobili y, sha ed mobili y (ca -sha ing and mic omobili y se ices), mobili y hubs and
lexible ac i i y hubs. And inally, we de ine go e nance and business models which a e also c ucial o
implemen 15mN p incipals in di e en con ex s.
Wi h he esea ch amed in he opics o in e es , we sea ched and conduc a sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew analysing 74 pape s using he PRISMA me hodology (48 wi h an u ban ocus and 26 men ioning
o ocusing on he ou ski s). Ou indings yield he need o adap he concep o 15-minu e ci y o
di e en con ex s conside ing public anspo and mobili y se ices as a key poin o connec people in
he ou ski s o nea es u ban co es and educe ca dependency. The e o e, we p opose he ollowing
an adap ed e sion o he 15mC o he ou ski s (DREAMS 15-minu e Neighbou hoods de ini ion) as:
The 15-minu e neighbou hood (15mN) is a concep o he u ban ou ski s ha ad oca es o
educing he need o use a p i a e ca in he u ban ou ski s, allowing i s esiden s o access hei
essen ial ameni ies and hus, ul illing daily needs h ough ac i e mobili y and local public
anspo , while also being well connec ed o o he co es wi h egional public anspo , sha ed
mobili y and mic omobili y se ices.
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The ocus is pu on use ’s pe cep ions and p e e ences ega ding accep able a el cos s o ameni ies.
Based on he li e a u e e iew, we iden i y six key componen s o DREAMS 15mN: 1) densi y, 2)
di e si y, 3) design, 4) human pe spec i es and needs, 5) go e nance and 6) business models. Mos o
he exis ing li e a u e ocuses on he cha ac e is ics o space o comply wi h 15 minu e h esholds
(ameni ies nea homes). Howe e , ou esul s highligh impo an esea ch gaps especially in he
s udies ela ed o use ’s pe cep ions and on he go e nance and business models ha need o be in place
o 15mN o happen in he ou ski s.
To build upon he e ised li e a u e, we end by p oposing a heo e ical amewo k called he DREAMS
15mN Mixe . The Mixe is a summa y isualisa ion o hese men ioned six componen s. We ex end
beyond Mo eno’s componen s in oducing go e nance and business models as we hink equi y-based
policies, ci izen pa icipa ion, co-c ea ion p ocesses a e needed o implemen 15mC p inciples in he
ou ski s. Bu also new social business models a e e y sca ce o ind in he li e a u e and hey need o
be in place o examine he ole o di e en p icing/ e enue schemes in he ou ski s, as sha ed mobili y,
and in gene al all anspo - ela ed in as uc u e is highly expensi e when being o e ed in less dense
a eas. This 15mN Mixe isual helps o posi ion a ce ain loca ion wi h espec o hese ele an
componen s (diagnosis) o hea he cu en sound o he a ea. Based on he cu en sound, we play
some bu ons (policies) o imp o e his sound owa ds he 15-minu e neighbou hood ideal song
en isioned by i s esiden s. Fo he pu pose o his p ojec , The 15mN Mixe is a con ibu ion as i is a
quick isual ha policy planne s can look a and conside when planning u ban ou ski s ins ead
summa ising indings om li e a u e.
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Abou he DREAMS P ojec
The p ojec “D i ing Equi able and Accessible 15-Minu e Neighbou hood T ans o ma ions” (DREAMS)
is unded as pa o he D i ing U ban T ansi ions pa ne ship (DUT). I s o e all objec i e is o examine
how co-c ea ed and use -cen ic mobili y se ices, mobili y hubs and lexible ac i i y hubs can
con ibu e o accessible, sus ainable and inclusi e 15-minu e neighbou hoods in u ban ou ski s
in Eu opean ci ies and egions. DREAMS is o ganised a ound se en wo k packages: WP1) P ojec and
da a managemen and quali y con ol, WP2) Re iew and compa a i e analysis, WP3) 15-minu e ci y
decision suppo ool, WP4) New go e nance and business models and ansi ion pa hways, WP5) 15mC
li ing labs, WP6) Impac assessmen and e alua ion and WP7) policy in eg a ion and ecommenda ions,
ans e abili y and knowledge dissemina ion. This epo is he i s deli e able o WP2. The emainde
o he epo is s uc u ed as ollows: sec ion 2 desc ibes he main de ini ions su ounding he concep ,
sec ion 3 explains he me hods used. Nex , on sec ion 4 we summa ise he indings om he li e a u e
and he iden i ica ion o he componen s and inally in sec ion 5 we p oposed ou heo e ical amewo k
o he p ojec wi h sec ion 6 o e ing conclusions.
1.2. Abou Deli e able 2.1: e isi ing he de ini ion o 15mC
Wi h he cu en clima e eme gency, achie ing sus ainable mobili y as well as heal hie and sa e places
o li e in, a e a he hea o many global and egional public policies. The ask is clea : a ansi ion om
a ca -o ien ed de elopmen in o a p oximi y one, in which humans and he en i onmen a e p io i ised
(Eu opean Commission, 2021). In his con ex , we ha e seen a pa adigm shi . Ini ially, a e Second
Wo ld Wa , he ocus was pu on how o mo e ehicles and he in as uc u e ha suppo ed hese
mo emen s ( anspo ocus). La e , in he 2010s, he ocus shi ed o he ease wi h which people can
mo e a ound, emphasising use ’s sa is ac ion le els a he han jus he mo emen o ehicles (mobili y
ocus). Then in he 2015s, he mobili y ecosys em g ew in complexi y wi h he in oduc ion o sha ed
mobili y and mic omobili y, o e ing he possibili y o co e he i s /las mile o hose low o unse ed
a eas by public anspo . And hen in 2020 came he COVID-19 global pandemic, along wi h i s se e e
lockdowns, which p omp ed policymake s/poli icians o e- hink u ban planning s a egies. The ocus
shi ed once again (as p e ious mo emen s like he Ga den Ci y, Neighbou hood Uni and o he s
ou lined), o ensu ing ha people can easily access essen ial se ices and des ina ions. This app oach
ex ends beyond mobili y, o conside ac o s such as p oximi y and he quali y o access (accessibili y
ocus). The 15-Minu e Ci y (15mC) eme ged as a new planning concep , and cu en ly almos 100 ci ies
a ound he globe we e iden i ied as ha ing 15mC p ac ices (Teixei a e al., 2024) and he g owing
in e es in he concep is also illus a ed by Google Schola sea ches (see Figu e 1).
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Figu e 1 Sea ches o he e m “15-minu e ci y” on Google Schola (2015-2024).
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
The ideas behind his 15mC concep , we e no new, as i builds upon he ounda ions al eady de ined by
p e ious esea che s. Fo example, Cla ence Pe y had de ised he concep o Neighbou hood Uni
be ween 1909-1929 (Hall, 1989) and in he 2000s Robe Ce e o’s wo ks ou lined he undamen als
o p oximi y-cen ed planning wi h his 3Ds (Densi y, Di e si y and Desing) (Ce e o & Kockelman,
1997), which hen became 6Ds (Des ina ion, Dis ance and Demand Managemen -TOD) (Og a & Ndebele,
2014)(o igins u he ly explained in sec ion 4.1). Howe e , we do acknowledge he success o epacking
hese old ideas in o a mode n, ime-pe inen , ca chy and easy- o-g asp new label called 15-minu e ci y
o s a he deba e and hype a ound how o plan accessible, sus ainable and inclusi e ci ies.
F om he heo y o “ch ono-u banism” c ea ed by Ca los Mo eno (Mo eno, 2016), he 15mC ad oca es
“ o an u ban se -up whe e locals a e able o access all o hei basic essen ials a dis ances ha
would no ake hem mo e han 15 min by oo o by bicycle” (Mo eno e al., 2021, p. 100). In i s own
essence, he concep ocuses mainly on u ban a eas, as places whe e “p oxima e access o e e yday
esou ces is easily a ainable ia he e icien p o ision o pedes ian, cycling and ansi in as uc u e o
a su icien ly la ge popula ion o consume s ha p o ide demand o he ameni ies o e ed by local shops
and se ice p o ide s” (Poo huis & Zook, 2023, p. 1). Howe e , we aim o examine how he concep
e ol es in di e en con ex s beyond i s o iginal se ing: he u ban co e. The e is e idence now, o g ea
inequali ies wi hin and ac oss ci ies in e ms o accessibili y me ics (M. B uno e al., 2024) and
he e o e, he 15mC de ini ion mus also adap o di e en con ex s, as ci ies a e no homogenous. A
global accessibili y analysis o 10.000 ci ies is p esen ed o isualise hese inequali ies and measu e how
ci ies a e doing in hei 15mC ideal (M. B uno e al., 2024). Accessibili y a ies conside ably, wi h
dispa i ies o en ollowing a co e-pe iphe y pa e n whe e ci y cen es a e be e se ed han ou lying
a eas. Hence, i may no be easible o p ac ical o apply he same concep o e e y u ban en i onmen ,
pa icula ly due o conce ns abou se ice quali y dispa i y, local popula ion densi ies, and geog aphical
di e ences.
The e is a need o conside Mo eno’s ideas wi h a con ex -speci ic mindse , o a oid i s implemen a ion
as a “ echnoc a ic, magic ix ha igno es he complexi ies and challenges o social li e” (Shel on e al., 2015,
p. 16). Mo eno s a ed o conside less densely popula ed a eas a ound he label o 30-minu e
e i o ies o happy p oximi ies (Mo eno e al., 2021), highligh ing he ole o public anspo and
o he mobili y se ices o inc ease accessibili y o longe dis ances. Rega dless o he e minology used
o he speci ic h eshold se , he co e idea emains he same: o implemen p oximi y-cen ed
planning o se ices and an explici mo e away om eliance on ca s, leading o ewe and sho e
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and a supe io cus ome expe ience, ul ima ely in luencing u ban mobili y pa e ns and communi y
s uc u es.
On ano he no e, he e a e social business models whe e social impac is an in eg al pa o he business
goals. These models anscend he adi ional emphasis on p o i maximisa ion by in eg a ing social
alue c ea ion as a co e objec i e. A social business model is a concep in which en ep eneu ial
p inciples a e applied o sol e social p oblems, and p o i s a e ein es ed in o he company o
u he con inua ion o i s social mission and no o dis ibu ion o sha eholde s (Bague , 2023;
Mah uz Ash a e al., 2019). In con as o pu ely p o i -o ien ed businesses, social en e p ises ope a e
a he in e sec ion o economic and social ealms, aiming o balance bo h o os e sus ainable
communi ies. Social business models pu p i a e incen i es and unds o wo k o public objec i es.
These models blend he c ea ion o p o i while sol ing social issues and o example, se ing
ma ginalised a eas (López e al., 2019; U eng, 2019; Yunus e al., 2010). The e alua ion o success in
social business models hus ex ends beyond inancial me ics o include social impac me ics, such as
communi y well-being, en i onmen al p ese a ion, and social equi y. Inno a ion in he social business
models will o en in ol e new app oaches o he alloca ion o esou ces, s akeholde engagemen , and
measu emen o impac . Based on he li e a u e, he key dis inc ion be ween business and social
business models lies in hei undamen al objec i es (Koma su Cip iani e al., 2020), ha a e lis ed in
Table 1.
Table 1 Di e ences be ween business models and social business models
Aspec
Business Models
Social Business Models
P ima y goal
P o i maximisa ion and sha eholde alue
Social impac and add essing socie al issues
Value P oposi ion
C ea ing alue o cus ome s o gene a e e enue
C ea ing alue o he communi y o sol e social
p oblems
P o i Dis ibu ion
P o i s dis ibu ed o sha eholde s
P o i s ein es ed in o he social mission
Re enue S eams
Sales, se ices, and p oduc s gene a ing p o i
Income gene a ed bu p ima ily ocused on
sus ainabili y
Cus ome a ge
Ta ge ed a p o i able ma ke segmen s
Ta ge ed a unde se ed o disad an aged
communi ies
Key Me ics
Financial pe o mance, ma ke sha e, g ow h
Social impac , communi y bene i s, inancial
sus ainabili y
In es men Focus
Ma ke oppo uni ies, inno a ion o p o i
Solu ions o social issues, communi y de elopmen
Business S a egy
Compe i i e ad an age, ma ke expansion
Social mission achie emen , communi y engagemen
Sus ainabili y
Economic sus ainabili y o g ow h and p o i
Balance o social, en i onmen al, and economic
sus ainabili y
Sou ce: (Koma su Cip iani e al., 2020).
As a summa y o his sec ion we o e a quick summa y o ou g ound-based de ini ions (glossa y o
e ms) in Figu e 2.

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Figu e 2 Quick glossa y o e ms o DREAMS p ojec
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
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3. SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: METHODOLOGY
Once we ha e b ie ly del ed in o he common de ini ions ha ame ou esea ch opic, we now desc ibe
in his sec ion he p ocess ollowed o conduc he sys ema ic li e a u e e iew. The main objec i e o
he li e a u e e iew, as has been al eady men ioned in he p e ious sec ions was o answe he
ollowing ques ions:
1. Wha is he de ini ion o 15-minu e ci y (15mC)?
2. Wha a e he key componen s o 15mC o u ban co es and u ban ou ski s?
The e iew includes only academic scien i ic li e a u e ound h ough Scopus da abase. As he aim is
o cap u e wha he scien i ic communi y is discussing on he opic. The documen s e ised we e in
English, in a inal published s age and om scien i ic jou nals. The e iew was conduc ed using he
PRISMA (P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-Analyses) guidelines. We used
ou se s o que ies o ind any jou nal pape published ha men ions he “15-minu e ci y” e m in he
i le/abs ac /keywo ds, as well as o he opic keywo ds su ounding he esea ch (accessibili y,
ou ski s and sha ed mobili y) as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Scopus que ies used o conduc ing he li e a u e e iew.
Que ies
Focus
Resul s
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "15-miu e ci y" OR "15 minu e ci y" OR "10-minu e ci y" OR "10
minu e ci y" OR "20-minu e ci y" OR "20 minu e ci y" OR "30-minu e ci y" OR "30
minu e ci y" OR "x-minu e ci y" OR "x minu e ci y" OR "x-minu e egion" OR "x minu e
egion" ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( PUBSTAGE , " inal" ) )
Ti le, abs ac o keywo ds wi h
15mC ela ed wo ds and limi ing o
inalised publica ions
199
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "minu e ci y" OR "minu e egion" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (
"accessibili y" OR "p oximi y" OR "neighbou hood" OR "walkable neighbou hood" OR
"walkable ci y" OR "walkabili y" OR "pedes ian" OR "walk sco e" OR "ch onou banism"
OR "ch ono-u banism" OR "ch ono u banism" OR "ci y o p oximi y" OR "li eable ci y"
OR "Ca los Mo eno" OR " ansi -o ien ed de elopmen " OR " od" ) AND ( LIMIT-TO (
PUBSTAGE , " inal" ) )
Ti le, abs ac o keywo ds wi h
15mC and accessibili y ela ed
wo ds and limi ing o inalised
publica ions
156
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "minu e ci y" OR "minu e egion" ) AND TITLE-ABS-
KEY ( "ou ski ss" OR "ou ski s" OR "subu ban" OR "subu bs" OR "subu bia" OR "pe ip
he y" OR "pe i u ban" OR " inges" OR "edge
ci y" OR "do mi o y" OR "exu ban" OR "sa elli e" ) AND ( LIMIT-
TO ( PUBSTAGE , " inal" ) )
Ti le, abs ac o keywo ds wi h
15mC and ou ski s ela ed wo ds
and limi ing o inalised publica ions
17
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "minu e ci y" OR "minu e egion" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "sha ed
mobili y" OR "mic omobili y" OR "mic o-mobili y" OR "mic o mobili y" OR "sha ed
modes" OR "bickesha e" OR "bikesha ing" OR "bike-sha ing" OR "moped" OR "moped-
s yle scoo e sha ing" OR "scoo e sha ing" OR "scoo e " OR "scoo e -
sha ing" OR "sha ed mo o cycles" OR "sha ed scoo e s" OR "ac i e a el" OR "ac i e
mobili y" ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( PUBSTAGE , " inal" ) )
Ti le, abs ac o keywo ds wi h
15mC and sha ed mobili y ela ed
wo ds and limi ing o inalised
publica ions
26
To al
398
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
The sea ch was conduc ed om Ma ch 1s un il June 10 h o 2024 ob aining 398 esul s. Many documen s
appea ed epea ed in he di e en que ies’ esul s, so duplica es we e disca ded. Fo u he documen
sc eening p ocess we needed ull- ex a ailabili y, so we only kep open-access eco ds, hose a ailable
ia uni e si y accoun , and only scien i ic jou nal pape s (144 eco ds). Fu he mo e, we did a i s
sc een o documen s by eading he i le and abs ac s disca ding some documen s ha only men ion
angen ially he 15mC concep . Finally, he ull eading o pape s was done o 74 pape s, which we e
ca ego ised in wo main g oups: 1) gene al: i he documen ocuses on he 15mC concep a ound u ban
ci y cen es and 2) ou ski s: i he documen men ions o del es in o he 15mC implemen a ion o
ou ski s o o he se ing beyond ci y cen es. F om he 74 documen s e ised, 48 ell in he gene al
g oup and 26 in he ou ski s one as seen in Figu e 3.
