14 In e sec ions o Fai h and Cul u e: Ame ican Jou nal o Religious and Cul u al S udies www. g njou nal.us
In e sec ions o Fai h and Cul u e: AMERICAN Jou nal o
Religious and Cul u al S udies
Volume 3, Issue 11, 2025 ISSN (E): 2993-2599
Belie s and Fes i als o O aon: A Folklo is ic S udy
D . Sushma Modi
Assis an P o esso , Go e nmen Au onomous College, Rou kela, Odisha
Abs ac : Odisha has 62 dis inc ibal g oups, making i he la ges collec ion o ibal people in a
single s a e in he coun y. Each o hese ibal g oups has i s own indigenous cus oms and con inues o
p ac ice hem e en oday. I is home o India's ancien ci iliza ion and mos o i is concen a ed
a ound he Eas e n Gha hill anges in he egion o Ko apu , Sunda ga h and Mayu bhanj. The
an iqui y o O issa is endo sed by he ancien people who con inue o inhabi hei adi ional dwelling
places in emo e a eas in he deep o es s and hilly in e io s. S eeped in he mys e y ha su ounds
hei ancien ways, he Odishan ibals con inue o be a sou ce o deep in e es s o schola s om
a ious disciplines.
The e m " ibe” e e s o a ype o socie y and designa es a s age o e olu ion in human socie y. The
English e m ' ibe' designa ing a pa icula kind o social and poli ical o ganiza ion exis ing in all
hese socie ies. Howe e in Indian con ex he e m ibe e e s o he indigenous Janas. They a e
commonly designa ed as Adi asi (O iginal Se le s), Gi ijan (Hill-dwelle s) Vanyaja i (Fo es cas e),
Adimaja i (P imi i e cas es) Jan ja i (Folk Communi ies) and Anusuchi Jan ja i (Scheduled T ibes). In
Oisha he e m Adi asi is commonly used o he ibes.
The ibal people o Odisha exp ess hei cul u al iden i y and dis inc i eness in hei social
o ganiza ion, language, i uals and es i als and also in hei d ess, o namen s, a and c a s. The ibes
belie e ha hei li e and wo k is con olled by supe na u al beings whose abode is a ound hem in
hills, o es s, i e s and houses. Among ibes he e a e eligious unc iona ies who ca e hei spi i ual
needs. The e o e he ce emony and es i al o he ibes can be classi ied in o wo g oups; hose ha
ela e o he indi idual amilies as whole and hose ha ela e o he illage as a whole. he ce emonies
and i es ela ing o he bi h o a child, ma iage, dea h and obse ed amily wise, whe eas hose
ela ing o a ious ag icul u al cycle ea ing o new ui s, hun ing e c a e obse ed by he illage
communi y.
Conside ing he gene al ea u es o hei 1) eco-sys em 2) adi ional economy 3) Supe na u al belie s
and p ac ices, ibes o Odisha can be classi ied in o six ypes such as Hun ing ype, Collec ing-he de
ype, Simple a isan ype, Hill and shi ing cul i a ion ype and Se led ag icul u e ype. Linguis ically
he ibes o he India a e b oadly classi ied in o ou ca ego ies, namely 1) Indo A yan Speake s 2)
D a idian Speake s 3) Tibe o-Bu mese Speake s and 4) Aus ic Speake s. And he ibes o O issa a e
e hno-lingus ically classi ied in o h ee g oups. Munda (Aus osia ic), D a idian and Indo - A yan. In
Odisha he speake s o he Tibe o-Bu mese Language amily a e absen and he e o e Odishan ibes
belong o o he h ee language amilies. A G oup wise ibal Languages and dialec s may be d awn up
as ollows:
Munda G oup
D a idian G oup
Indo- A yan G oup
Ga a (Didayi)
Pa ji (Dha ua)
Desia (Kui, Sou he n O iya)
Gu ob (Gadaba)
Koya
Bhuyan (No he n/Sou he n o iya)
Juang
Kui (kondh-Ku ia/Domga ia)
Jha ia (Sou he n O iya)
Koda
Konda/Kubi (konda do a)
Kondhan (Sou he n O iya)
Bi ho (Mankidia)
Olla i (Gadaba)
Binjhia (Hindi, Chha isga hi)
15 In e sec ions o Fai h and Cul u e: Ame ican Jou nal o Religious and Cul u al S udies www. g njou nal.us
Munda i
(Munda i/Munda))
Ku kh/O aon (O aon)
Banja a (HIndi)
San ali
Gondi (Gond)
Baiga (Chha isga hi)
So a (sau a, Lanjia,
Jua ay, A si)
Madai
Bhunjia (Ma a hi, Wes e n o iya)
Go um (pa enga)
