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Online a : h ps:// esea ch endsjou nal.com ISSN No: 2584-282X
Indexed Jou nal Pee Re iewed Jou nal
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRENDS IN EMERGING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Volume 3; Issue 5; 2025; Page No. 108-113
Recei ed: 02-06-2025
Accep ed: 09-07-2025
Published: 04-09-2025
To he in es iga ing pes icides o an ibio ics o he u u e
1Vadlamani Su esh Kuma and 2D . P a een Kuma
1Resea ch Schola , P.K. Uni e si y, Shi pu i, Madhya P adesh, India
2P o esso , P.K. Uni e si y, Shi pu i, Madhya P adesh, India
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17657590
Co esponding Au ho : Vadlamani Su esh Kuma
Abs ac
As bac e ia de elop esis ance o an ibio ics, human heal h is pu a isk due o ac o s such as inadequa e ea men du a ion, inco ec
dosage in e als, and negligible doses. The de elopmen o an ibio ic esis ance has been a majo p oblem in ecen yea s, bu an imic obials
p oduced om medicinal plan s p o ide a po en ial new weapon in he igh agains in ec ious diseases. Pep ides a e p esen in he cells o
all o ganisms. An ibio ics, enzymes ha neu alize in ec ions, and ho mones ha egula e de elopmen in se e al domains, including sexual
ma u a ion and g ow h, a e among hei nume ous unc ions. Impo an ly, pep ide-media ed inna e immuni y se es as he hos 's i s
de ensi e mechanism. The as majo i y o hese gene ically encoded pep ides swi ly elimina e a wide ange o mic obes a e he onse o a
mic obial in ec ion.
Keywo ds: Pes icides, An ibio ics, Bac e ia, Heal h and An imic obials
In oduc ion
The scien i ic discipline known as biology is conce ned wi h
he s udy o all o ms o li e. The i e pilla s o
con empo a y biology a e he s udy o cells, gene ics,
e olu ion, homeos asis, and ene gy. A common heo y
p oposes ha cells a e he undamen al building block o all
o ms o li e. The e is a cell a he co e o e e y li ing
c ea u e. Na u al selec ion, acco ding o e olu ion heo y,
causes all o ms o li e o b anch ou om a common
ances o . Inhe i ance in all li ing hings begins wi h genes.
When in e connec ed egula o y sys ems allow a cell o
keep i s in e nal en i onmen ela i ely cons an , his
p ocess is known as homeos asis. Ha ing a cons an supply
o ene gy is c ucial o e e y li ing hing o s ay ali e. By
p obing biological ne wo ks using sui able pep ides and
pep idomime ics, his hesis aims o shed ligh on he
complica ed biological phenomena.
In he medical ield, he inc easing p e alence o bac e ia
ha a e able o wi hs and an ibio ics is a majo challenge.
The heal h o pa ien s migh su e as a esul o he
inapp op ia e adminis a ion o an ibio ics, such as using oo
li le medica ion, no ea ing o long enough, o aking
an ibio ics a he w ong in e als. Gene ic mu a ions,
esis ance o an ibio ics ( h ough mechanisms such as
dec eased up ake and e lux), he c ea ion an ibio ic-
deg ading enzymes: and impai ed binding o adminis e ed
medica ions o he a eas whe e hey a e mos e ec i e.
Na u al medicines, such as seconda y me aboli es om
plan s, p oduce less side e ec s compa ed o syn he ic
an ibio ics.
An impo an ac o con ibu ing o his is he idea o
e olu ion ia na u al selec ion. E e y hing in he na u al
wo ld is always changing as c ea u es adap o hei
su oundings. This phenomenon also applies o mic obes.
An imic obial esis ance may mani es in se e al ways,
including changes o he medicinal si e, p e en ing e lux
anspo , o modi ying pa hways in ol ed in g ow h
me abolism. Among he mos p e alen an ibio ics, almos
70% o in ec ious bac e ia ha e e ol ed esis ance. A majo
con ibu o o he de elopmen o pa hogenic mic obes ha
a e able o wi hs and an ibio ic ac i i y is he long- e m use
o hese d ugs, as has been ex ensi ely shown in he
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li e a u e. Knowing how an imic obials a ge
mic oo ganisms is c ucial o unde s anding acqui ed
an imic obial esis ance and possible solu ions o his
p oblem.