19
Figu e 3 PRISMA lowcha o selec documen s o e iew.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
A e classi ying he li e a u e acco ding o gene al o ou ski s (1s ca ego isa ion), we did a second
ca ego isa ion o he documen s acco ding o hei main ocus as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Second ca ego isa ion o s udies based on hei main ocus and opic.
2nd
ca ego isa io
n ( ocus)
Desc ip ion
1s ca ego isa ion
( opic)
Numbe o s udies
15mC concep
S udies ha ocus on he concep o 15mC desc ibing i s componen s,
his o y, ounda ions. Also c i ical s udies ha gene a e deba e a ound he
concep and e iew s udies.
Gene al
12
16
Ou ski s
4
Applica ion o
15mC
p inciples
S udies ha p opose o used p e ious me hodologies o asses o measu e
15mC p inciples using cases o s udies. S udies ha conduc compa a i e
analyses and use di e se measu emen s and app oaches o add ess 15mC.
Gene al
13
29
Ou ski s
16
Human
pe spec i e
S udies ha ocus on he socioeconomic aspec s, he use pe cep ions,
di e en a ge g oups and equi y issues.
Gene al
5
9
Ou ski s
4
Go e nance
S udies ha del e in o planning documen s, policy p ac ice, business
models and go e nance amewo ks.
Gene al
8
10
Ou ski s
2
O he
S udies ha ocused on o he speci ic issues: ameni ies (heal h, pa ks,
s o es, shops, wo k) o modes (public anspo , sha ed mobili y, e c)
Gene al
10
10
Ou ski s
0
To al
74
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
20
Wi h he 74 pape s classi ied, we p oceeded o ead, analyse and syn hesise he mos ele an esul s in
summa y iles which we hen used o compile indings on a documen able. Wi h his main able we
we e hen able o make summa y ables and g aphs showing he esul s and indings om he li e a u e
e iew.
The es o he epo desc ibes he esul s o he li e a u e e iew indexing he s udies (see Appendix
1 and Appendix 2 o he au ho s’ ables), om 1 o 48 o he gene al li e a u e and om 1 o 26 o he
ou ski s li e a u e, based on he publica ion yea (low numbe o index means olde s udy and high
means mos ecen s udies). This means ha s udy 1 is olde han s udy 48 o he gene al opic, and
s udy 49 is olde o was published be o e s udy 74. In his sense, we can analyse how he li e a u e
beha ed as ime passed by, explo ing i au ho s’ posi ion o poin s o iew changed o e ime.
4. TOWARDS THE 15MN CONCEPT ADAPTATION FOR URBAN OUTSKIRTS
Once he me hodology has been ou lined, his nex sec ion desc ibes he main indings om i . To ha
end, we i s e isi he o igins/ ounda ions o 15mC, hen we explo e di e en de ini ions o he
concep in he li e a u e and explo e i s e olu ion o e ime. Finally, a he end o he sec ion we p opose
an adap a ion o he 15mC concep o he u ban ou ski s which we will hen use o he es o he
DREAMS p ojec (DREAMS 15mN de ini ion).
4.1. The o igins o he 15mC concep
Many esea che s ha e called he a en ion o he ac ha 15mC is no a comple ely new concep
(Casa in e al., 2023; Kiss azekas, 2022; Poseidon & Cha ziyiannaki, 2021). Recen esea ch (Kha a ian-
Ga msi , Sha i i, Hajian Hossein Abadi, e al., 2023) shows ha i is based on a leas , i e p e ious key
neighbou hood planning mo emen s: ga den ci y concep , neighbou hood uni plan, pos -mode n
u banism, and eco-u banism. O he epo (Bü ne e al., 2022) highligh s he impo ance o o he
u ban planning app oaches like Polycen ic Ci y, Ce e o’s 5Ds, Time Geog aphy, T ansi -O ien ed
De elopmen , New U banism and Ch ono-U banism (see Figu e 4). All hese mo emen s p omo ed
compac and neighbou hood-o ien ed se lemen s, bu he au omobile e olu ion al e ed he u ban
s uc u e by making i possible o li e/wo k o conduc daily ac i i ies u he away. U ban sp awl
became he no m and ci ies we e challenged wi h a ic conges ion, pollu ion and social injus ice issues.
Since hen, u ban planne s ha e been ying o e i e adi ional u banism, educing ca dependency
and encou aging sus ainable mobili y.
21
Figu e 4 Timeline o he 15mC concep
Sou ce: own elabo a ion wi h he in o ma ion compiled om (Bü ne e al., 2022; Kha a ian-Ga msi , Sha i i, Hajian Hossein Abadi, e al., 2023).

22
We can b ie ly desc ibe some o hese mo emen s:
• Indus ial e olu ion: planne s aim o inc ease u ban e iciency by cen alising ameni ies and
ac i i ies in he ci y cen es which hen esul ed in en i onmen al deg ada ion, physical
de o mi ies and heal h eme gencies.
• Ebeneze Howa d’s u opian Ga den Ci y: i s a emp o add ess social heal h issues h ough
physical design. He en isioned a ne wo k o in e connec ed sel -con ained sa elli e owns
su ounding a cen al ci y enci cled by a g eenbel . Neighbou hood’s size was se on 5.000
people and comme cial and job si es we e conside ed ele an .
• Cla ence Pe y’s Neighbou hood Uni : he neighbou hood was se as he basic planning uni . He
en isioned neighbou hoods we e esiden s li e nea elemen a y schools, pa ks, mee ing places,
places o wo ship and e ail complexes. Neighbou hood’s size was se on 10 people pe ac e.
Pedes ian ne wo ks we e encou aged, shopping cen es we e placed a a 400m walking
dis ance.
• Jacobs, Duany, Pla e zybe k and Cal ho pe’s pos mode nism: his app oach was he umb ella
concep o o he mo emen s like ansi -o ien ed de elopmen , new u banism, and sma
g ow h. Neighbou hoods cha ac e ised by walkabili y, human scale and compac ness including
mixed-use, housing-job p oximi y, g een a eas. They en isioned well-connec ed blocks ha
p omo e walking and cycling and alloca e jobs and leisu e ac i i ies. Di e si y is an essen ial
componen o pos -mode n u banism, which implies a mix o esiden ial uses, income g oups,
employmen oppo uni ies, shops, pa ks, and ci ic ins i u ions.
• Clima e change c isis: esul ing in he Eco-U banism mo emen based on sus ainable
de elopmen goals, aimed a add essing he p essing issues o clima e change and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y, in addi ion o he challenges ha ci ies ha e adi ionally aced.
The ocus is pu on low-ca bon ci ies and lowe ecological oo p in . Since 2010s, he mo emen
Sma Ci y has also eme ged. A sma ci y conside s he six main dimensions o people, mobili y,
li ing, en i onmen , economy, and go e nance o achie e balanced de elopmen . I u ilises
cu ing-edge echnology o educe was e and ca bon emissions and manage ai pollu ion.
• Nowadays-Pos COVID 19 e a: a e 2020 wi h he pandemic ou b eak, many go e nmen s
imposed unp eceden ed mo emen es ic ions and qua an ine measu es. Physical con ac was
educed o minimum and public ansi en i onmen s we e iden i ied as isk zones o
con agions. Walking, cycling and mic omobili y gained popula i y, allowing esiden s o conduc
daily ac i i ies main aining social dis ance measu es a he same ime. U ban heal h, which
s ayed as a seconda y conce n became a p ima y one a e he pandemic and p oximi y o
se ices became a ocal poin o u ban policy. The COVID-19 pandemic confi med he e ficacy o
comple e neighbou hoods du ing heal h eme gencies, showing ha ca -dependen
neighbou hoods and ci ies based on mode nis ideas and p inciples a e no esilien du ing
ad e se e en s such as pandemics. The e o e, he 15mC, o iginally in oduced by Ca los Mo eno
in 2016, was e i ed by Pa is Mayo Anne Hidalgo, who p omo ed i in he e-elec ion campaign
du ing 2020 as pa o a COVID-19 eco e y s a egy. This concep is based on he concep o
“ch ono-u banism,” which ocuses on he decen alisa ion o ci ies as a c i ique o mode nis
planning ha equi ed sepa a ion, cen alisa ion, and consequen ly long dis ances and high
le els o (ca )mobili y.
In his sense, 15mC is only new in how i epackages exis ing concep s, p esen ing hem in a simpli ied
and mo e accessible way. Thanks o a global pandemic, i has gained popula i y highligh ing he
impo ance o e hinking u ban planning o gua an ee u ban heal h, ensu e access o essen ial se ices
and g een spaces.
23
4.2. Exis ing de ini ions o 15mC
A e e isi ing he o igins o he concep , his sec ion del es in he examples and p oposed de ini ions
o 15mC ound in he li e a u e e iew. To his end, we used he 16 ou o 74 pape s ha we e ocused
on concep ualising he 15mC (see Table 4).
We begin highligh ing he de ini ion o e ed by Ca los Mo eno, conside ed he a he o he concep , ha
de ines i as a “concep ha ad oca es o an u ban se -up whe e locals a e able o access all o hei basic
essen ials a dis ances ha would no ake hem mo e han 15 min by oo o by bicycle” (Mo eno e al.,
2021, p. 100). In he p ojec Flowe s o P oximi y, 15minC is de ined as a “concep o u ban planning ha
aims o c ea e places whe e all essen ial se ices, such as wo k, educa ion, heal hca e, and ec ea ion, a e
loca ed wi hin a 15-minu e walk o bike ide om each o he ” (Bü ne e al., 2022). Acco ding o (Basbas
e al., 2023), 15-minu e ci ies a e cha ac e ised by: easy accessibili y, op imisa ion o he loca ion o
se ices, socio-economically equi y, educ ion o he use o p i a e ehicles, s ong pedes ianisa ion.
As s a ed in (Abdel a ah e al., 2022), he concep is he con empo a y syn hesis o he enaissance
“ideal ci y”, whe e he classical “human measu e” is now in e p e ed a beyond he me e geome ical
pe spec i e, in oducing a heal h and en i onmen al isk dimension. Time is no longe jus he win
concep o space, bu a clima e agen , a he apy o a egene a i e u ban medical science. Based on his
concep , (Abdel a ah e al., 2022) s a e ha he ci y is bo h poly hy hmic (indi iduals ha e di e en
daily li e hy hms) and polych onic (how places a e used a ies acco ding o a ious schedules) and
hence, he ocus shi s om ‘u ban planning’ o ‘u ban li e planning’.
As shown in Table 4, we can see ha de ini ions a y acco ding o he spa ial scope o he esea ch. On
he gene al li e a u e, which is mo e ocused on he 15mC o u ban co es, he de ini ions mainly ocus
on he 15-minu e h eshold and he ole o ac i e mobili y (walking and cycling). The s udies in his
g oup desc ibe hei goals mo e o ien ed in o educing ood-sho age and inc easing u ban heal h. By
con as , de ini ions ound in he ou ski s li e a u e seen mo e ese ed when i comes o se ing a ixed
ime h eshold and hey e en p e e o ex end i o 20, 30 o e en 45 minu es (Bi ken eld e al., 2023;
Bo h e al., 2022; Cala io e e al., 2022; D. C. Da Sil a e al., 2020; Lima e al., 2022). Fo example, (Bo h
e al., 2022) de ined a 15mC as a “ci y whe e mos people ha e hei employmen and ameni ies accessible
wi hin a 30-minu e walk o public anspo ip”. In mos o he cases hey s and by he b oade
e minologies o “x-minu e ci y” o “x-minu e e i o y” (Knap e al., 2023; Poo huis & Zook, 2023).
Mo eo e , he ou ski s de ini ions include public anspo and sha ed mobili y se ices in he mix
(some e en conside ed hem as essen ial ameni ies) and goals a e mos ly o ien ed o educed ca
dependency on a egional a ea.
E en hough some a ia ions a e obse ed, common elemen s s ayed he same h oughou all he
de ini ions: he p esence o ac i e mobili y and he ease wi h which people may each essen ial se ices.
As (Mo eno e al., 2021) s a es, he selling poin o he concep is i s emphasis on p oximi y-cen ed
planning, whe e an u ban neighbou hood is planned o accommoda e an op imal densi y ha would
ha e access o basic essen ial se ices wi hin a 15-min walking o cycling dis ance. Bu as (Bi ken eld e
al., 2023) poin s ou , he 15mC concep eme ged mainly om his o ically olde Eu opean egions, which
we e designed p io o he ca -domina ion e a. These au ho s also sugges ha as many Eu opean
decision make s a e including his popula concep in hei policy guidelines, in he case o No h
Ame ican ci ies o o he con ex s like Aus alian/New Zealand ci ies, i is s ill in he discussion whe he
o no he 15mC i s o all ypes o u ban en i onmen s, ag eeing wi h (M. B uno e al., 2024). In egions
whe e he au omobile played a s uc u al ole in u ban planning, he 30-minu e ci y has eme ged as an
adap a ion o he concep (Bi ken eld e al., 2023; Guzman e al., 2024; Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024). E en
he concep ’s ounde s (Mo eno e al., 2021) sugges ha hei concep is no igid in na u e and is
p oposed wi h he in en o be ailo ed o indi idual ci ies based on bo h hei mo phology and specific
24
needs and cha ac e is ics. They ha e ein o ced ha he ime h eshold is no ele an , bu need o
unde line ha p oximi y-cen ed planning which is key in sus aining quali y o li e and in p o iding o
he basic u ban unc ions. Hence, esea che s a e con on ed wi h he ques ion o : To wha ex en can
15mC p inciples be applied in any u ban en i onmen ? Should public anspo and sha ed mobili y
se ices be included? Wha abou jobs? These ques ions a e he cu en deba e a ound he de ini ion o
he 15mC and is he main mo i a ion o ou p ojec o p opose an adap ed de ini ion o he 15mC o he
ou ski s.
25
Table 4 Examples o 15mC de ini ions o e ed in he gene al and ou ski s li e a u e
S udy ID
De ini ions o e ed o 15mC in he gene al li e a u e
Key poin s
3
A planning model in which all ci izens a e able o mee mos o all o hei needs wi hin a sho walk o bike ide om home.
• De ini ions mo e ocused on he walkable
and cyclable dis ances o se ices.
• Emphasis is pu on he 15-minu e h esh-
old.
• Goals: educe ood-sho age and inc ease
u ban heal h.
5
A concep ha ad oca es o an u ban se -up whe e locals a e able o access all o hei basic essen ials a dis ances ha would no ake hem mo e han 15
min by oo o by bicycle.
11
An u ban neighbou hood ha is planned o accommoda e an op imal densi y ha would ha e access o basic essen ial se ices wi hin a 15-minu e walking o
cycling dis ance.
14
A design and managemen concep o allow access o he u ban li e expe ience (essen ial acili ies and se ices) in a ime ame o a qua e o an hou om
home, by walking o cycling.
19
A model o u ban de elopmen and planning ha seeks o shi a en ion o he neighbou hood as a “place” a he han me ely a spa ial and unc ional plan-
ning uni .
26
A concep ha aims o gi e people access o all essen ial se ices and daily needs wi hin X minu es o ac i e anspo a ion, o imp o e anspo equi y, sus-
ainabili y, and affic sa e y.
28
Ensu ing equal access o u ban se ices o e e yone, wi hin a 15 min adius, while also dispe sing ci y in as uc u e and unc ions o achie e social equi y.
34
An u ban planning model in which he idea is o c ea e smalle , mo e connec ed, and hype local neighbou hoods, whe e e e y hing people need is wi hin a
15-minu e walk o bike ide.
37
A concep ha aims o c ea e dense and connec ed socially and unc ionally mixed neighbou hoods based on he human scale design o encou age walking
and cycling.
44
A concep whe e u ban esiden s should be able o access loca ions o u ban unc ions ha a e essen ial o suppo ing hei quali y o li e h ough ac i e
a el like walking o cycling.
46
An u ban se up whe e esiden s can access all hei basic needs and se ices wi hin 15 minu es o walking o cycling om hei homes wi hou equi ing a ca
S udy ID
De ini ions o e ed o 15mC in he b oade subu ban li e a u e
Key poin s
49
A ci y ha allows i s esiden s o access mos ac i i ies equi ed o good li ing wi hin 20-minu e walking, cycling, o using public ansi om hei homes.
• The h eshold is inc eased o 20, 30 o e en
45 minu es. X-minu e ci ies o x-minu e e -
i o ies e ms a e mo e common.
• Emphasis on ca dependence educ ion
(ou ski ss a e mo e ca dependen ).
• Emphasis is pu on he ole o public
anspo and sha ed mobili y se ices o
connec people o mo e specialised se ices
and inc ease access.
• Mo e common o ind wo k and public
ansi as unc ions (ameni ies).
• Spa ial scales go om neighbou hoods o
egions.
54
A ype o design aimed a educing ca dependence by enabling u ban esiden s o walk o cycle o essen ial ameni ies wi hin x-minu es om hei home.
55
A planning model whe e esiden s in e e y neighbou hood ha e easy access o goods and se ices.