Ku i (Kondh, Ja apu)
Halbi (O iya-Ma a hi- Chha isga hi
Remo (bonda)
Kisan
Kha ia (Kha ia/Mi dha
Ko wa
Bhumija
Ho (Ho/Kolha)
Mahaili (Mahali)
The O aons o O issa
O aon, also known as he Ku ukh, is one o he ibal communi ies ound in India, which mainly
depends on ag icul u e o ea ning hei li ing. They a e mainly ound in he s a es o Jha khand,
Biha , Wes Bengal and O issa. In he ancien days, O aons used o make hei li ing by chopping
imbe and selling o es p oduc s. Majo i y o he popula ion o O aons can be ound in Assam
engaged in he occupa ion o ea cul i a ion. O aons a e belie ed o ha e se led in he Cho anagpu
Pla eau cen u ies ago. Majo i y o he O aon ibes a e Hindus and a e eligious minded people. They
wo ship Gods and Goddesses and a g ea numbe o hese ibes ha e adop ed Ch is iani y. In he
ancien days, his communi y used o ollow Sa na eligion. O aons a e u he di ided in o sub-cas es
like Kudas and Kisans, who ollow Pa ilineal amily cus oms. The e a e a o al o 14 clans in O aon
ibal communi y like, Ga i, Lak a, Kispo a, Runda, Ti ky, Toppo, Linda, Ekka, Kuzu , Bek, Ke ke a,
Bandi, Minz and Khalkho.
Belie s and Fes i als o O aons
No ibe is de oid o cus oms, adi ions and es i als. Impo an es i als o he O aons pe ain o he
o es , hun ing, ag icul u e and ca le. Besides hese, he e a e socio- eligious ga he ings known as
ja as, which ake place a he commencemen o di e en seasons. Few es i e e en s a e ci ed below
o he pu pose o illus a ion.
The sp ing es i al, known as sa hul, is celeb a ed when he sal ee is in ull blossom. In his es i al
he O aons pe o m he symbolic ma iage o he sky wi h he ea h. This is done o ensu e he e ili y
o mo he ea h. On his day a p opi ia o y sac i ice is o e ed o he old lady ( he illage goddess) who
is belie ed o abide in he sac ed g o e o he illage. Phaggu is a es i al which is obse ed owa ds
he end o Feb ua y o he beginning o Ma ch. On he e ening p e ious o he eas , a young cas o
(Palma ch is i) plan and a sema (Bombax malaba icum) b anch a e plan ed in an open place. A ound
hese some hay, i ewood and d y lea es a e heaped. The illage p ies se s i e o he hay. When i e
bu ns a i s b igh es he young cas o sh ub is cu in o pieces wi h an axe. Immedia ely he young boys
o he illage ligh o ches om he bon i e and h ow he bu ning o ches a ui ees, saying, 'Be
loaded wi h good ui '.
The majo cus oms among he O aons, as will any o he communi y, a e connec ed wi h bi h ma iage
and dea h. The linkage o cus oms wi h he ecology is bes e lec ed in cus oms connec ed wi h
ma iage and dea h. The e a e many cus oms p eceding ma iage wi h which he en i onmen is e y
closely connec ed. The e is he cus om o men going o he o es o e ch i ewood and women o
e ch sal lea es o p epa ing cups and pla es. The p epa a ion o he ma iage ma , and ma iage
baske s o a ious sizes a e o he cus oms. Se ing up a ma wa is, howe e , he mos signi ican . Nine
sal saplings wi h lea es on op a e plan ed in he cou ya d in h ee ows. The middle one o he second
ow di e s in i s heigh . Also plan ed a e b anches o bamboo, sidha, bhelwa, mango and mahua,
whe e he mango sugges s pe pe ui y o descendan s, he bamboo symbolises p ogeny, he sidha
ideli y o husband and wi e, he bhelwa p o ec ion om he e il eye and he mahua, lo e be ween he
couple. The ma iage i ual would be incomple e wi hou his in oca ion o ees and plan s. Simila ly,
16 In e sec ions o Fai h and Cul u e: Ame ican Jou nal o Religious and Cul u al S udies www. g njou nal.us
du ing une als he O aons p ac ice bu ial and c ema ion. Bodies a e bu ied when c ops s and in he
ield. In his cus om, a ious shapes o b anches co e he bo om o he g a e, leng hwise and
c osswise. The e o e bi h and dea h in a amily a e celeb a ed as communi y es i als.