The e a e p ima ily wo ca ego ies in o which an ibac e ial
agen s all: bac e ios a ic and bac e icidal. Bac e icidal
d ugs may kill mic oo ganisms independen ly o he human
immune sys em, in con as o bac e ios a ic he apies ha
only s op he g ow h and eplica ion o hei a ge
mic obes. Di e en an ibio ics wo k by a ge ing ce ain
bac e ial cell ypes. Inhibi o s o cell wall syn hesis include
bac e icidal penicillin, ca bapenems, bac e ios a ic
e acyclines, and bac e icidal quinolones. Inhibi o s o
DNA eplica ion include bac e icidal quinolones, and
mac olides and bac e ios a ic sul onamides bo h inhibi
p o ein syn hesis and ac as compe ing inhibi o s.
Li e a u e Re iew
Acco ding o Basu e al., [2021] [1], asicine is mos ly
p oduced by A. asica. Fo o e wo millennia, people ha e
u ned o his he b o elie om espi a o y p oblems. The
mic obial g ow h inhibi o y ac i i y on S aphylococcus
au eus, Candida albicans, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Se a ia
ma cescens, S aphylococcus pneumoniae, Esche ichia coli,
Pseudomonas au eus, Acine obac e lo us, and
C yp ococcus neo o mans was assessed by applying a
asicine-based me hanolic lea ex ac o Jus icia adha oda.
The e we e alkaloids de ec ed in he ex ac s. Among ungi,
A. la us had he lowes minimum inhibi o y concen a ion
(MIC), while C. neo o mans and C. albicans had he
highes . In bac e ia, S. ma cescens, A he lowes MIC we e
P. ae uginosa and E. coli, while he la ges inhibi o y e ec
was shown by S. au eus, S. pneumoniae, and K.
pneumoniae.
Jan e al., [2022] [3], The e ec i eness o 33 plan e hanolic
ex ac s agains P. ae uginosa, E. S aphylococcus au eus,
Salmonella yphi, P o eus ulga is, and E. coli we e he
mic oo ganisms examined. Resea che s looked o e idence
o s ong an ibac e ial ac i i y in he ex ac s. The Ced ella
se a e, Ajuga b ac eosa, Men ha i idis, and Juglans egia
e hanol ex ac s. They came o he conclusion ha he plan s
may be used medicinally and o cu e illnesses.
The an imic obial ac i i y o Acalypha indica lea ex ac s
was in es iga ed by Rajasel am e al., [2022] [4] using aga
well di usion es ing o Salmonella, Esche ichia coli,
Bacillus sub ilis, Klebsiella, and S aphylococcus au eus.
The ace one ex ac showed he g ea es e icacy agains
S aphylococcus au eus and B. sub ilis, bu he Among
se e al bac e ia, he aqueous ex ac exhibi ed he wides
zone o inhibi ion agains S aphylococcus au eus,
Esche ichia coli, and Bacillus sub ilis. Shown eluc ance o
wa e -based solu ion by Klebsiella sp.
Sha maand Singh [2022] [5] As men ioned in he Cha aka
Samhi a, he plan Holop elea in eg i olia is used in he
managemen o a a ie y o medical condi ions. Some
examples o hese symp oms include acid gas i is,
la ulence, wo ms in he in es ines, omi ing, so es, i iligo,
ila iasis, dysmeno hea, and heuma ism. The e ha e been
se e al epo s o he plan s' he apeu ic p ope ies among
he labou e s.