56
The idea ha basic human needs in a ci y mus be accessible by he esiden s wi hin a 15-minu e commu e om hei esidence.
57
A ci y whe e mos people ha e hei employmen and ameni ies accessible wi hin a 30-minu e walk o public anspo ip.
62
The idea ha desc ibes a (pa o he) ci y (u ban egion) whose ci izens can access he mos necessa y ac i i ies by walking o biking o co e hei basic
needs in 15 minu es o less.
63
An idea o an idealized s a e whe eby esiden s can access hei daily needs wi hin a 15-minu e walk, bicycle o ansi ide om hei home.
65
A concep ha suppo s he need o p oximi y-cen ed app oaches, b inging ac i i ies o he neighbou hoods a he han people o ac i i ies.
66
A ci y model in which dwelle s can access hei i al needs in abou a qua e o an hou by walking, cycling, using public anspo o a sha ed mic o-mobili y
se ice.
70
De eloping mul i unc ional, walkable neighbou hoods ha o e a ull ange o daily se ices.
72
An u ban model in which he six undamen al unc ions (li ing, employmen , educa ion, heal hca e, en e ainmen , and comme ce) a e loca ed wi hin a mod-
es dis ance om each esiden ial building o encou age ac i e mobili y.
74
Accessing a ange o non-wo k u ban social unc ions wi hin a sho dis ance om home. All daily se ices and ameni ies should be me wi hin a walkable
dis ance o a esiden ial a ea, including access o high-quali y public anspo ha p o ides a connec ion o high o de se ices and employmen .
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
32
which in he li e a u e also acqui ed di e en names like o ac i i ies, des ina ions, a ac ions,
in as uc u e, oppo uni ies, unc ions, e c. Then, design componen e e s o he u ban s uc u e,
walkabili y, cyclabili y and connec i i y condi ions ha allow people (densi y componen ) o each
ameni ies (di e si y componen ). Public anspo and new mobili y solu ions (including sha ed
mobili y bu also mobili y/ac i i y hubs) is gene ally conside ed by Mo eno in he digi alisa ion
componen . This is some hing we also di e en ia e mo e, making some oom o wha we call
connec i i y subcomponen , as i cons i u es a key in as uc u e ha plays a cen al ole in connec ing
u ban ou ski s o he nea es u ban co es. All he h ee (densi y, di e si y and design) align wi h
Ce e o’s undamen als (Ce e o & Kockelman, 1997) and c ea e he main ca ego isa ion o p oximi y-
cen ed planning componen s: he physical and unc ional cha ac e is ics o space o enable p oximi y.
As was al eady men ioned, he social componen was conside ed by Mo eno in bo h di e si y and
densi y, while in DREAMS 15mN his is a sepa a e componen as he concep is e y use -cen ed: 15mC
ideals a e co-c ea ed wi h i s esiden s desi es and expec a ions o hei neighbou hoods. Hence, he
componen called human pe spec i es and needs add esses how di e en a ge popula ions
unde s and he 15mC concep and how hei pa icula needs and p e e ences may a y. Finally we
ex end beyond all hese componen s al eady conside ed by Mo eno and o he esea che s, o include
wo mo e han ha e been less conside ed in he li e a u e base which a e: go e nance amewo ks
(equi y-based policies/ci izen pa icipa ion/co-c ea ion p ocesses) and business models in place o
enable 15mC. A he end, DREAMS 15mN builds upon Mo eno’s 15mC componen s, bu su e s a ele an
(a leas o he ou ski s) me amo phosis ha is isually illus a ed in Figu e 9.
Figu e 9 Mo eno’s 15mC o iginal concep componen s and DREAMS 15mN adap a ion.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
DREAMS 15mN componen s a e lis ed in six: densi y, di e si y, design, human pe spec i es and needs,
go e nance and business models. We ex end beyond Mo eno’s componen s in oducing go e nance and
business models as we hink equi y-based policies, ci izen pa icipa ion, co-c ea ion p ocesses a e
needed o implemen 15mC p inciples in he ou ski s. Bu also new social business models a e e y
sca ce o ind in he li e a u e and hey need o be in place o examine he ole o di e en
p icing/ e enue schemes in he ou ski s, as sha ed mobili y, and in gene al all anspo - ela ed
in as uc u e is highly expensi e when being o e ed in less dense a eas. In he nex sec ions we will
del e in o hei speci ic desc ip ions.

33
4.4.1. Densi y: i ing all sizes h ough he lens o di e en scales
One o he mos common c i iques o he 15mC concep is he issue o scales. Many au ho s ha e
c i icised i o adop ing a "one-size- i s-all" app oach ha ails o accoun o he unique cha ac e is ics
o di e se u ban en i onmen s. Fo example, (Bi ken eld e al., 2023) s a ed he need o conside how
he 15mC concep could be eplica ed in di e en global con ex s s a ing ha esea ch should mo e
beyond he “kenis ic discou se” abou x-minu e ci ies ( ime h esholds), owa ds g ea e engagemen
wi h unique u ban and neighbou hood con ex s. They p opose mo e con ex ualised s a egies g ounded
in people’s ac ual a el expe iences, neighbou hood cha ac e is ics, and household eali ies. O he s
(Casa in e al., 2023; Guzman e al., 2024) sugges ha he concep should su pass he “ci y b anding”
o “buzzwo d” s a us and con ibu e o de ine planning uni s and egene a ion o mulas ha esol e
gen i ica ion, spa ial inequali y and social issues a he neighbou hood scale. Mo e speci ically, some
au ho s ha e claimed ha he 15mC is somehow physically de e minis , “se ing goals wi hou
speci ying how o by wha means hey will be achie ed” (Kha a ian-Ga msi , Sha i i, Hajian Hossein
Abadi, e al., 2023, p. 1). The e o e, as Gaglione e al., (2021) sugges s, he e is an u gen need o he
de ine he spa ial uni o 15mC.
To s a , many au ho s cla i y ha ci y and neighbou hood a e no he same hing. A ci y can be de ined
as he place whe e an ex ao dina y quan i y o ac i i ies, om he mo e e e y-day and adi ional o
he mo e specialised and inno a i e ones, coexis in ela ion o each o he . I is he coexis ence o
di e en ac i i ies and se ices, many o which a e " a e" due o he loca ion and dis ibu ion in he
e i o y (e.g. museums, uni e si ies) and o he size o he demand, ha p oduces he so-called "ci y
e ec " and de ines he ank o ci ies (Gaglione e al., 2022). In his con ex , he a ailabili y o ime o
each and use hese se ices may well exceed he ime h eshold o 15 minu es.
The neighbou hood, on he o he hand, especially in la ge ci ies, can cons i u e he sui able in e en ion
scale o gua an ee he use o essen ial se ices by all inhabi an s h ough pedes ian pa hs. Wi h
e e ence o he second aspec , he loca ion and dis ibu ion o essen ial se ices (e.g. ood and heal h),
he quali y o he pedes ian pa hs use ul o eaching hem oge he wi h he quali y o he open spaces
and he u ban con ex , and abo e all people's beha iou s can imp o e accessibili y o places and
se ices and con ibu e o gua an eeing social equi y and aising he quali y o li e o he inhabi an s
(B ook ield, 2017; Caselli e al., 2022; Gaglione e al., 2021; Kallus & Law-Yone, 2000; Kiss azekas, 2022).
E en i he wo e ms (associa ed wi h he chosen ime h eshold: e.g., 20-minu e neighbou hood o 20-
minu e ci y) a e o en used as synonyms as hey desc ibe simila planning concep s, a seman ic
diffe ence should no be igno ed (Cala io e e al., 2022)(Cala io e e al., 2022). In he case o he
neighbou hood, he ocus is on he p oximi y o u ban unc ions wi hin each neighbou hood, which
means p o iding a wide a ay o se ices locally. In his case, he ci y can be concei ed as a sys em o
neighbou hoods which a e somehow sel -sufficien o a ce ain se o se ices (Duany e al., 2020), and
hie a chically dependen on highe - anking se ices a he ci y le el. When he ci y is di ec ly e e ed
o, i is assumed ha he walking o biking shed would no necessa ily co espond o a single
neighbou hood; he emphasis o planning is no on he p oximi y o unc ions wi hin each
neighbou hood, bu on he p oximi y o local unc ions h oughou he whole ci y.
Bu wha a e he di e ences be ween a neighbou hood and a ci y in e ms o popula ion? Some s udies
use absolu e popula ion me ics o classi y u ban se lemen s. Some esea che s (Basbas e al., 2023;
Papas e al., 2022), classi y medium-sized ci ies acco ding o h ee g oups: he i s g oup consis s o
small owns wi h popula ion less han 60.000; he second g oup includes ci ies wi h popula ion mo e
han 60.000 habi an s and less han 300.000; and he hi d g oup consis s o ci ies (me opoli an a eas)
wi h popula ion anging om 300.000 o 700.000. O he s udies (Basbas e al., 2023; Logan e al., 2022)
de ined u ban se ing as block g oups wi h ei he mo e han 200 housing uni s pe km2 o mo e han
34
400 esiden s pe km2. Howe e , o he pu pose o he DREAMS p ojec , ha in ol es highly di e se
u ban se lemen s in e ms o popula ion, a me ic ha allows ai compa ison and ca ego isa ion should
be iden i ied.
The e o e, we s and by he li e a u e ha conside s esiden ial densi y as he me ic o classi y a eas in
he u al-u ban con inuum and he neighbou hood as he minimal planning uni scale (Bi ken eld e al.,
2023; Gaglione e al., 2022; Kiss azekas, 2022; Pozoukidou & Angelidou, 2022)(Bi ken eld e al., 2023;
Gaglione e al., 2022; Kiss azekas, 2022; Pozoukidou & Angelidou, 2022). We will unde s and esiden ial
densi y as he concen a ion in a gi en a ea o a su ficien numbe o esiden s o make i p ofi able o
do business and p o ide a a ie y o public se ices (Mu gan e, Valluzzi, e al., 2024). Wi h his espec ,
some au ho s ha e highligh ed he impo ance o ha ing an op imal (minimum) densi y (Di Ma ino e
al., 2023), as new mul imodal and sha ed mobili y se ices equi e a ela i ely dense and di e sified
u ban s uc u e be o e s a ing ope a ing. I is also men ioned in (Cala io e e al., 2022), whom
sepa a ed he se ices a ailable a he neighbou hood and egional scale; a he neighbou hood scale,
se ices such as uni e si ies o hospi als we e excluded, as hey equi e highe densi ies. We will
conside esiden ial densi y in e ms o esiden s/u banised a ea (km2) as p oposed by (Logan e al.,
2022; Mo eno e al., 2021). By de ining he minimal scale (neighbou hood) and i s me ic
( esiden s/u banised a ea km2), we can ha e di e en ypes o u ban se ings (15-minu e ypologies)
and adap 15mC p inciples o each.
Based on he Neighbou hood Uni mo emen , a neighbou hood uni was an a ea o a ound 65 HA wi h
5.000-10.000 people ( esul ing in a popula ion densi y anging om 7.500 o 15.000 people/km²). On
he T ansec o U banism (Duany e al., 2020), he au ho s sugges ha a well-designed neighbou hood
should ha e a popula ion su icien o suppo local ameni ies and se ices and hey p opose he
ollowing popula ion densi ies o each ansec zone (see Figu e 10):
35
Figu e 10 T ansec o U banism.
• T1 (Na u al): 0 people/km². This zone is
essen ially unde eloped and consis s o na u al
landscapes such as o es s, we lands, and o he
p ese ed na u al en i onmen s.
• T2 (Ru al): 0 - 308.88 people/km². This zone
includes a eas like ag icul u al land, open space,
and e y low-densi y u al esiden ial
de elopmen s. I is cha ac e ized by a ms,
anches, and la ge lo s.
• T3 (Sub-U ban): 617.76 - 2,471.04 people/km².
The sub-u ban zone is p ima ily esiden ial wi h
single- amily homes on la ge lo s. I o en
ea u es a mo e na u al o landscaped cha ac e
wi h conside able open space.
• T4 (Gene al U ban): 2,471.04 - 7,413.12
people/km². This zone ep esen s mode a e-
densi y u ban esiden ial a eas. I includes a mix
o housing ypes, such as single- amily homes,
ownhouses, and small apa men buildings,
o en wi h some comme cial es ablishmen s
wi hin walking dis ance.
• T5 (U ban Cen e): 7,413.12 - 24,710.4
people/km². his zone is cha ac e ized by
highe -densi y mixed-use en i onmen s. I
includes a a ie y o housing ypes (apa men s,
condos, ownhouses) and a signi ican p esence
o comme cial, e ail, and o ice spaces. I ’s mo e
pedes ian- iendly wi h na owe s ee s,
equen sidewalks, and public ansi op ions.
• T6 (U ban Co e): 24,710.4 - 61,776+
people/km². The U ban Co e is he denses and
mos u ban zone. I ea u es he highes
concen a ion o mixed-use buildings, including
high- ise esiden ial, comme cial, and o ice
spaces. This zone is highly walkable wi h
minimal se backs om he s ee , na ow
s ee s, and obus public ansi .
Sou ce: (Duany e al., 2020)
36
Inspi ed by he e e ence o he ansec s (in he sense o di iding space in di e en ca ego ies), bu
adap ing he esiden ial densi ies h esholds o he DREAMS li ing lab a eas in B ussels, Budapes ,
Munich, Pa is, U ech and Vienna, we c ea e DREAMS 15-minu e neighbou hood ypologies(see Figu e
11). To his end, we used he KOUNTUR da ase (KONTUR, 2024), which is an open sou ce global densi y
popula ion map ep esen ed by H3 hexagons wi h popula ion coun s a 400m esolu ion. This da ase
is cons uc ed using popula ion calcula ions based on he Global Human Se lemen Laye (GHSL), a
amewo k elying on a la ge se o senso s, including ada and op ical public and comme cial missions,
which a e also o e laid wi h Facebook popula ion da a (HRSL) whe e a ailable. This da ase is chosen
as i p o ides accu a e popula ion da a om he same sou ce and o all he p ojec ’s li ing lab a eas.
This p ocess allow us o conside h ee ypes o ou ski s based on he DREAMS li ing labs:
• Low-dense Ou ski s: 651-2.500 people/km2
• Mid-dense Ou ski s: 2.501-3.500 people/km2
• High-dense Ou ski s: 3.501-7.500 people/km2
This ypology is use ul o posi ion he DREAMS li ing labs wi h espec o each o he . I is a simpli ica ion
and should no be aken as gene al ypology ha can be applied ca ego ise u ban ou ski s, as o he
ac o s such as unc ional and socioeconomical ela ionships can be conside ed when de ining ou ski s.
In his sec ion and o he pu pose o he li e a u e e iew we only p opose o use esiden ial densi y as
indica o o he densi y componen . Howe e , how each p ojec de ines he densi y h esholds
(numbe s) depends on he cha ac e is ics o he a eas s udied. Fo ou p ojec hese h esholds co e
he comple e lis o li ing labs bu o o he p ojec hese h esholds may need o change due o di e en
cha ac e is ics (bigge o smalle a eas) (see Figu e 11).
37
Figu e 11 The 15-minu e neighbou hood ypologies based on esiden ial densi y.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.

38
4.4.2. Di e si y: quan i y and quali y o ameni ies
DREAMS 15mN in ol es conside ing di e en ypes o ou ski s (low, mid o high-dense), as we
desc ibed in he p e ious sec ion, bu i also in ol es ha ing an op imal (minimum) mix o ameni ies.
These ameni ies, ecei e many di e en names in he li e a u e like ac i i ies, in as uc u es, se ices,
loca ions, des ina ions, a ac ions, Poin s o in e es (POIs), e c. Fo he pu pose o he p ojec , we will
g oup all o hese e ms in o one called “ameni ies”. The e a e mul iple (quan i y) and e y di e en
(quali y) ypes o ameni ies. Di e si y is gene ally concep ualised as en opy (Mu gan e, Pa imisco, e
al., 2024; Mu gan e, Valluzzi, e al., 2024), and i is measu ed ia di e en indica o s like Shannon’s
di e si y index (G aells-Ga ido e al., 2021) o he Simpson’s di e si y index (Di Ma ino e al., 2023).
Al e na i e me ics o di e si y include he numbe o ca ego ies o se ices a ailable in he se ice a ea
om an o igin poin (Abdel a ah e al., 2022; Cala io e e al., 2022). This la e has been he mos
commonly ound app oach in he li e a u e e iewed as shown in Table 5.
As we can see, mos o he s udies used o icial da ase s (popula ion, s a is ical, oad ne wo k, mobili y
su eys, e c.) and OpenS ee Map (OSM) as da a sou ces. Consequen ly, mos o he analyses ake in o
conside a ion esiden ial “census ac s” and “blocks/cadas al pa cels” as o igins o ips. Some s udies
di e in his aspec , aking in o accoun di e en o igins, o example Di Ma ino e al., (2023) conside ed
a selec ion o wo king spaces as depa u e poin s and in he case o Wolański, (2023), ailway s a ions
o e alua e he ameni ies a ound hese impo an unc ions (job and public anspo ).
