Fi s insigh s in o deep con ec ion by he Dopple eloci y
measu emen s o he Ea hCARE’s Cloud P o iling Rada
Aida Gal ione1, Alessand o Ba aglia1,2, Be na Puigdomènech T ese as3, and Pa los Kollias3,4
1Depa men o En i onmen , Land and In as uc u e Enginee ing, Poli ecnico di To ino, 10129 Tu in, I aly
2Ea h Obse a ion Science G oup, Depa men o Physics and As onomy, Uni e si y o Leices e , Leices e LE1 7RH, UK
3Depa men o A mosphe ic and Oceanic Sciences, McGill Uni e si y, Mon eal, H3A 0B9, QC Canada
4School o Ma ine and A mosphe ic Science, S ony B ook Uni e si y, NY 11790, NY USA
Co espondence: Aida Gal ione ([email p o ec ed])
Abs ac .
Con ec i e upd a s and downd a s play a i al ole in Ea h’s ene gy and wa e cycles by modula ing e ical ene gy and
mois u e anspo and shaping p ecipi a ion pa e ns. Despi e hei impo ance, he cha ac e is ics o con ec i e mo ions and
hei ela ionship o he nea -s o m en i onmen emain poo ly cons ained by obse a ions.
The payload o he ecen ly launched Ea hCARE sa elli e mission includes a 94-GHz Cloud P o iling Rada (CPR) wi h5
Dopple capabili y. In his s udy, we p esen i s -ligh CPR Dopple eloci y obse a ions in deep con ec i e clouds. These
ea ly examples o e a i s glimpse in o he dynamic na u e o cloud sys ems. The na ow oo p in o he CPR helps educe
he impac o mul iple sca e ing and non-uni o m beam illing (NUBF) on he Dopple eloci y measu emen s. Howe e , he
ins umen ’s low Nyquis eloci y p esen s a signi ican challenge o eco e ing he ue Dopple eloci y p o iles in deep
con ec i e sys ems.10
The CPR Dopple eloci y obse a ions a e expec ed o challenge adi ional me hodologies o iden i ying deep con ec i e
co es, which ypically ely on e lec i i y-based h esholds. We showcase examples ha demons a e he syne gy be ween CPR
Dopple eloci y measu emen s and geos a iona y sa elli e obse a ions, illus a ing how hei combined use can help cap u e
he e olu ion o he con ec i e li ecycle.
These esul s align wi h Ea hCARE’s b oade mission objec i es and highligh he po en ial o spacebo ne Dopple ada o15
signi ican ly ad ance ou unde s anding o cloud dynamics and con ec ion in he clima e sys em.
1 In oduc ion
Deep con ec i e clouds a e esponsible o he e ical anspo o ai and wa e , one o he mos in luen ial ye poo ly con-
s ained by measu emen s a mosphe ic p ocess. Deep con ec ion is c ucial in balancing he Ea h’s hea budge and in luencing
la ge-scale wea he pa e ns, including cloud o ma ion and he de elopmen o s o ms and ex eme wea he (Ha mann e al.20
1984). Deep con ec i e e en s ypically occu in opical egions, bu hey a ec he global a mosphe ic ci cula ion beyond he
opics ia an il de ainmen p ocesses and la en hea elease ia p ecipi a ion (Gaspa ini e al. 2021; Ha mann e al. 2018).
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A numbe o mic ophysical p ocesses a e ac i e du ing con ec i e ini ia ion and de elopmen ha a e no ye well unde s ood
o p ope ly implemen ed in models (P ein e al. 2015; A akawa 2004; Bony e al. 2015).
Despi e he impo ance o deep con ec ion, se e al aspec s o deep con ec i e clouds emain challenging o ep esen in high-25
esolu ion models and e en obse a ions (F idlind e al. 2017; Ladino e al. 2017). Models also s uggle o accu a ely ep esen
con ec i e upd a s, lea ing signi ican obse a ional gaps (Va ble e al. 2014). Su ace and ai bo ne ada obse a ions ha e
p o ided aluable insigh in o he s uc u e and magni ude o con ec i e upd a s, bu he obse a ional eco d is e y spa se
and mos ly a ailable o e land (Giang ande e al. 2013; Wang e al. 2020; Oue e al. 2019; J. Yang e al. 2016; Jeya a nam e al.