As hey p ac ice ag icul u e in some o m o he o he , and as es o he s ha e a i al s ake in
ag icul u e, sowing, plan ing, i s - ui ea ing and ha es i es a e common amongs hem. Thei
common cyclic i es e ol e ound he p agma ic p oblems o ensu ing a s able economic condi ion,
ecupe a ion o he declining e ili y o soil, p o ec ion o c ops om damage, human and li e-s ock
wel a e, sa e y agains p eda o y animals and enomous ep iles and o insu e a good yield o annual
and pe ennial c ops. All he i uals cen e ing ag icul u al ope a ion, i s - ui ea ing, human, li e-s ock
and c op wel a e a e obse ed by he membe s o a illage on a common da e which is ixed by he
illage head-man in consul a ion wi h he illage p ies .
Thus he ideological sys em o he O aons like o he ibes o he egion, su ounds supe na u alism.
The pan heon consis s o he Sun God, he Mo he Ea h and a lowe hie a chy o Gods. Besides he e
a e illage u ela y, na u e spi i s, p esiding dei ies and ances o -spi i s, who a e also p opi ia ed and
o e ed sac i ices. Gods and spi i s a e classi ied in o bene olen and male olen ca ego ies. A
peculia i y o he ibal mode o wo ship is he o e ing o blood o an animal o a bi d, because such
p opi ia ions and obse ance o i es a e explici ly di ec ed owa ds happiness and secu i y in his
wo ld, abundance o c ops li e-s ock, plan s and p ogenies. Sickness is no conside ed na u al o a
ibal as an ou -come o he machina ion o some e il spi i s o indigna ion o ances o spi i s o gods.
Some imes, sickness is also conside ed as he consequences o ce ain lapses on he pa o an
indi idual o g oup. The e o e, iddance mus be sough h ough p opi ia ion and obse ance o i uals.
Religious Belie s
A la ge numbe o O aons abandoned hei o iginal belie s o Sa na. In ac , he 19 h and 20 h cen u y
oubles we e mainly due o he hoa ding malp ac ices o he B i ish ade s. These led o indi ec
dea hs o poo . The Ch is ian missiona ies ound he O aon communi y dep essed and wi hou ood.
Due o hei missiona y ac i i ies, many o hem u ned Ch is ians. Bu i is ue ha he O aons
belie e ha hei li es a e g ea ly in luenced by he na u al su oundings, gods goddesses, supe na u al
o ces, spi i s and many unknown and mys e ious o ces, including he souls o hei deceased
ances o s, who look a e hei ibe's in e es s. Su ounded by he na u al wo ld, i is ins inc i e o
O aons o name hei bene olen gods and goddesses on he o es s, hills, sun, wa e , ains, i es, ligh ,
e c. The gods and goddess a e independen o he ma e ial wo ld bu he has dominion o e he en i e
uni e se. They a e omniscien , omnip esen , e e nal, and compassiona e; hey always y o help ou
he humani y. The eligion o O aon is based on hei belie in na u e and i s supe na u al powe .
Acco ding o he belie o he O aon communi y, he wo ld is inhabi ed by nume ous spi i ual beings
o di e en kind; and he O aons conside hemsel es as li ing and doing e e y hing in close
associa ion wi h hese supe na u al beings.
The ances o s' spi i s called Pi a (Bene olen ) and he la a (Male olen ), who a e also wo shipped.
Acco ding o O aons' eligious belie , hei dead - ances o s' souls (a ma o aikh o naad) eside in
Pa al Lok, below he ea h's su ace. Newly deceased pe sons' souls do no wan o lea e hei homes
and wan o s ay close o hei amily membe s. The e o e, he O aons p ay o hei deceased amily
membe 's soul o join he amily o Pi a (Pach-Bala ) a Pa al Lok o else i may uni e wi h he amily
o la a and c ea e oubled o no only he immedia e amily bu also he o he denizens o he illage.