Mo eo e , wi h espec o he selec ion o ameni ies, mos o he s udies conside ed a gene alised g oup
o unc ions: li ing, wo king, comme ce, heal hca e, educa ion, and en e ainmen . “Li ing” e e s o
housing, while he es a e ameni ies/ unc ions ha people o a ying deg ees need/wan in hei daily
li es. “Wo king” includes wo kplaces and he oppo uni y o ea n a li elihood. “Comme ce” includes he
possibili y o supplying g oce ies and o he daily essen ials, as well as a ange o o he du able and non-
du able goods. “Heal hca e” includes, among o he hings, local heal hca e cen es, hospi als,
pha macies, and den is s. “Educa ion” is o all ages, om p eschools o uni e si ies, bu also includes
a ious ypes o cul u al ac i i ies such as museums and lib a ies. “En e ainmen ” is he b oades
ca ego y and includes ec ea ion and leisu e ac i i ies. I co e s acili ies like pa ks, cinemas, a ious
ypes o spo s acili ies, es au an s, and ba s (Elldé , 2024).
Usually, hese ameni ies a e agg ega ed in o isoch ones. Howe e some s udies ake a s ep u he by
agg ega ing, bu also weigh ing hem acco ding o hei ela i e impo ance using o icial mobili y da a
( ip equency) (G aells-Ga ido e al., 2021; Knap e al., 2023; Mon ei o e al., 2023; Nowo ól e al.,
2022; Oli a i e al., 2023), using social media da a (check-ins) (Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024), o using
Analy ic Hie a chy P ocess (Mu gan e, Pa imisco, e al., 2024; Mu gan e, Valluzzi, e al., 2024).
In e es ingly, some s udies add essed speci ic ameni ies, like (Bo h e al., 2022)(Bo h e al., 2022) ha
used only wo k loca ions and (Caselli e al., 2022) conside ing only kinde ga ens.
39
Table 5 O igins, ameni ies and da a sou ces conside ed in he li e a u e e iewed.
S udy
ID
Spa ial ea u e conside ed as o igin
Ameni ies
Da a Sou ces
G id-
based
Census
ac s
Pos al
code
Blocks/Cadas al
pa cels
Home
add ess
O he
Gene al
Weigh ed
Speci ic
ameni y
O he
O icial si es
(popula ion,
oad ne -
wo k, e c.)
Mobil-
i y su -
ey
OpenS ee Map
(OSM)
Google
Maps
GTFS
O he
Gene al
4
x
x ( ip equency)
x
x
x (Mobile Phone da a)
6
x
x
x
7
x
x
x
x
x (U ban G amma da a)
8
x
x
x
1
0
x
x (Kinde ga -
ens)
x
1
5
x
x ( ip equency)
x
x
2
2
x
x
x
x
2
6
x
x ( ip equency)
x
x
2
7
x
x ( ip equency)
x
3
1
x
x
x
3
5
x (T a ic Analy-
sis Zones- TAZ)
x
x
4
2
x (su ey e-
sponden s)
x (su ey e-
sponden s)
x (online su ey)
4
4
x
x (# o check-
ins)
x
x
x (check-ins om WEIBO app)
Ou ski s
4
9
x
x
x
5
0
x
x
x
5
1
x
x
x
x
5
2
x (su ey e-
sponden s)
x (su ey e-
sponden s)
x (online su ey)
5
4
x
x
x
x
x (OpenSou ceRou ingMachine)
5
7
x
x (Wo k)
x
x
x
6
x (li e a u e
x (li e a u e
x (online scien i ic da abases)
40
2
e iew s udy)
e iew s udy)
6
3
x
x
x
x
x
x (OpenT ipPlanne )
6
4
x
x
x
x
6
5
x (Selec ion o
wo king spaces)
x
x
6
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
7
x
x ( ip equency)
x
x
x (Ci y's Mas e Plan)
6
8
x
x
x
x (BAIDU app)
6
9
x (selec ion o
ailway s a ions)
x
x
7
2
x
x (Analy ic Hie -
a chy P ocess)
x
x
x
7
3
x
x (Analy ic Hie -
a chy P ocess)
x
x
x
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
41
The app oaches and me hodologies may a y, bu mos au ho s seen o ag eed ha some ameni ies
equi e he accumula ion o esiden s o be e icien /p o i able, especially nowadays, due o he
sh inking financial esou ces o public adminis a ions (S a icco, 2022). The e o e, many expe s
ecommend o ha e an op imal (minimum) mix o ameni ies ha i he speci ic neighbou hood’s needs
o a ce ain h eshold, and his has been known as he “Flowe s o P oximi y” app oach (Bü ne e al.,
2022) (see Figu e 12). Fo example, (Fe e -o iz e al., 2022) (s udy 8), p oposed a lowe o p oximi y
based on ime h esholds, wi h some ameni ies a a 5-minu e h eshold (p ima y heal hca e,
pa ks/playg ounds, nu se y/kinde ga ens, esh ood, bike s a ion/lane and day bus) and o he s o 10
o 15 minu es o he case o Ba celona. They obse ed ha he ci y did ela i ely well in e ms o
co e age, wi h he excep ion o he mos moun ainous pe iphe al a eas. They a gued ha hese
loca ions’ co e age sho alls we e he esul o he u ban de elopmen models and a chi ec u al s yles
cha ac e ised by a unc ionalis app oach, ea u ing high- ise buildings, p i a e g een spaces, and
minimal comme cial space, condi ions ha a e all no a ou able o os e ing p oximi y dynamics.
48
These esul s a e in une wi h p e ious s udies ha sugges ha popula ion densi y migh no be as
impo an as u ban s uc u e. Some s udies wi h a ocus on small ci ies, showed ha smalle ci ies can
also achie e ce ain compliance wi h 15mC concep , especially i hey ha e been de eloped be o e mass
mo o isa ion (Ba zokas-Tsiomp as & Bakogiannis, 2023; Elldé , 2024). On hese s udies, u ban
de elopmen shows o be e en mo e impo an ha popula ion size, s a ing he impo ance o wha
Newman e al., (2016) calls he “ heo y o u ban ab ics”. Based on his heo y, walking ci ies a e olde ,
p ima ily planned o e 150 yea s ago, be o e ca s and ailways led o u ban sp awl and
decen alisa ion, being cha ac e ised by dense and mixed-use. In con as , ca -o ien ed ci ies cons i u e
hose planned a e 1950, when ca access became massi e and dis ances longe (u ban sp awl).
In his sense, 13 ou o 29 documen s e ised, conside ed building age as a key buil en i onmen
a iable o add ess his u ban ab ic di e ences. All indings poin o he same akeaway message: i is
e y impo an o i s unde s and he u ban de elopmen model (walkable ci y s ca -o ien ed
ci y) ha guided he ci y planning o he es ed loca ion. Those ca -o ien ed ci ies a e going o
s uggle mo e o comply wi h he 15mC concep , and he e o e he pace o comply wi h he se
h esholds may be slowe . To he bes o ou knowledge, no s udy sys ema ically in es iga ed a b oade
se o buil en i onmen ac o s and i s ela ionship wi h he 15mC concep , bu we do ind e e ences
i we expand beyond 15mC opic s udies. Fo example, Fonseca e al., (2022) e iewed 132 s udies on
he impac o buil en i onmen ea u es on walkabili y, inding ha “densi y” and “mixed land use”
we e he mos impo an indica o s. Mixed land use p omo es p oximi y as i allows mo e people o isi
ameni ies ha a e ac i e h oughou he day (Newman e al., 2016). The ele ance o ha ing mixed land
uses has been ex ensi ely e ised by p e ious wo ks (Ce e o & Kockelman, 1997; Ewing & Ce e o,
2010).
On he o he hand, connec i i y aspec s ha e shown o be highly ele an o he 15mC concep .
P oximi y is in luenced by he spa ial dis ibu ion and quan i y o ameni ies in an a ea, bu also he
quali y, quan i y and ype o anspo a ion op ions (Handy & Niemeie , 1997; C. Sil a & Pinho, 2010).
Fo example, he S uc u al Accessibili y Laye (SAL) conside s bo h he quan i y and a ie y o
des ina ions (including employmen ) accessible wi hin a se ime limi by anspo mode (C. Sil a &
Pinho, 2010), while he Me opoli an Accessibili y Remo eness Index o Aus alia (METRO-ARIA) (Pi o
e al., 2006), p ima ily ocuses on anspo accessibili y o common des ina ions such as educa ion,
heal h, shopping, public anspo , and financial and pos al se ices. O he ools examining accessibili y
by public ansi include he Spa ial Ne wo k Analysis o Mul imodal U ban T anspo Sys ems
(SNAMUTS) (Cu is, 2011). Measu es o access o public anspo (Bo h e al., 2022) and he numbe s
o jobs accessible wi hin 30 min by di e en anspo modes (F ank, 1994), a e examples o
accessibili y indica o s ha combine anspo a ion mode and employmen a ailabili y ha could
in o m ci y and economic planne s.
Rega ding he anspo modes conside ed in he li e a u e, Table 8 o e s a gene al o e iew. As we
can see, he majo i y o s udies include walking and cycling in hei 15mC concep de ini ions. Some
s udies emphasised he ole o walking mode in hei de ini ions as i is a he co e o he concep
(A is izábal e al., 2023; Ba zokas-Tsiomp as & Bakogiannis, 2023; Caselli e al., 2022; Fe e -o iz e
al., 2022; Gaglione e al., 2022; Lima e al., 2022; Wu & Di igalpi iya, 2023) and o he s suppo he
inclusion o public anspo (Bo h e al., 2022; G aells-Ga ido e al., 2021; Poo huis & Zook, 2023).
E en hough mos s udies include walking and cycling in hei de ini ions, when conduc ing he
expe imen s, mos au ho s s ayed only wi h walking. In he pa icula case o (Knap e al., 2023), hey
e alua e only cycling as bikes a e he mos used mode in he Ne he lands. S udies ha in ol ed walking
and cycling in hei me hodologies a e also sca ce, wi h he ew examples o (Gaxiola-Bel án e al., 2021;
Mu gan e, Pa imisco, e al., 2024; Mu gan e, Valluzzi, e al., 2024).

49
Table 8 T anspo modes included in s udies e iewed
Modes on 15mC de ini ion o e ed
Modes included on s udy
Th eshold used on s udy
S udy ID
Only
walking
Only cy-
cling
Walking and
cycling
Walking,
cycling and
Public
T anspo
Walking, cy-
cling, Public
T anspo and
Sha ed Mobili y
Only walking
Only cy-
cling
Walking
and cy-
cling
Walking, cycling
and Public
T anspo
Walking, cy-
cling, Public
T anspo
and Sha ed
Mobili y
5
10
15
20
25
30
U ban
4
x
x
x
6
x
x
x
x
x
7
x
x
x
8
x
x
x
x
x
10
x
x
x
x
x
15
x
x
x
x
x
22
x
x
x
26
x
x
x
27
x
x
x
31
x
x
x
35
x
x
x
42
x
x
44
x
x
Ou ski s
49
x
x
x
50
x
x
x
51
x
x
x
52
x
x
x
54
x
x
x
x
x
57
x
x
x
62
x
x
x
63
x
x
x
64
x
x
x
65
x
x
x
x
66
x
x
x
x
67
x
x
68
x
x
x
69
x
x
x
72
x
x
x
x
73
x
x
x
(*) sha ed bikes conside ed (**)Li e a u e e iew s udy conside ed mic omobili y ail pa hs.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
50
Fewe , bu mo e ele an o he pu pose o ou p ojec a e he s udies ha in ol ed ac i e mobili y
(walking and cycling) bu also public anspo (Bi ken eld e al., 2023; D. C. Da Sil a e al., 2020;
Mon ei o e al., 2023; Poo huis & Zook, 2023)and e en sha ed mobili y se ices (Bo h e al., 2022;
Vizmpa e al., 2023). In he case o a ca -o ien ed ci ies, (D. C. Da Sil a e al., 2020) assumed ha a public
anspo ip o 30 minu es was complian wi h he 20-minu e ci y guidelines. They measu ed he
numbe o des ina ions ha can be eached om each pa cel in Tempe, A izona, wi hin 20 minu es by
walking (along bo h he all- oads and he sidewalk-only pedes ian ne wo ks), by cycling (along bo h
he all- oads and he low-s ess biking ne wo ks) and by public anspo .
Mo eo e , Poo huis & Zook, (2023) explo ed how he concep o 15mC migh ex end o subu ban a eas
and e en he coun yside o he case o he Ne he lands. They ound bo h he ci y cen es and non-
u ban a eas main ain a ough a e age o 25 min pe ip, bu con a y o he ideal o he 15-minu e ci y,
non-u ban esiden s use pe sonal ca s o compensa e o he longe dis ances ha hey need o co e .
The au ho s emphasised ha ca -dependence in u ban co es a e al eady ela i ely low. In his sense,
he e is much less o ‘win’ in hese a eas ela i e o he non-u ban a eas whe e eliance on ca s is much
highe . They ecommend o ex end esea ch o non-u ban a eas, whe e people a e mo e ca -dependen
o igh clima e change.
In he case o Bi ken eld e al., (2023) ha analysed Mon eal ci y, hey ound ha e y ew households,
pa icula ly 1.8%, conduc ed all hei daily ac i i ies wi hin 15 min om hei home using ac i e
anspo (walking, cycling, and/o public anspo ), and 6% wi hin 30 min. A household ha owns one
o mo e ehicles was 78% less likely o be a 15-minu e household, and 87% less likely o be a 30-minu e
household. On he case o s udies ha in ol ed sha ed mobili y modes, we can e e o Bo h e al., (2022)
whom ound ha cycling showed he mos po en ial o achie ing he 30-min ci y, wi h an es ima ed
29.5% o wo ke s able o each hei cu en wo kplace i hey shi ed o cycling, showing he po en ial
ha sha ed bike s a ions ha e close o wo ksi es. Las ly, Vizmpa e al., (2023) did a li e a u e e iew on
he ole o mic omobili y u ban ail pa hs o p omo e p oximi y and 15mC p inciples. In summa y, he
way a ci y was planned and he mobili y op ions ha i o e s a e key elemen s o p omo e p oximi y-
cen ed planning.
On Table 9 we o e an o e iew o he me hodological app oaches conside ed o e alua e he 15mC
concep on he p ac ical s udies e iewed. As we can see, mos o he s udies ely on geospa ial analysis
and eg ession modelling o explo e he in luence o ce ain a iables on he likelihood o he pa icula
loca ion o become a 15-minu e ci y. Fewe s udies used g aph heo y (Ba bie i e al., 2023; Lima e al.,
2022) o su eys (Basbas e al., 2023; Guzman e al., 2021). To calcula e p oximi y me ics, mos o he
s udies used Euclidean o ne wo k-based dis ances o d aw isoch ones (also called in some s udies
“se ice a eas”, “ca chmen a eas”, “bu e s”). Some s udies weigh ed his calcula ion using physical
p oximi y index (Lima e al., 2022; Wu & Di igalpi iya, 2023)and dis ance-decay unc ions (Knap e al.,
2023; Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024). In gene al, he walking speeds used o make he isoch ones anged
be ween 3 and 5km/h (wi h 4.24km/h being he mean a e age speed) and o cycling 12km/h
(Gaxiola-Bel án e al., 2021; Guzman e al., 2021) and 18km/h and 24km/h ( o wo k commu es)
used in Mon ei o e al., (2023). Those s udies ha included lowe speeds, usually analysed walkabili y
measu es o ce ain popula ion like child en’s access o kinde ga ens in he case o (Caselli e al., 2022)
o low-income woman access o heal hca e se ices (Guzman e al., 2021). Finally, some in e es ing
aspec s a e summa ised in he obse a ion column, o example, he use o no so common, bu ele an
a iables in he analysis like en al p ices o neighbou hoods used in (G aells-Ga ido e al., 2021) o
he pa icula ocus on an speci ic popula ion g oup: low-income and ma ginalised neighbou hoods
(A is izábal e al., 2023; Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024).
51
Table 9 Summa y o me hodological app oaches o e alua e 15mC concep on s udies e iewed.