S anley e al. [2014] [6] examined he e ec i eness o
Ch omolaena odo a a as an an ibac e ial agen agains wo
human illnesses, namely P o eus mi abilis wi h
S aphylococcus au eus. In a s udy conduc ed by Gauniyal
and Teo ia [2014] [7], an e hanolic ex ac o lea es was
shown o ha e an an ibac e ial e ec agains se e al o al
in ec ion pa hogens. The minimum inhibi o y concen a ion
(MIC) o S. au eus was 0.25 mg/ml and o E. coli i was
0.125 mg/ml. Two common bac e ia, S ep ococcus species
mu ans and En e ococcus aecalis, we e no inhibi ed in
hei sp ead by edible ac ions o Cinnamum zeylanicum,
Aloe ba badensis, and Tinospo a co id olia. Ex ac s om
Cu cuma longa, Allium sa i um, Ocimum sanc um,
Glycy hiza glab a, and Pipe nig um we e shown o be
e ec i e agains E. aecalis, S. mu ans, Candida albicans,
Candida opicalis, and Lac obacillus acidophilus in an
e hanolic es . shown p omising an ibac e ial ac ion. Thei
esea ch led hem o he conclusion ha hese plan s had
an ibac e ial p ope ies ha migh be use ul in many
applica ions.
Pep ides
Pep ides a e small p o ein segmen s ha ypically include
be ween wo and i y p o ein building blocks. Amino acids
a e he building blocks o p o eins and pep ides. All li ing
hings ha e pep ides in hei cells. Among hei many oles,
hey p oduce an ibio ics, enzymes ha neu alize pa hogens,
and ho mones ha con ol de elopmen in many a eas,
including g ow h and sexual ma u a ion. Li e could no exis
i pep ides did no exis . When compa ed o p o ein,
pep ides a e much mo e con enien in he lab in e ms o
syn hesis, s o age, cos , and handling. Chemical biologis s
ha e been explo ing pep ides as a model sys em o
s udying p o ein unc ion, po en ial accine candida es, and
egula o y domains in a i icial ansc ip ion ac o s o e he
las se e al decades.
Pep ide accine
The ad an ages o pep ide accines o e adi ional DNA
and p o ein accines a e hei cheap cos , ease o handling,
and ela i e sa e y. A TH-epi ope and an epi ope ha
gene a es a pa icula an ibody o cy o oxic T lymphocy e
(CTL) esponse a e he wo essen ial ea u es ha syn he ic
pep ides mus include in o de o ha e an e ec i e immune
esponse. In o de o induce an ibodies, syn he ic pep ide-
based accina ions ypically ha e a leas 10 esidues. The
sec e ion o spe m by men and he elease o eggs by
emales a e egula ed by lu einizing ho mone eleasing
ho mone (LHRH). Inducing a obus an ibody esponse and
e ec i ely p e en ing concep ion in emale mice was shown
o be possible using a linea syn he ic pep ide ha combined
a TH-epi ope wi h he N- e minal 10 esidues o he
ho mone.
Pep ide based egula o y domain
Typically, ansc ip ion ac o s ound in na u e include bo h
a domain ha binds DNA and ano he domain ha does
egula o y wo k. The egula o y domain may connec o i s
co esponding DNA sequence and in e ac wi h o he
egula o y p o eins o RNA polyme ase. A DBD is also
p esen . An a i icial ansc ip ion ac o 's (ATF) egula o y
domain may ac i a e o inhibi ansc ip ion. The majo i y
o ATFs wi h ac i a ion domains (AD) come om pep ide
sequences ha ha e hei oo s in na u ally occu ing ADs.
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While mos ADs ound in na u e a e uns uc u ed pep ides,
hey may old in o amphipa hic helices i gi en he chance.
Pep idomime ics
Pep ides ha imi a e hei pa ne p o eins may be able o
compensa e o he low a ge speci ici y o small molecule
medicines. Ye , he e a e a numbe o es ic ions on pep ide
medica ion use. (a) Pep ides ha e a numbe o d awbacks
when i comes o o al deli e y: hey a e easily b oken down
by enzymes, which makes hem ine ec i e; (b) hei
hyd ophilici y makes hem esis an o he blood-b ain
ba ie ; (c) he kidneys and li e help ge id o hem
quickly; and (d) pep ides can ake on mul iple o ms, some
o which in e ac wi h he a ge and o he s wi h unwan ed
ecep o s, making hem mo e likely o cause side e ec s.
P o eome ics and es ic ed pep ides migh help wi h a some
o he p oblems men ioned be o e. Pep idomime ics a e
chemicals ha mimic he e ec s o a eal pep ide o p o ein.