The amazing conglome a ion o adi ions, belie s, so ows and philosophies ha oge he cons i u e
and i alise he i uals and es i als o he ibes, has descended om an iqui y and has been p ese ed
unimpai ed o he p esen day. E e y ace o hei li e co e ing ound- he-yea ac i i ies is in ima ely
connec ed wi h eligious belie s and i ual p ac ices. I is hese aspec s o hei cul u e ha gi e
meaning and dep h o hei li es, and solida i y o hei social s uc u e. And he e o e bo h he belie s
and he celeb a ion o es i als a e in e connec ed and oge he hey o m an in eg al pa o he O aon
li e. Among he hems he e a e eligions unc iona ies who ca e o hei spi i ual needs.
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Scope o Resea ch
T ibes in India obse e se e al es i als and eligious ce emonies h oughou he yea . They a e mainly
ag icul u alis s and hei li e is con ined o land and spi i s. They belie e ha n objec s exe cise a
bene icen in luence on hei li e and happiness. All hei es i als in a iable componen s o hei
li es yle. The na u al en i onmen on which hey a e bo n and b ough up compels hem o belie e on
ce ain omniscien powe s who e eal hemsel es h ough se e al dei ies. Since ime immemo ial hey
wo ship ce ain dei ies o hei own. Bu would seem ha hei eligious belie s and p ac ices ha e
unde gone changes du ing las ew decades only because o he in luence o di e en eligions. E en
i , hey p opi ia e he spi i s o hei deceased ances o s on es i e occasions and whene e con on ed
wi h c i ical si ua ions. Since hei cul u e mo es a ound na u e, so also owes and amusemen s mo e
a ound i . In cou se o li e hey ha e de eloped a li e cycle based on seasons and mon hs in which hei
amusemen s and so ows, wo ks and leisu e, ha e gi en bi h se e al eligious belie s and es i als.
Bu hese es i als a e no always eligious some o hem a e seasonal and en e ainmen o ien ed.
Me hodology
The me hodology o p esen s udy p oposes an ex ensi e ieldwo k wi h an aim o collec in o ma ion
om a ious places and emo e O aon pocke s o Odisha. I includes isi ing places whe e such
p ac ices a e ollowed now and ac i e pa icipa ion o he in es iga o along wi h he illage olk.
Besides hese, in e iewing o eligious heads and common people o know how hey unde s and
p ac ices and i uals in gene al ( he p ocess includes audio/ ideo eco ding. pho og aphy and no e
aking) and celeb a ion o he es i als in pa icula . Such obse a ion will p o ide scope o unde s and
how hey p ac ice and how impo an a e such p ac ices in he socie y.
Published esea ch ma e ials on belie and es i als o O aon and neighbo ing ibal communi ies will
be conside ed as he seconda y sou ce.
Analysis o he da a will be done on speci ic es ablished app oach used in olklo is ic s uden s.
Di e en app oaches ha e been sugges ed by he olklo is s a ound he wo ld bu o he p esen
esea ch unc ional app oach sugges ed by Bascom (1981) will be aken o analysis as I belie e ha
any olklo is ic ma e ial su i es in he socie y only o i s unc ions no o any o he eason. The ou
unc ions o olklo e sugges ed by Bascom a e a ollows.
1. The social con ex o he olklo e, i s place in he daily ound o li e o hose who ell i . I s unc ion
in cul u al con ex o he ela ionship be ween olklo e and o he aspec s o cul u e. Folklo e is
conside ed as he mi o o cul u e and he olklo e o people can be ully unde s ood h ough
knowledge o hei cul u e.
2. The second unc ion o olklo e is ha he ole i plays in alida ing cul u e, in jus i ying i s i uals
and ins i u ions o hose who pe o m and obse e hem.
3. The hi d unc ion o olklo e is ha i s use in educa ion pa icula ly, bu no exclusi ely in non-
li e a e socie ies.
4. The ou h unc ion o olklo e is ha i ul ills he impo an bu o en o e looked unc ion o
main aining con o mi y o he accep ed pa e ns o beha iou , mo e han simply se ing o alida e o
jus i y ins i u ions, belie s and a i udes. Some o ms o olklo e a e impo an as means o applying
social p essu e and exe cising social con ol.
Key indings & discussion
Socio-cul u al li e o he O aons o Odisha
They adhe e closely o i uals, ce emonies, and eas s ela ed o bi h, ma iage, and dea h wi hin hei
homes, accompanied by communi y membe s and ela i es.