S udy ID
Analysis conduc ed
Mapping s a egy
Obse a ions
Geospa ial anal-
ysis
Spa ial
s a is ics
Reg ession
modelling
O he
P oximi y
(dis ance-based
me ics)
Isoch ones
Colou sco e
maps
Walking
speed
Cycling
speed
U ban
4
x
x
x
Ren al p ices included in analysis
6
x
x
x
4,8km/h
7
x (G aph heo y)
x (Physical p oximi y
index)
Pedes ian In as uc u e cos included in
analysis
8
x
x
x
4,5km/h
10
x
x
x
3km/h
15
x
x
x
4,8km/h
22
x
x
x
x
4,8km/h
26
x
x
x
x (building scena ios)
x (dis ance decay
unc ions)
x
Only cycling was e alua ed
x-minu e ci y sco e p oposed
27
x
x
5km/h
31
x (G aph heo y)
x
4,39km/h
35
x
x
Focus on low-income and ma ginalised
popula ion
42
x (online su ey)
44
x
x (gaussian dis ance
decay unc ions)
x
Focus on low-income and ma ginalised
popula ion
Ou ski s
49
x
x (building scena ios)
x
PT included and non-wo k ac i i ies
50
x
x
x
x
51
x
x
x
3,6km/h
12km/h
Wo k ac i i ies included
52
x
x
x (online su ey)
x
3,6km/h
12km/h
54
x
x
x
x
La ge da ase o US ci ies (543)
57
x
x
Only ocused on wo k ac i i ies and 30-min
62
x (li e a u e e iew)
Mic omobili y conside ed
63
x
x
x
64
x
x (P ome hee II mul-
ic i e ia app oach)
x
65
x
x
4km/h
Only ocused on wo k ac i i ies
66
x
x
x
PT included
67
x
x
x
4,1km/h
18km/h
and
21,64km/h
o wo k
Compa ed eal ci y wi h a
hypo he ical compac ci y
PT and ca included
68
x
x (Physical p oximi y
index)
Focus on mid-sized ci ies
69
x
x
4km/h
72
x
x
x
73
x
x
x
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
52
Thus, as a gene al conclusion o his sec ion, we could s a e ha densi y, di e si y and design (p oximi y-
cen ed planning) is key o implemen 15mC in he ou ski s. These a e all exhaus i ely esea ched
opics in he accessibili y li e a u e and explo ed issues on he 15mC gene al pape s. Howe e , ewe
s udies del e in o he pe cep ions and needs o use s and neighbou s which is e y ele an o design
desi ed 15-minu e neighbou hood o ci ies. In he nex sec ion we explo e u he his human
componen .
4.4.4. Human pe spec i es and needs
In he human componen we del e u he in o he pe cep ions and p e e ences o people and pa icula
a ge popula ion g oups which may desi e di e en hings. This sec ion is he esul om he analysis
mainly o he 9 ou o 74 pape s ha we e ocused on he human pe spec i e o 15mC concep (see Table
3). The e was a clea in en ion o c ea e a sepa a e componen o he human needs as we hink ha he
15mC is a mainly use -cen ed app oach, and hus, especial a en ion should be paid o people’s desi es.
We in end o in es iga e wha do ulne able g oups desi e in hei neighbou hoods and how can hese
desi es a y om one popula ion o ano he . Hence, his componen in ol es conside ing any demands
based on people’s socioeconomic s a us on he one hand, and pe sonal cha ac e is ics on he o he .
When conside ing he human pe spec i es and use needs o 15mC, he e a e wo main ques ions o be
add essed: who a e he people in he neighbou hood, and whe e do hey wan o go? The i s ques ion
del es in o use p o iles, and conside s cha ac e is ics such as gende , age, and socioeconomic s a us.
The second dimension conce ns he ameni ies ha should be a ailable wi hin he neighbou hood
(Allam, Bib i, Chabaud, e al., 2022b; Mo eno e al., 2021; Pozoukidou & Angelidou, 2022).
The o iginal di e si y componen p oposed by Mo eno includes mixed land use, bu also di e en
cul u es and socio-economic le els. This inclusi eness dimension needs indica o s such as sa e y le els,
people’s abili y o mo e and a o dabili y o be conside ed. The goal is o ensu e access o essen ial
se ices o ALL g oups o socie y ega dless o hei abili ies and socio-economic o cul u al ac o s
(Baque o-La i a & Lámiquiz, 2024; Bü ne e al., 2022). Disad an aged g oups based on age, gende ,
ace, mig a ion backg ound, language, income, educa ion le el, employmen s a us and disabili ies need
o be add essed. The e o e, p oximi y bu also equi y is o be achie ed, as a neighbou hood should be
no jus accessible in e ms o p oximi y, bu i is accessible in e ms o inclusi eness and design o all.
Mo eo e , he s udy conduc ed by (SMALL, 2023) concluded ha be o e con incing end-use s o a
mode shi o sus ainable anspo , policymake s need o change hei pe spec i e aking in o accoun
speci ic a ge g oups’ needs.
The e o e, we acknowledge ha his o ical di e ences in u ban planning in No h-Ame ica and mos
Wes e n-Eu opean coun ies ( he wo a eas on which mos s udies ocus) has led o wo se s o s a kly
di e en case s udies. Fo example, while mos Eu opean ci ies ha e been de eloped wi h a walkable
ci y cen e, only adding subu ban a eas la e , No h Ame ican owns ha e been ( e)cons uc ed o
a ou ca -cen ic mobili y and u ban sp awl. This also leads o di e ences when looking a which
socioeconomic g oups li e o wan o li e in 15-minu e ci y neighbou hoods: some s udies in Eu opean
con ex s conclude ha mos walkable neighbou hoods a e hose o he wo king-class in he old cen es
wi h high popula ion densi y, and ha i is mos ly he uppe -classes ha li e in secluded subu ban a eas
ha a e low in popula ion densi y and ha e mo e g eene y. On he o he hand, he e a e indica ions ha
in he US, walkable neighbou hoods a e conside ed qui e a luxu y and he e o e mos ly uppe -class
(al hough hey a e popula in o he social g oups as well) (Logan e al., 2022).
These di e ences will be add essed in he human componen h ough wo main dimensions: 1)
socioeconomic cha ac e is ics ha de i ed in use s p o iles and allow o a ge ulne able g oups and
2) ci izens needs and p e e ences.
53
4.4.4.1. Socioeconomic cha ac e is ics: building p o iles and a ge ing ulne able g oups
Socioeconomic cha ac e is ics a e pa o an indi idual’s li e ha ha e o do wi h hei social class and
economic si ua ion. This cha ac e is ics make up use p o iles and allow planne s o a ge speci ic
ulne able g oups in hei policies. The mos common examples o socioeconomic a iables a e
educa ional le el and income, bu also o he s ha in luence people’s mobili y beha iou and ce ain
spa ial elemen s, such as he neighbou hood and housing ype in which hey li e, he mobili y modes
hey can a o d, and he le el o ca e/wo k ha hey can a o d o ou sou ce o o he s (such as b inging
child en o a dayca e o hi ing a g oce y deli e y se ice). These elemen s play an impo an ole in
shaping people’s needs in hei neighbou hood, bu so a , no much esea ch has conside ed how hese
elemen s in luence he needs o inhabi an s o di e en neighbou hoods.
In he s udy o B ook ield, (2017), hey assessed he suppo o esiden s’ g oups
1
o Sou hamp on (UK)
ega ding walkable neighbou hoods h ough ocus g oups, concluding ha while hese g oups we e
o e all posi i e abou he p omo ion o a neighbou hood scaled o walk and cycle, hey we e no
necessa ily on boa d wi h u ban planning app oaches mean o achie e his, such as neighbou hood
densi ica ion h ough high- ise buildings. High-densi y building appea s o be one o he main ic ion
poin s o accessibili y-based u ban planning. While i makes sense o densi y om a planning
pe spec i e, making se ices a ailable o mo e people in he same adius, i is o en ci ed as one o he
nega i e aspec s o inhabi an s. As B ook ield, (2017) no es, high-densi y building is conside ed by
pa icipan s o be a odds wi h o he needs in hei li ing en i onmen , such as g een spaces and quie
a eas. On he o he hand, such p oximi y-cen ed planning app oaches ha e also been linked o
neighbou hood gen i ica ion: esea ch om Go henbu g, Sweden, has concluded ha as
neighbou hoods become mo e a ac i e due o he enhanced p oximi y o se ices such as shops and
ca e- ela ed and leisu e des ina ions, hei popula i y inc eases, and so does hei demand and en ,
which hen d i es ou lowe -income g oups (Elldé , 2024).
I has o be no ed ha some o he objec i es o a 15mC can appea o be a odds wi h one ano he : on
he one hand, he e is a need o g een spaces and leisu e a eas, while on he o he hand, his becomes
di icul o achie e when neighbou hoods a e supposed o be compac . Howe e , he opposi e is also
possible. Highe income may ha e he possibili y o mo e a ound in a la ge adius o hei se ices,
while hose wi h lowe incomes a e con ined o hose se ices ha hey can access wi hin 15 minu es
o walking/cycling/PT ide. The au ho s in Pozoukidou & Cha ziyiannaki, (2021) s a ed ha i is
ele an o a oid gen i ica ion (socio-spa ial seg ega ion caused by people lea ing hei
neighbou hoods because hey can’ a o d o s ay) and ghe oisa ion (concen a ing simila
sociodemog aphic popula ion like ich-popula ion a eas and poo -popula ion a eas wi h low o
inexis en mix u e). O he s udies conside ed di e en a iables as e hnic mino i y g oups as in
Cala io e e al., (2022) o p ope y owne ship and i s ela ionship wi h pa ks access like Olsen e al.,
(2022). In he s udy ega ding e hnici y, hei esul s showed i had almos no ela ionship wi h he
le el o accessibili y, sugges ing ha he dis ibu ion o se ices do no disp opo iona ely ad an age o
disad an age any speci ic cul u al g oup. In he case o Olsen e al., (2022), hei indings e ealed ha
87% o esponden s li ed wi hin 10 min-walk o a pa k/open space. Ha ing a p ope y epo ed as an
impo an p edic o o a pa k usage; homeowne s decla ed highe use o pa ks han en e s. Pa ks
accessibili y was also s udied by Luo e al., (2022) whom p oposed an indica o o measu e exposu e o
g een spaces and analysing his indica o wi h en al p ices in Zhengzhou (China).
1
“Residen s’ g oups can be de ined as olun a y, non-pa y poli ical, place-based o ganiza ions ha p o ess o
ope a e o p o ec and p omo e he pe cei ed in e es s o hei a ea o ac i i y” – (B ook ield, 2017, p. 47)

54
Resea ch ha analyses he easibili y o a 15-minu e ci y in Hamil on (NZ) concluded ha highe income
g oups had a much wide mobili y adius han lowe income g oups (Wang e al., 2024). T a ic
modelling esea ch in Mon éal eached simila conclusions, inding ha lowe income g oups a e mo e
likely o li e in a 15 o 30-minu e neighbou hood, bu ha his has mos ly o do wi h high-densi y
building on he one hand, and ca -cen ic ci y planning on he o he (Bi ken eld e al., 2023). C i iques
on he 15-minu e ci y app oach ha e highligh ed ha he app oach can lead o unequal ou comes and
how i is o en imes only a ainable o ce ain social g oups. To his end, he au ho s p oposed he
p o ision o equal oppo uni ies o employmen , educa ion, li elong lea ning a o dable housing,
mobili y op ions and financial esou ces also emphasised in Bü ne e al., (2022). I is he e o e
impo an o look a he needs and pe spec i es o ulne able popula ion g oups.
This b ings us o he second dimension: building use p o iles and a ge ing speci ic ulne able g oups.
Gene ally, anyone li ing in a neighbou hood wi hin he a ea o s udy can be conside ed he a ge
popula ion o he 15-minu e ci y app oach, as i is supposed o conside he basic needs o all
inhabi an s. In p ac ice, his means ha s udies on he 15mC will need o ocus on he needs o speci ic
use g oups, especially hose iden i ied as ulne able
2
o ma ginalised g oups, as he cu en s a egies
in u ban and mobili y planning do no su icien ly include he needs o hese g oups. O en imes, an
‘a e age’ pe son is conside ed, al hough he need o analyse pe sonal ci cums ances o p ope ly
unde s and walkabili y ac o s has been emphasised since he 1970s (Mille , 2018; Willbe g e al.,
2023). The majo i y o s udies conside ed ocused on age, and p ima ily elde ly people, in ela ion o
walkabili y o hei neighbou hood (see Table 10).
Many socie ies a e acing popula ion ageing, which b ings along conce ns o how o design ci ies o
hese people. Olde people ha e di e en mobili y pa e ns han younge people: hey o en ha e ewe
physical capabili ies han younge age g oups, which can be an impo an ba ie in hei access o and
use o anspo modes, especially as olde people become less likely o d i e a ca (Cheng e al., 2007).
Some s udies ha e no ed he link be ween no owning a ca and loneliness h ough social isola ion and
es ic ed access o se ices in olde age g oups (Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024; Willbe g e al., 2023). As such,
i is impo an o adequa ely conside he needs and expe iences o his g oup. Taking he example o
he s udy by (Willbe g e al., (2023), he au ho s analysed olde access o se ices in he Helsinki
Me opoli an a ea and how his access luc ua es due o seasonal change (wea he condi ions and
dayligh changes). Using a modelling app oach o es ima e di e ences in access o g oce y s o es, hei
indings concluded ha dayligh changes had a signi ican e ec on elde ly people’s access o se ices,
limi ing hem se e ely in he win e mon hs.
A possible solu ion o his p oblem could be mo e lexible opening hou s o s o es, making i possible
o sp ead ips o e he day. Pa icula ly on he case o ood access, Hos o d e al., (2022) analysed
walking and cycling accessibili y o g oce y shops in Vancou e , wi h age as an indica o . Thei esul s
showed ha when cycling is conside ed, only 1% o he ci y’s popula ion ha e no access o a g oce y
shop showing good accessibili y le els. Howe e , when conside ing a low walking speed (3,6km/h as
child en and elde ly people end o walk), a ound one- i h o he popula ion did no ha e access o a
g oce y s o e, and his we e mos ly neighbou hoods wi h highe p opo ions o child en, elde ly and
mino i ies
2
Vulne able pe sons a e people ha encoun e ba ie s and/o di icul ies o accessing o using anspo a ion
se ices. This e m e e s o all people acing ba ie s due o simila pe sonal cha ac e is ics (Ma inez e al., 2022).
55
Table 10 Ta ge popula ion, ameni ies and indings om humanis ic s udies e iewed.
S udy ID
Main a ge popula ion
Main ameni y o ocus
Gene al
1
Gene al
Responden s p io i ised: local ameni ies, social in e ac ion, peace ul en i onmen s
(no noise), g een a eas and lowe densi ies.
12
Child en and elde ly
The s udy analysed only ood- ela ed ameni ies accessibili y.
41
Elde ly
Elde ly popula ion p e e ed calm places (mos ly pe iphe al a eas), well connec ed o
he ci y cen e. Mos impo an ameni ies o his popula ion: ood, heal h and pa ks.
38
Elde ly, child en, disabled
Food- ela ed ameni ies as he mos impo an and especially by low-income elde ly
popula ion.
36
Elde ly
Accessibili y o g oce y shops no only spa ial bu empo al analysis is impo an
(win e season).
Ou ski s
59
E hnic mino i ies and low-income
Food- ela ed ameni ies a e no accessible o almos one hi d o he popula ion and
e hic is no signi ican a iable.
60
Homeowne s and low-income
Pa ks and open space a e mo e used by homeowne s compa ed o en e s.
61
Gene al
Eu ope has inequali y ac oss ci ies and wi hin ci ies, especially in he ype and quali y
o ameni ies.
71
Women wi h child en and low-in-
come
Low income woman in Colombia s i e o ind heal h cen es, while high-income pop-
ula ion needs e ail.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
F om he p ac ical se o s udies (see Table 11), we can also g asp an o e iew o he mos impo an
socio-demog aphic a iables conside ed when ying o apply 15mC p inciples. As we can see om he
able, popula ion (in e ms o absolu e numbe o densi y) is he mos impo an ac o , bu also age and
income. Vehicle owne ship is also conside ed in se e al s udies. Fo example, Bi ken eld e al., (2023)
ound ha a household owning one o mo e ehicles was 78% less likely o be a 15-minu e household,
and 87% less likely o be a 30-minu e household. Less common is o ind documen s ha included
gende , educa ion le el and mig an backg ounds (Ba zokas-Tsiomp as & Bakogiannis, 2023; G aells-
Ga ido e al., 2021; Knap e al., 2023). Vehicle owne ship (A is izábal e al., 2023; Guzman e al., 2021),
cyclis s ess le el (D. C. Da Sil a e al., 2020) and job ypes (Bo h e al., 2022) a e also conside ed as
a iables in he analysis o some s udies. Wi h espec o gende , au ho s like A is izábal e al., (2023)
ha e emphasised he impo ance o ans o m he so-called “do mi o y neighbou hoods” in o
neighbou hoods wi h mo e signi ican u ban ac i i y and be e se ice co e age, con ibu ing o u ban
spa ial jus ice. These au ho s highligh ha spa ial jus ice should p omo e be e oppo uni ies and
accessibili y o people, especially women, conside ing hei di e se needs (ca egi e s) (Bague , 2023;
Ma inez e al., 2022; SMALL, 2023).
56
Table 11 Socio-demog aphic a iables conside ed in he p ac ical s udies
S udy ID
Popula ion
Popula ion
densi y
Age
Income
Gende
Educa ion
le el
Mig an
Backg ound
O he a iables
U ban
4
x
x
x
x
x (Human De elopmen Index)
6
x
7
8
10
x
15
x
22
x
x
26
x
x
x
x
27
31
35
x
x
x
x ( eh owne ship)
42
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
Ou ski s
49
x
x (cyclis s s ess le el)
50
x
51
x
x
52
x
x
x
x
x (occupa ion, eh owne ship)
54
x
x
57
x
x (job ypes)
62
63
x
x
x
x
x (deg ee o u banisa ion)
64
x
65
66
67
x
68
x
69
72
x
73
x
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
Gene ally, mos s udies on he opic o walkabili y and age ha e concluded ha he e a e la ge
di e ences in accessibili y be ween ci y cen es and subu ban o u ban ou ski s a eas. The s udy by
Rhoads e al., (2023) ocused on bo h elde ly and younge people, he la e being ano he g oup ha is
o en o e looked in u ban planning s udies ye makes up almos he majo i y o ci y dwelle s. Using da a
on he sidewalk ne wo k o Ba celona, hey concluded ha o bo h he younges and oldes g oups in
he ci y, access o i al se ices becomes limi ed no due o lack o he se ices hemsel es, bu because
o inadequa e pedes ian in as uc u e o each hese. This was a bigge p oblem in he ci y ou ski s
han in he cen e, which is in line wi h o he s udies on simila opics.