Two o he p ima y ways o ge a ound pep ides' inhe en
cha ac e is ics- hei high selec i i y and esis ance o
p o eolysis-a e goals o pep ididomime ics. Tha is why
pep idomime ics a e so p omising o use in he
pha maceu ical indus y.
Helix mime ics
The p o ein-p o ein and p o ein-nucleic complex c ys al
s uc u es o en e eal dis inc seconda y s uc u es, such as
helix o hai pin, on he p o ein's in e ac ion ace. One o
mo e α helical Many in e ac ions be ween p o eins and
be ween p o eins and nucleic acids include mo i s ha a e
c ucial o main aining in ica e pa e ns o gene egula ion.
Compa a i ely, p o ein binding domains (DBDs) a e easie
o mimic han ansc ip ion ac o DBDs.
Fig 1: Chemical s uc u e o α amino isobu y ic acid (Aib)
Tu n mime ics
In p o eins, he β s uc u e is ano he signi ican seconda y
s uc u e. The mos common kinds o β s uc u es a e he β
u n and highe -o de β s uc u es like he β shee and he β
ba el. In o de o connec wo ex ended leng hs o chain
wi h opposing o ien a ions, he mos ene ge ically
ad an ageous polypep ide a chi ec u e is β wis s. The esul
is he c ea ion o βhai pin, a s uc u al elemen ha may be
used as a module in longe an ipa allel βshee s. Th ough
β u ns, se e al p o eins and pep ides engage in in e ac ion.
The side chains o β u ns a e pe ec o molecula
mimicking p o ein su ace ecogni ion si es and d ug design
a ge s, and β u ns o e opological ad an ages. Imposing a
semi igid hai pin s abilising empla e on o a known-
s uc u e p o eins a e among he mos di ec me hods o
imi a e hai pins.
An imic obial Pep ides (AMPS)
Ac oss he en i e e olu iona y ee, AMPs a e p esen in
almos e e y known o m o li e. All mul icellula c ea u es
a e "bo n wi h" he abili y o igh agains ha m ul bac e ia,
and AMPs a e he key componen s o his de ense
mechanism. As he i s line o de ense o he hos , pep ide-
media ed inna e immuni y is c ucial. The majo i y o hese
pep ides encoded by genes a e ac i a ed soon a e a
mic obial in ec ion has aken place and quickly kill a a ie y
o mic oo ganisms. AMPs we e i s isola ed om insec
lymph, og skin, and neu ophils in mammals abou 30
yea s ago. E e since hen, a ple ho a o ca ionic pep ides
ha e been documen ed om a wide ange o animals,
ex ac ed om many issues and o gans, including as he
espi a o y and gas oin es inal ac s, he o al mucosa, he
panc eas, and he eyes. Mammals p ima ily p oduce wo
ypes o AMPs: de ensins and ca helicidins.
Selec i i y
Dis inc mic oen i onmen al ac o s and basic dis inc ions
be ween mic obial and mammalian hos cells accoun o
he selec i i y o an imic obial pep ides. Va ious
zwi e ionic componen s, including sphingomyelin (SM),
choles e ol, e gos e ol, and phospha idylcholine (PC) a e
ound in euka yo ic memb anes. Al e na i ely,
phospha idylse ine (PS), ca diolipin (CL), and hyd oxyla ed
phospholipids (PG) make up he bulk o nega i ely cha ged
componen s in p oka yo ic design. The pep ides each he
o he side o he cell memb ane by means o hyd ophobic
in e ac ions, which se in mo ion he in e ac ion be ween he
AMPs' posi i e cha ges and he phospholipids' nega i e
cha ges seen in bac e ia.