In he case o a i s p egnancy, a sac i ice is conduc ed o se e he woman's connec ions wi h he
pa e nal ances o spi i s and illage dei ies. Following he bi h, a chicken is sac i iced. The days
immedia ely a e childbi h a e conside ed impu e, necessi a ing ca e ul measu es o p o ec bo h
18 In e sec ions o Fai h and Cul u e: Ame ican Jou nal o Religious and Cul u al S udies www. g njou nal.us
mo he and child om male olen spi i s. A e ou o i e days, a i ual pu i ica ion akes place o
he mo he , newbo n, and he household. The name-gi ing ce emony occu s any ime om a ew
weeks up o a yea a e bi h; un il his e en , he in an is e e ed o by he day o he week hey we e
bo n o named a e any es i al i hei bi h coincided wi h one.
Ma iage p ac ices consis o s ic clan exogamy pai ed wi h ibe endogamy. Thei unique me hods o
in i a ion, g ee ings, eas o ganiza ion, and gi -gi ing du ing ma iage ce emonies dis inguish hem
om neighbo ing ibal g oups. Since ma iage signi ies a social bond be ween wo amilies, hei
e ique e in in i ing se e al o he amilies in o kinship illus a es hei cul u al alues.
The O aons ei he bu y o c ema e hei deceased. As he body is anspo ed o i s inal es ing place
s a ing a he i s c oss oads, hey sca e ice along he pa h leading o he g a e o py e. This ac is
in ended o guide he soul o he depa ed back home. P io o bu ial o c ema ion, cooked ood and
small amoun s o money a e placed in he mou h o he deceased.
Religious Belie s o o aons.
O aons adhe e o a o m o wo ship oo ed in Hindu adi ions, ye hei dei ies do no appea in he
sac ed Sansk i ex s associa ed wi h Hinduism. Many o hei gods, such as Chandi, Chau hia, Dadgo
Bu hia, Gaon Deo i, and Jai Budhi, possess a dis inc ly local essence and a e unique o hei cul u e
wi hin India. The eligious belie s o he O aons can be cha ac e ized as an amalgama ion o magical
p ac ices, adi ional animis ic cus oms, and elemen s de i ed om Hinduism.
The O aons acknowledge he p esence o a sup eme en i y ep esen ed by he sun and e e ed o as
Dha mes. This sup eme being is ega ded as he ule o e e y hing ha exis s in he cosmos and
go e ns he des inies o all beings—bo h co po eal and spi i ual. Subo dina e o Dha mes is a
hie a chy comp ising a ious lesse dei ies, spi i s associa ed wi h na u e, ances al souls, male olen
ghos s, and abs ac o ces ep esen ing good and e il.
The ealm o hese lesse dei ies and spi i s is ca ego ized in o mul iple g oups. Fi s ly, he e a e
ances o spi i s— he souls o deceased ela i es who o e p o ec ion o he li ing du ing ailmen s and
shield hem om oublesome en i ies. Secondly, he e a e illage u ela y dei ies (deo as) and spi i s
(bhu s), which include he bene olen goddess Chala Pachcho, also known as Gaon Deo i; she is
e e ed o he ole in sa egua ding he illage. Addi ionally, Pa o Pa Raja o e sees all illage
spi i s.
The O aons also hold belie s ega ding ha m ul in luences such as he “e il eye” (naja ) and “e il
mou h” (baibhak), bo h capable o b inging mis o une upon indi iduals. To hono o appease
nume ous dei ies and spi i s—including hose o ances o s—animal sac i ices a e commonly
pe o med. Wi hin adi ional O aon socie y exis se e al Hindu-in luenced cul s known as bhaga s.
Fu he mo e, Ch is iani y has also ound adhe en s among some membe s o he O aon communi y.
Fes i als
The `O aons' a e engaged yea - ound in a ious o ms o na u e wo ship, a p ac ice hey ha e upheld
o gene a ions. They e e e elemen s such as ees, s ones, wa e , he Sun, land, and i e—collec i ely
known as he 'Panchabhu as'—which ep esen he undamen al componen s o he uni e se.
The `O aon' calenda adi ionally commences wi h he Hindi mon h o `Magh', aligning wi h Feb ua y
on he G ego ian calenda . Among hei nume ous es i als, se e al no able ones include:
1. **Fagu**: Celeb a ing a boun i ul ha es on he ull day o Phagun (Ma ch-Ap il).
2. **Khaddi (Sa hul)**: A lo al es i al ha occu s in he Hindi mon hs o Phalgun and Chai a,
ma king he a i al o sp ing.