A s udy in San iago ha also ocused on he access o elde ly esiden s o g oce y s o es showed ha
while he ci y cen e was a p omising accessible zone, he subu bs a e s ill la gely inaccessible by
walking (Ulloa-Leon e al., 2023). Simila ly, a s udy on access o g oce y s o es in Vancou e showed a
g ea accessibili y o g oce y s o es by bike, bu 15-minu e walking access was only possible in he
cen al a eas (Hos o d e al., 2022).
In he case o Ulloa-Leon e al., (2023), he au ho s in es iga ed he accessibili y le els o elde ly
popula ion in San iago de Chile o di e en ameni ies. The au ho s p io i ised he ameni ies based on
ip equency (p e ious s udies and o icial da a) a ound wo le els: 1) basic ameni ies: ood- ela ed,
heal hca e and public space and 2) me opoli an ameni ies: hospi als, public se ices, banks,
en e ainmen si es, wo ship places and public anspo . They used a 2,4 km/h speed and hei esul s
showed ha he ci y did good in gene al, especially o low-mid income elde popula ion ha accoun s
o 70% o he ci y’s olde adul s. Thei indings also demons a ed ha old popula ion did no go o he
ci y cen e as much due o he low accessibili y condi ions and ins ead, hey sea ched o pe iphe al
a eas wi h high le els o u ban connec i i y in o de o e i e.
57
F om a buil en i onmen pe spec i e, Vale & Lopes, (2023) analysed inequali y issues ac oss di e en
Eu opean ci ies in e ms o pedes ian accessibili y. Thei indings showed Ge many had he mos
walkable ci ies agains UK wi h he wo s cases. Simila ly, B ook ield, (2017) s udied he elemen s ha
esiden s alue he mos when idealising a neighbou hood (by using ocus g oups). The esul s showed
ha local ameni ies, social in e ac ion, noise (peace ul en i onmen s), g een a eas and lowe densi ies
we e he mos impo an o de e mine a neighbou hood’s walkabili y. E en hough some s udies
angen ially add essed gende -speci ic desi ed ameni ies like Guzman e al., 2024), he e is,
su p isingly, no speci ic s udy conside ing di e ences be ween desi ed ameni ies acco ding o gende .
Once we ha e del ed in o indings ega ding socioeconomic cha ac e is ics, use p o iles and ulne able
g oups, he nex sec ion ega ds he s udies on use s ‘p e e ences and hei indings.
4.4.4.2. Indi idual’s needs and p e e ences
As discussed abo e, i is impo an o ocus on ulne able g oups. Bu wha do hese ulne able g oups
desi e? This dimension ega ds all he s udies ha in es iga e ci izen’s p e e ences and needs owa ds
he 15mC concep . The majo i y o s udies on he opic o equi y in 15mC ocuses on he a iables o age
and pedes ian access. This also shapes he ocus on wha se ices ha e been s udied as impo an o
access, wi h he p ima y ocus being g oce y s o es. Addi ionally, s udies conside ed schools,
pha macies, lib a ies, social se ices and access o public anspo as i al se ices (Rhoads e al., 2023;
Willbe g e al., 2023). Some s udies also poin ou he ele ance ha public anspo has o low-income
popula ions, as i does no simply connec o igins and des ina ions, bu s uc u es social li e (Vi ale
B o a one, 2022). Consequen ly, social inequali ies usually eme ge, and hose who o any eason
canno d i e a ca a e se iously a ec ed by he lack o accessibili y and social in e ac ions. The e o e,
pe iphe al a eas need speci ic s a egies o o e come hese inequali ies e en mo e han u ban co es.
Boos ing i s /las mile ips wi h ene gy-e icien mobili y solu ions o ex end accessibili y anges a e
key o imp o e mobili y in he u ban ou ski s as s a ed by Abdel a ah e al., 2022).
Key indings om Bague , (2023) showed ha men use mic omobili y much mo e equen ly han
women and ha he anspo sys em as a whole has p edominan ly been designed om a male
pe spec i e, inad e en ly neglec ing speci ic emale needs. On he s udy Ma inez e al., (2022) he
au ho s ocused on he needs o ci izens when using a mobili y hub. They ound ou ha he bene i s
ha ulne able ci izens may ob ain om using mobili y hubs will depend on how he acili ies, se ices
and ehicles a e adap ed o hei needs. In his ega d, a mo e inclusi e design was ecommended, wi h
he possibili y o being assis ed by someone a he hub o ha ing access o a how- o-use aining o he
hub. The p ocu emen o secu i y and eeling o sa e y was commonly s a ed as necessa y by
pa icipan s. Likewise, ha ing he possibili y o use he hub h ough non-digi al channels, and he
p o ision o simple and unde s andable in o ma ion (e.g., boa ds, sc eens, signage, e c.) we e also
highligh ed.
Using an induc i e me hod, esea ch by B ook ield, (2017) adds low-densi y building, g een spaces and
leisu e a eas as elemen s ha esponden s conside o be impo an in hei neighbou hood. In Bo h e
al., (2022), he au ho s e lec ed on he impo ance o c ea ing new jobs in housing- ich a eas and
c ea ing new housing in jobs- ich a eas o achie e spa ial jus ice. These au ho s del e in o households’
composi ion o see hei ela ionship wi h 15-minu e accessibili y me ics. They concluded ha he
expec a ion ha households will be able o pe o m all hei ips in 15 min o less while only using
ac i e modes o anspo was un ealis ic, e en i local accessibili y was conside ably inc eased. Thei
esul s showed ha a household wi h employed membe s we e much mo e likely o pe o m ips wi h
a du a ion o mo e han 15 min, which shows he cu en incompa ibili y o he 15-minu e ci y pa adigm
wi h he dis ibu ion o wo king ac i i ies. Mo eo e , a house wi h mo e han one pe son we e less
compa ible wi h a 15-minu e-ci y li es yle and ca owne s also we e ound o s uggle mo e wi h he
64
Rega ding he ou ski s li e a u e, we can highligh Renaning yas Mani es y & Pa k, (2022) ha
discussed he implemen a ion o he 15mC concep wi hin he con ex o Singapo e's 2040 Land
T anspo Mas e Plan, speci ically h ough i s adap a ion in o "20-Minu e Towns and a 45-Minu e Ci y".
They adap ed he concep o p o ide esiden s wi h be e access o local ameni ies wi hin 20 minu es
and ensu e ha mos jou neys ac oss he ci y can be comple ed in 45 minu es using public anspo o
ac i e mobili y op ions. The au ho s desc ibed how egula ions ha e been adap ed, o example
es ablishing legal backing o sha ed mobili y se ices and pe sonal mobili y de ices (PMDs), expanding
public anspo , c ea ing dedica ed pedes ian and cycling pa hs, ansi co ido s as well as mo ing
away om igid zoning laws o mixed-use de elopmen s ha acili a e close p oximi y be ween homes,
wo kplaces, and essen ial se ices. Finally, Gilbe & Woodcock, (2022) compa ed local li ing policies
om Aus alia, No h Ame ica, China and Sou h-Eas Asia in e ms o hei aims and ela ionship o
planning p ac ice. Thei indings highligh he a ying le els o ma u i y om di e en ci y planning
documen s bo h a he s a egic and ope a ional le el. These au ho s also p oposed a shi in ocus om
20-minu e neighbou hoods o 20-minu e ameni ies: 20-minu e schools, 20-minu e heal h, e c., as his
could help unpack he complex dynamics o each unc ion. F om his poin o iew, when analysing 20-
minu e schools, planne s could g asp complexi ies like he pa en /s uden a i udes owa ds
walking/cycling, schools‘ policies o ca usage and ca pa king, school e en s ou o own o school
zones.
One opic commonly ound among li e a u e is he issue o e i o ial bounda ies. One key challenge
could be ex ending he model beyond he municipal bounda ies and aligning in e es s and objec i es
among di e en e i o ial uni s (Bü ne e al., 2022). Whe e one municipal ju isdic ion ends o make
space o o he municipal ju isdic ions, one migh ask whe he i is desi able o no ha all e i o ial
uni s, ega dless o hei loca ion, become hype -local and ake on a mo e u ban cha ac e . On he o he
hand, om an economic-de elopmen pe spec i e, s eams o in es men s di ec ed owa d
implemen ing 15mC in he main cen al ci y could lead o inc eased inequali ies be ween he main ci y
cen e and he immedia e subu bs. I no well coo dina ed wi h egional ac o s, co e in es men s
uelling he 15mC could isk a decline in public anspo in as uc u e in es men s. I public anspo
is no su icien and a - eaching h oughou he ci y and i s subu ban bo de s he e is he isk ha
commu e s will eso o ca usage in o de o co e longe dis ances.
O he impo an issue is dis us o ci izens. Ma que e al., (2024) emphasised ha in o de o
success ully implemen 15mC, i is impo an o unde s and and add ess people's conce ns and dis us
in au ho i ies (as hey migh hink go e nmen wan s o achie e o al popula ion con ol). They poin
o ideological and poli ical belie s as being he basis o his opposi ion as suppo ed by Rod íguez-Pose,
(2018). The au ho s also ecommend pa icipa o y wo kshops and co-design p ocesses add essing
u al o subu ban conce ns and democ a ising planning o ocus on non-u ban a eas also. A ailable land
and housing s ock a e ele an o educe housing de ici s and co-planning p ac ices and pa icipa ion in
decision-making ha include di e se cul u al backg ounds, mobili y di ficul ies, and he elde ly, young
people and s uden s, in o de o educe hei ulne abili y h ough empowe men p og ams is key
(Pozoukidou & Cha ziyiannaki, 2021). Mo e speci ically, au ho s like Fe e -o iz e al., (2022) a e
p oposing minu e-based policies in which all hese aspec s a e aken in o conside a ion and policy
becomes ele an o hei a ge use s.
On a simila no e, o he s udies like he one conduc ed by B own & Howell, (2024) analysed in a mo e
speci ic way, he equi y equi emen s in mic omobili y se ices ac oss he US, highligh ing he main
ba ie s ha make hem inaccessible o ulne able g oups:
• Spa ial limi a ions: P og ams o en concen a e in cen al u ban a eas, lea ing pe iphe al
neighbou hoods unde se ed.

65
• Economic ba ie s: Membe ship ees and lack o al e na i es o c edi /debi paymen s exclude
low-income use s.
• Technological ba ie s: Dependence on sma phones excludes indi iduals wi hou mobile
in e ne o sma phones.
• Lack o awa eness: People may no know abou mic omobili y se ices o ind i di icul o
access in o ma ion due o language ba ie s o poo ou each.
Thei esul s yielded he need o ou come-based e alua ion o equi y e o s, a he han jus ocusing
on access as many se ices aim o inc ease he a ailabili y o hei ehicles bu ailed o ensu e ha
hese a e ac ually used by ulne able g oups; placing bikes in unde se ed a eas bu no aking ca e o
o he ba ie s (cos , lack o ou each). Thei ecommenda ions o an equi y egula o y amewo k
included:
• Policy De elopmen : s a ing ha Ci ies should es ablish clea equi y policies ha a ge
ulne able g oups, ocusing on a o dabili y, accessibili y (including non-sma phone access),
and geog aphic dis ibu ion o unde se ed a eas.
• Equi y in Implemen a ion: go e nance amewo ks should manda e speci ic ea u es like cash
paymen op ions and adap i e ehicles, which a e c i ical o expanding access o a b oade
demog aphics.
• E alua ion: epo ing needs o include e alua ion mechanisms o ensu e compliance and assess
whe he equi y goals a e being me . This includes equi ing ope a o s o epo usage da a
disagg ega ed by income, ace, gende , and neighbou hood.
• Incen i ising compliance: ope a o s should be incen i e o link lee sizes o pe mi enewals o
he achie emen o equi y me ics.
• Comp ehensi e equi emen s: go e nance amewo ks should adop a mul i-dimensional
app oach, including educed a es, accessible paymen sys ems, and a ge ed ou each.
Simila ly, ITF, (2021) also ecommends o ha e ou come-based egula ions liked o speci ic
pe o mance c i e ia. Fo example, ins ead o ehicle lee deployed, an au ho i y could seek o e alua e
numbe o ips pe ehicle and pe day acco ding o di e en ulne able o a ge ed g oup. They also
ecommend mic omobili y o be incen i ised h ough subsidies and business models in he u ban
ou ski s.
The e o e, ci izen pa icipa ion and he in e disciplina y planning p ocess a e key o build conc e e
human cen e ci y policies and ensu e hei applica ion. In his sense, au ho s like Abdel a ah e al.,
(2022) ecommend sensi i e, si e-speci ic and pa icipa o y wo kshops ha help c ea e a sha ed ision
o he 15mC. Go e nance componen hen plays a key ole o guide policy o a ge speci ic ulne able
g oups and o come up wi h c ea i e inno a i e solu ions o inc ease ci izen engagemen .
4.4.6. Business models
In ega ds o he 15mC, business models a e needed whe e business (se ices) a e needed and ope a ed
(in ol ing cos ). Hence, i we aim o implemen in e en ions like sha ed mobili y, on-demand public
ansi se ices, mobili y o lexible ac i i y hubs, and o he measu es ha enabled p oximi y planning,
hen business models need o be conside ed. Ha ing policy in place is ele an bu also he mechanisms
ha allow his policy o become eali y. This sec ion del es in o he exis ing business models s udies
and ecommenda ions o guide ci ies owa ds a 15mC pa h. Fi s ly, we can highligh he lack o s udies
ega ding business models in gene al, bu speci ically no s udy was ound on he speci ic opic o
business models o he 15mC.
F om he sha ed mobili y li e a u e, we ha e lea ned ha in gene al, all sha ed mobili y se ices
basically manage a lee o ehicles and o e hem o hei subsc ibe s as a en al se ice o a gi en
66
ime (hou s, minu es, e c.). They gene ally wo k h ough applica ions on sma phones, whe e clien s
access an in e ace wi h a ci y map and loca e he closes ehicle (bike, moped o scoo e ). Once he
ehicle is iden i ied, hey unlock i om he app and begin he jou ney. Use da a and bank in o ma ion
a e sa ed when egis e ing o he se ice in o de o make paymen o he use o hei lee s. Once he
use eaches hei des ina ion, hey pa k and elock he ehicle om he app. All companies ope a e in
a simila way wi h simila business models. In he pa icula case o ca -sha ing se ices, acco ding o
Münzel e al., (2019) he e a e mainly wo ypes o ca -sha ing business models:
• Business- o-Consume (B2C) Ca Sha ing: In his model, a company owns a lee o ca s ha
use s can en . The use s ypically pay o he ca by he hou , day, o dis ance a elled. The
se ice o en includes insu ance, main enance, and epai s. These ca s a e commonly sp ead ou
ac oss a ci y, and use s can pick hem up in a sel -se ice ashion. The e a e wo ypes wi hin
B2C: Round ip (RT): Use s pick up and d op o he ca a he same loca ion and F ee-Floa ing
(FF): Use s can d op o he ca anywhe e wi hin a designa ed a ea, making i mo e lexible o
sho ips.
• Pee - o-Pee (P2P) Ca Sha ing: This model ope a es on a wo-sided pla o m whe e p i a e
indi iduals en ou hei pe sonal ehicles o o he s. I is ypically mo e cos -e ec i e han B2C,
and ca owne s can decide when o en ou hei ca s. This o m o ca -sha ing has been g owing
due o he ease o online pla o ms and sma phone apps.
These models ca e o di e en use needs, wi h B2C gene ally being used mo e equen ly o ecu ing
pu poses, while P2P is o en used o special occasions. A c i ical issue om he ope a ional poin o
iew is he need o edis ibu e ehicles since he e is o en an imbalance be ween he o igins and
des ina ions o ips acco ding o hou s o he day. Thus, o example, in ea ly mo ning hou s, mos ips
o igina e om esiden ial zones, while hey end a employmen a eas and he con a y ends o occu
in he a e noon (commu ing pa e ns). This causes ehicles o be concen a ed in some neighbou hoods
and sca ce in o he s, o cing ope a o s o edis ibu e ehicles in ans, wi h he consequen inc ease o
ope a ion cos s, conges ion and pollu ion.
In addi ion, dockless se ices equi e mo e ope a ional logis ics o main enance and echa ging asks.