Mode o Ac ion
I is belie ed ha AMPs do no cause esis ance because
hei me hod o ac ion is nonspeci ic, in con as o
con en ional an ibio ics, which a e o en a ge ed a a
speci ic cellula ecep o . The e a e many di e en heo ies
on how AMPs exe hei ly ic ac i i y, and a g ea deal o
signi icance abou his opic ha e no clea answe s. Due o
he anionic na u e o mos bac e ial su aces, he i s poin
o con ac be ween he AMPs and he a ge mic obe's ou e
lea le would be elec os a ic. When app oaching bio
memb anes, he linea AMPs eo ganize and ake on an
ideal amphipa hic shape. Phospholipid head g oups a e
in e ac ed wi h by he hyd ophilic ace, whe eas he
hyd ophobic ace is in oduced in o he bilaye co e. The
s uc u al de o ma ion o he memb ane a chi ec u e migh
occu ia se e al p ocesses as a esul o hese in e ac ions.
Th ee models: he o oidal po e, he ba el-s a e, and he
ca pe a e h ee desc ip ions o how memb ane-ac i e
pep ides en e mic obial memb anes. He e a e he speci ics
o hese models:
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Fig 2: Diag am depic ing he p ocess by which AMPs cause he pe meabiliza ion and dis up ion o bac e ial memb anes. (A) When AMPs
a e nea a biological memb ane, hey ake on an amphipha ic shape. (B) Elec ic ield ep esen a ion o AMPs' bac e ial selec i i y ela i e o
mammalian cell iabili y. In (C), we p o ide models o memb ane pe meabiliza ion.
Resis ance o AMPs
A pheno ypic ha includes he le el o AMP esis ance in a
gi en pa hogen is p edica ed on he assump ion ha mos
bac e ia possess dis inc inhe en suscep ibili ies o hese
de ense chemicals. Cons uc i e mechanisms a e he na u al
p ocesses ha lead o esis ance de elopmen o amps. I is
becoming mo e and mo e appa en ha AMP esis ance is a
dis inguishing ai o some signi ican human diseases,
e en whe eas mic obes' abili y o esis AMP des uc ion
seems o ep esen a signi ican ba ie de elopmen . Some
bac e ial species ha e de eloped mechanisms ha make
hem esis an o AMPs. Some bac e ia, such as Se a ia,
P o eus, P o idencia, and Pseudomonas, ha e a unique
memb ane composi ion ha makes hem na u ally esis an
o AMPs. As an addi ional de ense mechanism agains
AMP-induced s ess, bac e ia ha e e ol ed an inducible
me hod o esis ance.
The apeu ic po en ial o AMPs
Due o hei b oad an ibac e ial spec um and capaci y o
igh agains bac e ia and pa hogens ha ha e de eloped a
ole ance o o he d ugs, AMPs a e an exci ing new
ca ego y o he apeu ic agen s mo e adi ional an ibio ics.
Addi ionally, AMPs may enhance adi ional an ibio ic
ea men , likely ia a syne gis ic ac ion ha allows
an ibio ics o en e bac e ial cells mo e easily. By a ac ing
an igen-p esen ing cells, dec easing P o-in lamma o y
cy okine p oduc ion p oduced by lipopolysaccha ide (LPS)
and/o unc ioning as chemokines, AMPs may s a adap i e
immune esponses. When AMPs a e engaged in in ec ion
clea ance, such as wound healing p omo ion, hey may also
ha e immunomodula o y unc ion. These cha ac e is ics led
o he sugges ion o he name "hos de ense pep ides" o
AMPs, which be e desc ibes hei unc ion in hei a ge
bioen i onmen .
Lipopep ides
In addi ion o ibosomal an imic obial agen s, bac e ia and
ungi may c ea e lipopep ides when g own on di e en
ca bon sou ces. Alipha ic acids link he N- e minus o six o
se en amino acids o b ie ca ionic o anionic pep idic
g oups, making up hei moie y. The cyclic s uc u es o
na u al lipopep ides a e o en a he complica ed. Some o
hem cause cell memb ane dis up ion ia unknown me hods,
which is how hey exe hei ly ic e ec . To kill bac e ia,
ca ionic lipopep ides wo k in he same way ha amphibian
polysaccha ides (AMPs) do: by elec os a ically in e ac ing
wi h mic oo ganisms ha a e G am-nega i e o G am-
posi i e, as well as hei lipopolysaccha ide (LPS) o
lipo eichoic acid, which a e nega i ely cha ged.