3. **Dhanbuni**: A eligious obse ance cen e ed a ound ice cul i a ion du ing Baisakh in he
Hindi calenda .
4. **Banga i**: A es i al ocused on ag icul u al plan ing obse ed in bo h Baisakh and Jais ha.
5. **Ha iya i**: An ag icul u al es i al associa ed wi h Asa h.
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6. **Asa i**: Ano he plan a ion es i al aking place in Asa .
7. **Ka am**: This celeb a ion e ol es a ound wo k and plan ing ac i i ies occu ing in Bhad a.
8. **Soha ai**: A ca le es i al celeb a ed du ing Ka ick.
9. **Bishu Send a**: A hun ing es i al held in Pous.
These e en s e lec he deep connec ion o he `O aons` o hei en i onmen and ag icul u al
p ac ices h oughou he yea .
No W i en Reco ds o Folk S o ies and Folklo e
Folklo e has been ansmi ed o ally h ough gene a ions. Du ing my esea ch, I ga he ed a ious olk
ales and songs, some o which a e included in my hesis.
One well-known ale among he O aons ecoun s hei expulsion om he ancien kingdom o Roh as,
e e ed o as Ruidas in Ku ukh. Acco ding o he legend, he Ku us epea edly a emp ed o ous he
O aons om Ruidas bu we e unsuccess ul in di ec con on a ions. In a s a egic mo e, hey sen a
milkmaid in o he o o ga he in elligence. Upon he e u n, she in o med hem ha an a ack du ing
he Xaddi (Sa hul) es i al would ca ch he O aon men o gua d due o hei in oxica ion om ice
bee . The plan was execu ed success ully; when he Ku us launched hei assaul , mos O aon men
we e asleep and d unk. Howe e , led by P incess Singi Dai, he women disguised hemsel es as men
and b a ely esis ed he a acke s. I was only a e ealizing hey we e igh ing women ha he Ku us
managed o ake con ol o he o .
While many O aons los hei li es in his con lic , one man egained sob ie y and escaped. He led
om pu suing Ku u wa io s un il he eached Cho a Nagpu , a egion al eady se led by he Munda
ibe. Upon a i ing a a illage, he pleaded o assis ance om some Mundas who we e p epa ing o
ea eshly slaugh e ed mea . The Mundas o e ed him p o ec ion on he condi ion ha he disca ded his
"sac ed h ead" and joined hem o hei meal. The O aon chose o s ay in Cho a Nagpu , and his
descendan s con inue o inhabi ha a ea oday. Since hen, he O aons and Mundas ha e li ed
oge he o cen u ies, sha ing nume ous cul u al simila i ies.
Func ional aspec s o he belie s and p ac ices
T ibals se e as gua dians o he en i onmen , a ole ha is e iden in nume ous ins ances. Thei
pe spec i e emphasizes li ing ha moniously and allowing all c ea u es o h i e. In he eligious
p ac ices o he O aon ibe, hei es i als and ai s a e in ica ely linked o he seasonal a ia ions o
hei su ounding lo a and auna, as well as o clima ic condi ions.
These e en s in ol e discussions, pe o mances, and na a i es celeb a ing he legacy o hei e e ed
ances o s. The in e ac ions be ween hese ances o s and di ine en i ies p o ide guiding p inciples o
eligious obse ances. Addi ionally, olk ales, legends, ballads, and songs enhance he de o ion and
enjoymen associa ed wi h hese celeb a ions. The obse ance o hese es i als os e s a deep
connec ion be ween humans, na u e, and spi i ual beings on a ious occasions.
Bibilog aphy:
1. Dhan, Rekha O. (1967). These A e My T ibesmen—The O aons.
2. Roy, Sa a Chand a. The O aons o Cho a Nagpu : Thei His o y, Economic Li e, and Social
O ganiza ion. Ranchi, 1915.
3. Roy, Sa a Chand a. O aon Religion and Cus oms. Calcu a, 1928.
4. Ghosh, Abhik. (2006). The Wo ld o he O aon: Thei Symbols in Time and Space.
5. O aon, Ka ma. (1988). The Spec um o T ibal Religion in Biha : A S udy o Con inui y and
Change among he O aon o Cho anagpu .
6. Paul Mi a, Kakali. (2004). De elopmen P og ammes and T ibals Some Eme ging Issues.
7. Xalxo P em. (2007). Complemen a y o Human Li e and O he Li e Fo ms in Na u e.