In ega d o he spa ial dis ibu ion o hese se ices, hey a e o en o e ed mainly in he ci y cen es,
whe e ope a o s ind mo e p o i abili y, as land uses a e di e se, and a high concen a ion o public
anspo and ac i i ies o e ed. Howe e , he concen a ion o sha ed se ices in he ci y cen e may be
compe ing wi h public anspo and ac i e mobili y and hence, a mo e homogeneous dis ibu ion is
desi ed eaching also pe iphe ic a eas, usually he mos ca -dependen ones, and whe e hese se ices
could be a solu ion o he las -mile ips.
In e ms o unding, unlike public anspo o he i s eme ging public bike-sha ing sys ems ha we e
mos ly inanced o p omo ed by public o ganisa ions wi h public money, he new sha ed mobili y
se ices a e mos ly incen i ised by p i a e ini ia i es. La ge p i a e companies a e behind many o
hese ini ia i es (e.g., BMW wi h Ca 2Go, Renaul wi h Zi y o Kia wi h Wible). Hence, being a non-
subsidised sec o , makes i di icul o o e hese se ices on low-income neighbou hoods o low-
densi y a eas. Hence, new social business models should be adap ed o p oposed o add ess his issue
and inc ease social equi y (Cala io e e al., 2022; Kelobonye e al., 2020; Tamma u e al., 2023).
O pa icula in e es is he s udy by Pozoukidou & Angelidou, (2022) which speci ically add essed he
go e nance and business model ha needs o be in place o p omo e he de elopmen o he 15mC
concep . The au ho s sugges ed ha his business model should clea ly de ine: 1. The mission o he 15-
minu e ci y, 2. The alue p oposi ion and he key ac i i ies, in as uc u e, and esou ces equi ed o
gene a e ha alue, 3. he pa ne s ha a e c ucial o making he business model e ec i e, 4. he cos
s uc u e and e enue s eams o he 15-minu e ci y, and 5. he social and en i onmen al benefi s, along
wi h isks and cos s. In o de o come up wi h his business model, go e nance, ope a ion and di e en
67
app oaches mus be discussed, co-c ea ed and egula ly upda ed h ough he con ibu ions o all
s akeholde s in ol ed. They also men ioned he impo ance o unding as a c i ical aspec o achie e he
mission in a sus ainable manne . To his end, he au ho s p oposed ha 15-minu e ci ies should ake
ad an age o he nume ous sma and sus ainable ci y knowledge exchange ne wo ks and unding
schemes o e ed by na ional and in e na ional au ho i ies, such as he Eu opean Commission h ough
he Clima e-Neu al and Sma Ci ies Mission and he Ci cula Ci ies and Regions Ini ia i e. Mo eo e ,
ci y planne s and o icials should be ained o ca y ou all he basic s eps o pa icipa ing in hese
ne wo ks and ob aining unds o which hey a e eligible. This will enhance hei capaci y o unde ake
sma ci y p ojec s ha can be sus ained beyond he ini ial unding scope and pe iod.
The s udy Allam, e al., (2022b) also ecommends he in oduc ion and ins i u ionalisa ion o he fiscal
incen i es a ge ing unds ha he p i a e sec o can align wi h public objec i es. On hei e ision, hey
summa ise ha Ci ies ha e ied o add ess hese ba ie s embedding equi y equi emen s in pe mi s
and con ac s o mic omobili y ope a o s. On a simila no e, B own & Howell, (2024) ecommends o
include some equi emen s o ope a o s be o e deploying ehicles and ob aining pe mi s om Ci ies:
• Reduced a es o low-income use s.
• Cash paymen op ions o hose wi hou bank ca ds.
• Non-sma phone access.
• Mul ilingual se ices o di e se popula ions.
• Adap i e ehicles (e.g., sea ed scoo e s) o use s wi h disabili ies.
• Geog aphic dis ibu ion manda es o ensu e ehicles a e placed in unde se ed a eas.
As a summa y om he go e nance and business model componen sec ions, we o e ed in Table 14 he
mos men ioned and equen ly suppo ed s a egies o inc ease equi y and enable 15mC concep in he
ou ski s neighbou hoods. mos o he s a egies a e in as uc u e- ela ed, bu also egula ion ha
needs o be in place and ci izen pa icipa ion mechanisms ha need o be ac i a ed o ansi ion in o a
15mC pa h.
68
Table 14 S a egies ecommended o applied in ci ies om he li e a u e
Topic
S a egies
In as uc u e
Equi y-based eg-
ula ion
Business models
In o ma ion and
Ci izen pa icipa ion
Add essing
issue
Mobili y
Expansion o sha ed mobili y
x
A
Mobili y
Imp o ing public anspo
x
A
Mobili y
Imp o ing pedes ian in as uc u e
x
A
Mobili y
Imp o ing cycling in as uc u e
x
A
Mobili y
C ea ing mobili y hubs
x
A
Housing
Unbundled pa king o new house de elopmen s
x
A
Housing
Con e edundan o ice space in o a o dable housing
x
A
Housing
Mixed-income housing de elopmen
x
A
Housing
In oducing supe blocks (pedes ianise a eas)
x
A
Ameni ies
Inc easing ameni ies (numbe and quali y)
x
A
Ameni ies
S ee expe imen s/ac i i y hubs ( aking space om ca s)
x
A
Wo k
O e ing lexible wo king schemes (co-wo king spaces)
x
A
Co-c ea ion
Ci izen pa icipa ion wi h co-c ea ion p ocess (no jus su eys bu
public mee ings, walk-along in e iews)
x
B
Technology
Augmen ed Reali y o show possible in e en ions
x
B
Incen i es
Incen i es (mone a y/non-mone a y) o pa icipa e
x
B
Incen i es
Fiscal incen i es o p i a e unds o align wi h public objec i es
x
B
Policy
Ou come-o ien ed planning documen s wi h benchma ks/indica-
o s/s a ua y (e.g. e e yone should ha e a hospi al wi hin a
30minu es PT ide)
x
C
Policy
Shi om 20-minu e ci y o x-minu e ameni y ( o example 30-mi-
nu e hospi al, 5-minu e dayca e, 10-minu e bake y, 15-minu e PT
s op, e c.)
x
C
Regula ion
Mul i-pu pose and mul i- empo al use o acili ies
x
C
Regula ion
Mixed land use p omo ion
x
C
Regula ion
P omo e ci y planne s ainings on how o ge unds o p ojec s
x
C
A Spa ial equi y: "Those li ing in he u ban co es a e p i ileged and we in he ou ski s a e ma ginalised"
B Conspi acy Theo ies: "They wan o b ing back he ghe o o gen i y my neighbou hood… he go e nmen wan s o ake comple e con ol and no allow me o mo e eely in my ca "
C One-size- i s-all: "This concep isks o pe cei e all a eas as simila when eally each one o us needs di e en con ex -adap ed measu es and own speed a es"
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
69
5. THE DREAMS 15MN MIXER: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR 15MN
TRANSOFRMATIONS
A e desc ibing he main componen s o ou ex ended de ini ion o 15mC o he u ban ou ski s
neighbou hoods, his nex sec ion desc ibes wha we call, he DREAMS 15mN Mixe . The Mixe
summa ises indings om he conduc ed li e a u e e iew, helping us o answe he ques ion: ”Wha
a e he key componen s o be conside ed om he li e a u e o de ine 15-minu e neighbou hoods in he
u ban ou ski s?” The Mixe becomes ou heo e ical amewo k o add ess each o he li ing labs and
posi ion hem acco ding o hese componen s (see Figu e 14). Fi s we wan o cla i y ha he Mixe is
no a ool pe se ( his will be deli e ed in WP3), bu a he an illus a ion summa ising indings om
he li e a u e e iew in a c ea i e way.
To illus a e mo e on he unde s anding o he amewo k, we in i e he eade o hink o a DJ gea o
mixe . The DJ in his case, is he eade (s uden s, esea che s, policy planne s, ci izens, e c.) and we a e
abou o add ess how a ce ain loca ion named “A” (an u ban ou ski s) sounds like. The mixe has wo
elemen s: pa I is he cu en sound (diagnosis) and is composed by hose elemen s ha canno be
changed o ake oo long o change and ha , in gene al, cha ac e ise loca ion A (scale, exis ing jobs and
ameni ies, u ban s uc u e, walkabili y and cyclabili y, public anspo , o e ed sha ed mobili y and
socioeconomic cha ac e is ics). Based on he knowledge o loca ion A, he DJ posi ions i along hese
a iables and le els like a CD and ob ains he cu en music o cu en s a us. This pa in ol es he
diagnosis and posi ioning o a loca ion wi h espec o o he s.
By lis ening closely, we in oduced he eade in o pa II o he mixe whe e he DJ can ac ually play
some bu ons o imp o e his sound and make i mo e simila o an Equi able and Accessible 15-minu e
Ou ski s Neighbou hood (DREAMS 15mN). These bu ons ep esen he s a egies, policies,
ecommenda ions and ac ions ha could be aken in o accoun o he ou ski s. Based on he sound he
DJ is hea ing om he diagnosis, i is possible o make small/big changes o adequa e policies o he
pa icula loca ion’s sound and make i mo e in une wi h he ideal 15-minu e ci y song o he a ea. I
is impo an o keep he ha mony o mix o s a egies by no pu ing all bu ons up ( ying o do
e e y hing wi h he same p io i y), as we will only ge noise ( oo load sound). I is also impo an o no
keep all bu ons down (no doing any hing a all) as hen he esul will be comple e silence ( u ning
he loca ion’s sound o ). The e o e, we aim o ha e he op imal o easible mix, which is he
p io i isa ion opics ha he ce ain loca ion needs acco ding o he cu en sound/s a us and based on
hei ci izen’s ision o he loca ion (see Appendix 3 on a s ep-by-s ep guide o he DREAMS 15mN
Mixe ).
In his sense, ou amewo k e lec s how u ban planne s/policy make s ( isualised as ‘DJs’) need o
balance ou a ious componen s in he ques o success ully implemen he 15-minu e neighbou hoods
wi hin he u ban ou ski s. Each elemen wo ks on a spec um, e lec ing di e en in ensi ies and
quali ies o u ban de elopmen . I illus a es ha a 15-minu e neighbou hood is one achie ed h ough
ca e ul adjus men s and coo dina ion ac oss hese mul iple dimensions owa ds building a uni ied
li ing en i onmen ha is sus ainable and unc ional.

70
71
Figu e 14 DREAMS Theo e ical amewo k o 15mN ans o ma ions.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
72
6. CONCLUSIONS
This epo has desc ibed he main indings om a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew on academic pape s ha
del e in o he 15-minu e neighbou hood and u ban ou ski s. As main conclusions we can wi hd aw
ha he 15mC concep is a new way o eph asing p e ious concep s and ha i has been success ul in
gaining momen um among esea che s bu also policy make s. The idea behind he concep is o ha e
p oximi y o essen ial se ices using ac i e mobili y, public anspo and sha ed mobili y in o de o
educe ca dependency. E en hough i was ini ially designed and applied o dense u ban co es, he
15mC concep is being e hough o applica ion in subu ban se ings o he u ban ou ski s. These less
densely popula ed en i onmen s a e gene ally cha ac e ised by sp awl and mo e in ensi e use o he
p i a e ca , bo h o which would imply he e hinking o how p oximi y and accessibili y could be
deli e ed.
A key c i ical insigh om his e iew is he need o adap he main p inciples o 15mC o di e en
spa ial con ex s. Hence, he sho walking/cycling dis ances o ameni ies ha we can achie e in he
dense u ban co es, need an adap a ion o he u ban ou ski s, conside ing public anspo , sha ed
mobili y solu ions and inno a i e anspo a angemen s ha could e ec i ely connec mo e dispe sed
ameni ies. Such adap a ions would need o conside ha each a ea has i s own pace o achie e 15mC
goals, and a i s a lexible ime ames could be p oposed, ecognising he g ea e dis ances o en lying
be ween home, se ices, and wo kplaces in hese a eas. This could also be adap ed o di e en
ameni ies/ac i i y pu poses wi h di e en ime ames.
Based on he li e a u e, we p opose he “Equi able and Accessible 15-minu e Ou ski s Neighbou hoods
(DREAMS 15mN) as an adap ed e sion o he 15mC concep ha ocuses on he educ ion o he need o
use a p i a e ca in he u ban ou ski s allowing i s esiden s o access hei essen ial ameni ies and
ul illing daily needs h ough ac i e mobili y and local in as uc u e (like public anspo , sha ed mobili y
se ices, mobili y/ac i i y hubs among o he s), while also being well connec ed o o he co es h ough
egional in as uc u e. This adap a ion o he concep ocuses on use ’s pe cep ions and p e e ences
ega ding accep able a el cos s o ameni ies”.
This ex ended concep in ol es a leas he conside a ion o six componen s: densi y, di e si y, design,
human pe spec i es, go e nance and business models. Densi y, Di e si y and Desing ha e been he
mos de eloped componen s in he li e a u e while less documen s a e ound o business models,
go e nance and human pe spec i es. F om he li e a u e e iew, esul s yield an impo an esea ch
gap: he lack o s udies ega ding use ’s pe cep ions and p e e ences o di e en ameni ies and
accep able a el imes. S udies which spa ial scope goes beyond he u ban co es o o he u ban
se ings. The lack o s udies ega ding equi y-based egula o y and go e nance amewo ks along
inno a i e business models o enable 15mC in bo h, u ban co es and u ban ou ski s.
Densi y e e s o di e en ou ski s scales based on hei esiden ial densi y. Di e si y deals wi h he
o e o ameni ies and se ices wi hin a ce ain dis ance conside ing di e en modes. Finally, design
in ol es physical elemen s like buil en i onmen a iables (like cycling and pedes ian in as uc u e)
and connec i i y (public anspo and sha ed mobili y op ions). The human pe spec i es and e ec i e
go e nance amewo ks as well as inno a i e business models a e also key o ealising his ision in
less dense se ings. In doing so, co-c ea ion, communi y in ol emen , and o he such o ms o
pa icipa o y planning p ocesses e y much suppo he sensi i i y owa ds he needs and p e e ences
o esiden s. O he business models balancing economic iabili y and social equi y enable he p o ision
o bo h sus ainable and inclusi e mobili y se ices ha i in o he subu ban se ing whe e adi ional
u ban models all sho . Mo eo e , inclusi i y should eme ge as one o he key elemen s o applying he
15mC concep o loca ions ou side he e y dense u ban se ing. In he ou ski s, social and economic
73
di e si y will mos ly be much la ge compa ed o u ban se ings; he e o e, i would need o adap o
he a ious needs o di e en g oups demog aphically. In a eas whe e dis ance and connec i i y a e
p onounced challenges, i becomes all he mo e impo an o each ou equi ably o all ci izens in he
ci y, i espec i e o hei socio-economic backg ounds.
All hese ele an componen s we e summa ised in a heo e ical amewo k called he DREAMS 15mN
mixe , which could help policy planne s o diagnose and posi ion loca ions, li ing lab a eas o any place
wi h espec o one ano he . Mo eo e , i helps hen o ake decision and o de e mine which
componen s and aspec s hey can change o imp o e he cu en s a us and make neighbou hoods
become mo e accessible and simila o a 15-minu e neighbou hood ideal. Using he mixe , he DJ can
lis en o he cu en sound o an a ea and play wi h he bu ons o s a egies o achie e an imp o ed
sound. F om his epo we can highligh ha his heo e ical amewo k helps o add ess how a loca ion
is doing in e ms o he mos ele an a iables o he 15-minu e concep ga he ed om he li e a u e
e iew.
As a main limi a ion o he s udy we can highligh he ime capaci y o analyse no only scien i ic
academic li e a u e, bu also o he non-academic epo s and g ey li e a u e ha could complemen his
p oposed amewo k. Howe e , we wan ed o ocus mainly on he obus exis ing scien i ic li e a u e in
o de o be able o g asp and summa ised he discussions on he opic om he esea ch communi y.
Fu u e esea ch lines could del e in o his non-scien i ic li e a u e o complemen indings and also ge
eedback on his amewo k om ci izens li ing in he ou ski s o see i some hing is missing.
Ne e heless, we acknowledge ha he adap a ion o such a concep in he u ban ou ski s is
challenging. The e a e di e ences in accessibili y, economic easibili y o p o iding ex ensi e mobili y
se ice in low-densi y en i onmen s, and he ask o os e ing mixed-use de elopmen in ca -dependen
subu bs, among o he challenges. These d aw he need o c ea i e s a egies ha go beyond
con en ional u ban planning app oaches owa d a mo e inclusi e and sus ainable ou ski s.
80
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83
84
APPENDIX
Appendix 1 Table o au ho s o gene al li e a u e (48 s udies) o de ed and indexed by da e o
publica ion.