Sho Lipopep ides: Acco ding o many s udies, one
p omising s a egy o de eloping e ec i e an ibac e ial
medicines is o link an alipha ic chain o an app op ia e
leng h he end o na u al o syn he ic sho pep ides, he eby
simula ing he ac ion o na u al lipopep ide an ibio ics.
P e ious esea ch by Shai e al. shown ha he powe ul
na i e an ibac e ial pep ide magainin gained an i ungal
ac ion upon a y acid conjuga ion. To u he in es iga e
[D]-4-magainin and [D]-L6K6, wo dias e eome ic ly ic
pep ides, we e chosen by Shai e al. o in es iga e whe he
an an ibac e ial pep ide sca old is equi ed o he
an i ungal ac ion o hese conjuga e compounds. Sho
alipha ic ail lipopep ides ( en o wel e ca bon a oms) we e
shown o be e icien agains bo h bac e ia and ungus
wi hou causing haemolysis. Con e sely, e ec i e
an i ungal medicines a e lipopep ides wi h long alipha ic
ails (14 o 16 ca bon a oms). Exceeding hei MIC alues is
he only concen a ion a which hey cause haemolysis. In
o de o c ea e a y acid conjuga es, dias e eome s a e
p e e able han e e y pep ide con aining a L-amino acid.
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Fig 3: The molecula bluep in o he C16-KKKK and C16-KLLK
sho lipopep ides
Small ca ionic pep idomime ics
Se e al g oups o esea che s ha e s udied he minimal
Ca ionic an imic obial pep ide pha macopho e: cha ge,
lipophilici y/bulk in he las en yea s. Wi h his, pep ide-
based an ibio ic esea ch may go in a new pa h, and he e's a
chance ha sho , inexpensi e an imic obial
pep idomime ics can be de eloped o sys emic usage. The
bac e icidal e icacy o na u al pep ide sca olds was
in es iga ed by using a pa ial 15- esidue bo ine
lac o e icin (LFB) molecule. Subs i u ing ano he
hyd ophobic na u al amino acid, such as phenylalanine, o
ei he o he wo yp ophan (T p) esidues in his sho ened
sequence ende ed i comple ely inac i e agains bac e ia.
Acco ding o ano he in es iga ion, he an ibac e ial ac i i y
o lac o e icins om humans, goa s, and pigs may be
inc eased by a ac o o up o six when an addi ional T p is
in oduced.
Using he luo ine analogue F and he i luo ome hyl
subs i u ed phenylalanine analogue F, he e ec o
luo ine's hyd ophobici y was s udied by Gime'nez e al.
An ibac e ial ac i i y was shown, o ins ance, by pep ide
sca olds SCAMP-I and SCAMP-II ha had he same
numbe o yp ophan esidues as hose con aining
luo ina ed phenylalanine (Figu e 4) simila o ha o he
la e . These esul s indica e ha he hyd ophobic bulk o
phenylalanine esidues eplaced wi h luo ine is almos he
same as ha o yp ophan. A 250 μg/mL, i was shown ha
none o he syn hesized pep ide molecules con aining
luo ina ed amino acids we e haemoly ic.
Fig 4: S uc u e o SCAMP-I and SCAMP-II chemically
In a simila ein, Sha ma e al. a emp ed o eplace na i e
his idine amino acid esidue wi h de i a i es ha had an
alipha ic g oup eplaced o i .
Conclusion
The phy ochemical componen s ound in plan ex ac s ha e
a wide a ie y o medical applica ions, one o which is an
an ibac e ial impac . The majo objec i e o he s udy was o
analyze he phy ochemical makeup o plan ex ac s in o de
o disco e and e alua e hei an ibac e ial ac i i y agains
an ibio ic- esis an pa hogens. Vaccina ions based on
syn he ic pep ides usually ha e a leas 10 esidues o
gene a e an ibodies. Some o he issues p e iously desc ibed
could be alle ia ed by p o eome ics and limi ed pep ides.
The de elopmen o an ibio ic esis ance has been a majo
p oblem in ecen yea s, bu an imic obials p oduced om
medicinal plan s p o ide a po en ial new weapon in he igh
agains in ec ious diseases. Pep ides a e p esen in he cells
o all o ganisms.
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