S udy ID
Ti le
Yea
Au ho s
1
Residen s’ p e e ences o walkable neighbou hoods
2017
(B ook ield, 2017)
2
How much is enough? Assessing he in luence o neighbou hood walkabili y on unde aking 10-
minu e walks
2018
(Boisjoly e al., 2018)
3
15-Minu e Ci y: Decomposing he New U ban Planning Eu opia
2021
(Pozoukidou & Cha ziyian-
naki, 2021)
4
A ci y o ci ies: Measu ing how 15-minu es u ban accessibili y shapes human mobili y in Ba ce-
lona
2021
(G aells-Ga ido e al., 2021)
5
In oducing he “15-Minu e Ci y”: Sus ainabili y, Resilience and Place Iden i y in Fu u e Pos -
Pandemic Ci ies
2021
(Mo eno e al., 2021)
6
15-, 10- o 5-minu e ci y? A ocus on accessibili y o se ices in Tu in, I aly
2022
(S a icco, 2022)
7
A G amma -Based Op imiza ion App oach o Designing U ban Fab ics and Loca ing Ameni ies
o 15-Minu e Ci ies
2022
(Lima e al., 2022)
8
Ba celona unde he 15-Minu e Ci y Lens: Mapping he Accessibili y and P oximi y Po en ial
Based on Pedes ian T a el Times
2022
(Fe e -o iz e al., 2022)
9
Ci cle o pa adigms? O ‘15-minu e’ neighbou hoods om he 1950s
2022
(Kiss azekas, 2022)
10
Explo ing he 15-minu e neighbou hoods. An e alua ion based on he walkabili y pe o mance
o public acili ies
2022
(Caselli e al., 2022)
11
Geospa ial analysis amewo k o e alua ing u ban design ypologies in ela ion wi h he 15-
minu e ci y s anda ds
2022
(Bu ke e al., 2022)
12
is he 15-minu e ci y wi hin each? E alua ing walking and cycling
accessibili y o g oce y s o es in Vancou e
2022
(Hos o d e al., 2022)
13
Planning Inno a ion o Ci y B anding? Explo ing How Ci ies Ope a ionalise he 20-Minu e
Neighbou hood Concep
2022
(Gowe & G odach, 2022)
14
The 15-minu e ci y: in e p e ing he model o b ing ou u ban esiliencies
2022
(Abdel a ah e al., 2022)
15
The 15-Minu e Ci y—The Geog aphical P oximi y o Se ices in K akow
2022
(Nowo ól e al., 2022)
16
The Le el o Inclusi eness o Cu en 15-Minu e Ci y Models. A Quali a i e Analysis on How Fa
Ci y o P oximi y S a egies and Design o All A e Me ging
2022
(Ramí ez Saiz e al., 2022)
17
Unpacking he '15-Minu e Ci y' ia 6G, IoT, and Digi al Twins: Towa ds a New Na a i e o In-
c easing U ban E iciency, Resilience, and Sus ainabili y
2022
(Allam, Bib i, Jones, e al.,
2022)
18
U ban mobili y e olu ion and he 15-minu e ci y model: om holis ic o bo om-up app oach
2022
(Papas e al., 2022)
19
U ban Planning in he 15-Minu e Ci y: Re isi ed unde Sus ainable and Sma Ci y De elopmen s
un il 2030
2022
(Pozoukidou & Angelidou,
2022)
20
Scena ios o a Pos -Pandemic Ci y: u ban planning s a egies and challenges o making “Milan
15-minu es ci y”
2022
(Pin o & Akha an, 2022)
21
The ‘15-Minu e Ci y’ concep can shape a ne -ze o u ban u u e
2022
(Allam, Bib i, Chabaud, e al.,
2022a)
22
U ban accessibili y in a 15-minu e ci y: a measu e in he ci y o Naples, I aly
2022
(Gaglione e al., 2022)
23
Imp o ing he Spa ial Accessibili y o Communi y-Le el Heal hca e Se ice owa d he ‘15-Mi-
nu e Ci y’ Goal in China
2022
(Song e al., 2022)
24
A ci ic and sus ainable 15-minu e campus? Uni e si ies should emb ace he 15-minu e ci y con-
cep o help c ea e ib an sus ainable communi ies
2022
(Ba a & Swe nam, 2022)
25
15-Minu e Ci y: U opia o eali y?
2023
(De Leániz & Lobo, 2023)
26
A composi e X-minu e ci y cycling accessibili y me ic and i s ole in assessing spa ial and socio-
economic inequali ies –A case s udy in U ech , he Ne he lands
2023
(Knap e al., 2023)
27
A e I alian ci ies al eady 15-minu e? P esen ing he Nex P oximi y Index: A no el and scalable
way o measu e i , based on open da a
2023
(Oli a i e al., 2023)
28
Assessing spa ial equi y in u ban pa k accessibili y: an imp o e wo-s ep ca chmen a ea
me hod om he pe spec i e o 15-min ue ci y concep
2023
(Zhang e al., 2023)
29
Communi y ga dens and he 15-minu e ci y: Scena io analysis o ga den access in New Yo k Ci y
2023
(Lime ick e al., 2023)
30
F om lockdown o p ecise p e en ion: Adjus ing epidemic- ela ed spa ial egula ions om he
pe spec i es o he 15-minu e ci y and spa io empo al planning
2023
(Li e al., 2023)
31
G aph Rep esen a ion o he 15-Minu e Ci y: A Compa ison be ween Rome, London, and Pa is
2023
(Ba bie i e al., 2023)
32
Ma e ials o a deba e on he 15-minu e ci y: Public anspo a ion’s e ec on u ban space and
ime in wo Asia-based al e na i e
2023
(D. M. B uno e al., 2023)
33
Measu ing compliance wi h he 15-minu e ci y concep : S a e-o - he-a , majo componen s and
u he equi emen s
2023
(Papadopoulos e al., 2023)
85
34
Re hinking u ban u opianism: The allacy o social mix in he 15-minu e ci y
2023
(Casa in e al., 2023)
35
Spa ial eg ession model o u ban walkabili y unde he 15-minu e ci y app oach
2023
(A is izábal e al., 2023)
36
The 15-minu e ci y o all? – Measu ing indi idual and empo al a ia ions in walking accessibil-
i y
2023
(Willbe g e al., 2023)
37
The 15-minu e ci y: U ban planning and design e o s owa d c ea ing sus ainable neighbou -
hoods
2023
(Kha a ian-Ga msi , Sha i i,
& Sadeghi, 2023)
38
The inclusi e 15-minu e ci y: Walkabili y analysis wi h sidewalk ne wo ks
2023
(Rhoads e al., 2023)
39
Towa ds an equi y-cen ed model o sus ainable mobili y: In eg a ing inequali y and seg ega-
ion challenges in he g een mobili y ansi ion
2023
(Tamma u e al., 2023)
40
F om Ga den Ci y o 15-Minu e Ci y: A His o ical Pe spec i e
and C i ical Assessmen
2023
(Kha a ian-Ga msi , Sha i i,
Hajian Hossein Abadi, e al.,
2023)
41
“15-Minu e Ci y” and Elde ly People: Thinking abou Heal hy Ci ies
2023
(Ulloa-Leon e al., 2023)
42
The 15-minu e ci y model: he case o Sicily du ing and a e co id-19
2023
(Basbas e al., 2023)
43
Mosques pedes ian accessibili y analysis unde he 15 min ci ies concep
2023
(Ha oucha & Chaouni, 2023)
44
De eloping he 15-Minu e Ci y: A comp ehensi e assessmen o he s a us in Hong Kong
2024
(Liu, Kwan, & Wang, 2024)
45
De elopmen o a Ch ono-U banism S a us Composi e Index unde he 5/10/15-Minu e Ci y
Concep Using Social Media Big Da a
2024
(Liu, Kwan, Wang, e al.,
2024)
46
Do in o mal u ban communi ies in Ghana quali y as a 15-Minu e Ci y based on access o socioec-
onomic ac i i ies?
2024
(Dumedah e al., 2024)
47
Reconcep ualizing P oximi y Measu emen App oaches h ough he U ban Discou se on he X-
Minu e Ci y
2024
(Megahed e al., 2024)
48
Spa ial Equi y o U ban Pa k Dis ibu ion: Examining he Floa ing Popula ion wi hin U ban Pa k
Ca chmen A eas in he Con ex o he 15-Minu e Ci y
2024
(Jeon & Jung, 2024)
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.

86
Appendix 2 Table o au ho s o ou ski s li e a u e (26 s udies) o de ed and indexed by da e
o publica ion.
S udy
ID
Ti le
Yea
Au ho s
49
Accessibili y in P ac ice: 20-Minu e Ci y as a Sus ainabili y Planning Goal
2020
(D. C. Da Sil a e al., 2020)
50
15-minu e neighbou hood accessibili y: A compa ison be ween Naples and London
2021
(Gaglione e al., 2021)
51
Assessing U ban Accessibili y in Mon e ey, Mexico: A T ans e able App oach o E alua e Access o
Main Des ina ions a he Me opoli an and Local Le els
2021
(Gaxiola-Bel án e al., 2021)
52
COVID-19, ac i i y and mobili y pa e ns in Bogo a. A e we eady o a
‘15-minu e ci y’?
2021
(Guzman e al., 2021)
53
The Theo e ical, P ac ical, and Technological Founda ions o he 15 Minu e Ci y Model: P oximi y
and I s En i onmen al, Social and Economic Benefi s o Sus ainabili y
2022
(Allam, Bib i, Chabaud, e al.,
2022b)
54
The x-minu e ci y: Measu ing he 10, 15, 20-minu e ci y and an e alua ion o i s use o sus ainable
u ban design
2022
(Logan e al., 2022)
55
U ban T ansi ion and he Re u n o Neighbou hood Planning. Ques ioning he P oximi y Synd ome
and he 15-Minu e Ci y
2022
(Ma chigiani & Bon an ini,
2022)
56
A Case S udy o a 15-Minu e Ci y Concep in Singapo e’s 2040 Land T anspo Mas e
Plan: 20-Minu e Towns and a 45-Minu e Ci y
2022
(Renaning yas Mani es y &
Pa k, 2022)
57
Achie ing ‘Ac i e’ 30 Minu e Ci ies: How Feasible Is I o Reach Wo k wi hin 30 Minu es Using Ac-
i e T anspo Modes?
2022
(Bo h e al., 2022)
58
Local Li ing and T a el Time based U banism
2022
(Gilbe & Woodcock, 2022)
59
The 20-minu e ci y: An equi y analysis o Li e pool Ci y Region
2022
(Cala io e e al., 2022)
60
T ends and inequali ies in dis ance o and use o nea es na u al space in he con ex o he 20-min
neighbou hood: A 4-wa e na ional epea c oss-sec ional s udy, 2013 o 2019
2022
(Olsen e al., 2022)
61
Accessibili y inequali y ac oss Eu ope: a compa ison o 15-minu e pedes ian accessibili y in ci ies
wi h 100,000 o mo e inhabi an s
2023
(Vale & Lopes, 2023)
62
Mic omobili y in U ban T ail Pa hs: Expanding and S eng hening he Planning o 15-Minu e Ci ies
2023
(Vizmpa e al., 2023)
63
Mo ing he 15-minu e ci y beyond he u ban co e: The ole o accessibili y and public anspo in
he Ne he lands
2023
(Poo huis & Zook, 2023)
64
Quan i ying and isualizing he 15-Minu e walkable ci y concep ac oss Eu ope: a mul ic i e ia ap-
p oach
2023
(Ba zokas-Tsiomp as &
Bakogiannis, 2023)
65
The 15-minu e ci y concep and new wo king spaces: a planning pe spec i e om Oslo and Lisbon
2023
(Di Ma ino e al., 2023)
66
Who is li ing a local li es yle? Towa ds a be e unde s anding o he 15-minu e-ci y and 30-mi-
nu e-ci y concep s om a beha iou al pe spec i e in Mon éal, Canada
2023
(Bi ken eld e al., 2023)
67
Filling in he Spaces: Compac i ying Ci ies owa ds
Accessibili y and Ac i e T anspo
2023
(Mon ei o e al., 2023)
68
A ailabili y and Adequacy o Facili ies in 15 Minu e Communi y Li e Ci cle Loca ed in Old and New
Communi ies
2023
(Wu & Di igalpi iya, 2023)
69
The “15-minu es s a ion”: a case s udy o e alua e he pedes ian accessibili y o ailway anspo
in Sou he n I aly
2023
(Fazio e al., 2023)
70
The Po en ial Role o Railway S a ions and Public T anspo Nodes in he De elopmen o “15-Mi-
nu e Ci ies”
2023
(Wolański, 2023)
71
Is p oximi y enough? A c i ical analysis o a 15-minu e ci y conside ing indi idual pe cep ions
2024
(Guzman e al., 2024)
72
De eloping a 15-minu e ci y: A compa a i e s udy o ou I alian Ci ies-Caglia i, Pe ugia, Pisa, and
T ies e
2024
(Mu gan e, Pa imisco, e al.,
2024)
73
De eloping a 15-minu e ci y: E alua ing u ban quali y using con igu a ional analysis. The case
s udy o Te ni and Ma e a, I aly
2024
(Mu gan e, Valluzzi, e al.,
2024)
74
Buil en i onmen and he e olu ion o he “15-minu e ci y”: A 25-yea longi udinal s udy o 200
Swedish ci ies
2024
(Elldé , 2024)
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
87
Appendix 3 S ep-by-s ep guide o how o use The Mixe
PART I: DIAGNOSIS OR CURRENT SOUND
1. Densi y-scale: wha is he esiden ial densi y a he loca ion? Take in o accoun u banised a ea
(wi hou g een open space).
a. Neighbou hood (uni scale): 0-300 people/km2
b. Village: 301-650 people/km2
c. Low-dense Ou ski s: 651-2.500 people/km2
d. Mid-dense Ou ski s: 2.501-3.500 people/km2
e. High-dense Ou ski s: 3.501-7.500 people/km2
. Ci y: 7.501-25.000 people/km2
g. Te i o y: mo e han 25.000 people/km2
2. Di e si y- job-dependency: wha is he pe cen age o esiden s ha wo k ou side he loca ion?
a. Low pe cen age: less han 20% o esiden s go ou side o wo k easons.
b. Conside able pe cen age: om 20 un il 50% o esiden s wo k ou side.
c. High pe cen age: mo e han 50% o esiden s go ou side o wo k.
3. Di e si y-ameni ies: wha is he cu en si ua ion o he loca ion in e ms o ameni ies? Fi s
isi his link, hen w i e he name o he main ci y in which you loca ion is a and based on
he map showed…classi y app oxima ely how much hexagons o you loca ion a e in ed (a -
eas in which people ha e low accessibili y o ameni ies):
a. Less han 10% a e ed
b. F om 10-30% a e ed
c. F om 30-50% a e ed
d. Mo e han hal a e ed
e. The loca ion is ou side he hexagons map
4. Design-U ban s uc u e: was he loca ion planned be o e o a e he ca became massi e (yea
o e e ence 1950)?
a. Be o e 1950
b. A e 1950
5. Design- walkabili y: in e ms o p esence o pedes ian in as uc u e how is he loca ion do-
ing?
a. Op imal
b. Su icien
c. Poo
6. Design-cyclabili y: in e ms o cycling ne wo k connec i i y how is he loca ion doing?
a. Op imal
b. Su icien
c. Poo
7. Connec i i y-public anspo : in e ms o p esence, a el imes o ci y cen e and equency
o public anspo …based on you knowledge o he loca ion…how is he si ua ion?
a. Good… he e is public anspo ( ain, me o, buses, e c.) and i has high equency.
b. No good... he e is public anspo bu low equency.
c. Inexis en …people depend on hei ca s and axi se ices.
8. Connec i i y-sha ed mobili y/mic omobili y: in e ms o p esence and gene al usage o mic o-
mobili y and/o sha ed mobili y se ices… based on you knowledge o he loca ion…how is
he si ua ion?
88
a. The e is sha ed mobili y/mic omobili y se ices and a conside able usage by he popu-
la ion (10% o mo e).
b. The e is some sha ed mobili y/mic omobili y se ices bu i s usage i e y low (less
han 10%).
c. The e is no sha ed mobili y/mic omobili y se ices.
9. Human-ac i e mobili y sha e: I you add walking and cycling oge he in he loca ion…wha
will be he app oxima e mode sha e?
a. Mo e han 50%
b. F om 30-50%
c. Less han 30%.
10. Human-ca sha e: wha is he ca sha e in he loca ion app oxima ely?
a. Mo e han 50%
b. F om 20-50%
c. Less han 20%.
11. Human-Communi y engagemen : based on he knowledge o he loca ion…how a e people o -
ganised?
a. The e a e many ci izen o ganisa ions (communi y cen es, g oups, e c.) and a leas
one o hem ocuses on ulne able g oups.
b. A leas one o ganisa ion is ound.
c. No o ganisa ion is ound.
12. Human-disabled popula ion: app oxima ely wha is he pe cen age o disabled popula ion in
he loca ion?
13. Human-low income and unemployed popula ion: app oxima ely wha is he pe cen age o low
income and unemployed popula ion in he loca ion?
14. Human-elde ly popula ion: app oxima ely wha is he pe cen age o elde popula ion in he
loca ion? (abo e 65 yea s).
15. Human-child en: app oxima ely wha is he pe cen age o child en in he loca ion? (unde 18
yea s).
16. Human-mig an popula ion: app oxima ely wha is he pe cen age o mig an popula ion in he
loca ion? (bo n ab oad and/o wi h pa en s bo n ab oad).
PART II: IMPROVEMENTS WITH BUTTONS
Now we in end o p io i ise he di e en s a egies and p opose new ones ( ha ha e no been
conside ed) o imp o e he sound o he loca ion.