2021; No h e al. 2017). On he o he hand, sa elli e obse a ions can p o ide global co e age and su icien sampling o deep30
con ec ion and associa ed clouds and p ecipi a ion (Lee e al. 2021). In pa icula , he 3-D s uc u e o deep con ec i e clouds
has been ex ensi ely s udied using obse a ions om spacebo ne ada s.
The T opical Rain all Measu ing Mission (TRMM), de eloped by he Na ional Ae onau ics and Space Adminis a ion
(NASA) and he Na ional Space De elopmen Agency o Japan (NASDA), in oduced he i s spacebo ne ada in space,
a 13.8 GHz P ecipi a ion Rada (PR) (Kumme ow e al. 1998; Kumme ow e al. 2000). The TRMM PR was ope a ional om35
1997 o 2015 and ad anced ou unde s anding o opical con ec ion and associa ed ain all (Yokoyama e al. 2014; Xu e al.
2012). S udies using he TRMM PR da a analyzed con ec i e sys em s uc u es, including diu nal cycles and e ical p o iles
(Hamada e al. 2015). TRMM’s success led o he Global P ecipi a ion Measu emen (GPM) mission launched in 2014 by
NASA and he Japan Ae ospace Explo a ion Agency (JAXA) which enhances TRMM’s capabili ies wi h imp o ed esolu ion
and highe la i ude co e age (Sko onick-Jackson e al. 2017). The GPM mission ea u es a Dual- equency P ecipi a ion Rada 40
(DPR) ha ope a es a Ku (35.5 GHz) and Ka (13.6 GHz) bands, p o iding 3D p ecipi a ion s uc u es (Sko onick-Jackson e
al. 2018). S udies using GPM PR da a show deep con ec ion eaching he opopause p edominan ly o e land, consis en wi h
TRMM indings (Liu e al. 2020; Ba aglia e al. 2020; Liu e al. 2016). Ni e al. 2019 analyzed ice mic ophysical p ope ies,
e ealing la ge ice pa icles and highe ice wa e con en in land-based deep con ec i e co es. The poo sensi i i y o he PR
and DPR limi ed hei abili y o cap u e he 3D s uc u e o he uppe -le el oposphe ic cloud s uc u es.45
The CloudSa -CALIPSO mission (S ephens e al. 2002), pa o NASA’s A-T ain since 2004, p o ided de ailed cloud e ical
s uc u es. I s Cloud P o iling Rada (CPR) wi h 240 m e ical esolu ion cap u ed con ec i e cloud ea u es, aiding s udies on
con ec i e co es and upd a s (Takahashi e al. 2017a). Findings indica e s onge con ec i e co es and lowe en ainmen a es
o e land, enabling highe -al i ude pa icle anspo . Howe e , CloudSa ’s na ow along- ack sampling (1.4 km c oss- ack)
limi s ep esen a ion o spa ially he e ogeneous deep con ec i e co es (DCCs). To mi iga e biases, CloudSa da a ha e been50
in eg a ed wi h passi e senso s, such as MODIS cloud op empe a u e, o imp o ed con ec i e cha ac e iza ion (Luo e al.
2008; Luo e al. 2010; Luo e al. 2014; K. Yang e al. 2023).
Finally, in May 2024, he Ea h, Cloud, Ae osol and Radia ion Explo e (Ea hCARE, Illingwo h e al. 2015), a join
Eu opean Space Agency (ESA) and JAXA mission was success ully launched. The Ea hCARE mission aims o imp o e
cloud-ae osol- adia ion in e ac ion s udies and enhance nume ical wea he p edic ion (NWP) models and clima e simula ions.55
Ea hCARE ca ies a 94-GHz Dopple Cloud P o iling Rada (CPR), High-Spec al Resolu ion Lida (ATLID), Mul i-Spec al
Image (MSI), and B oad-Band Radiome e (BBR). Launched a e CloudSa -CALIPSO ended ope a ions in 2023, Ea hCARE
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bene i s om imp o ed ada sensi i i y due o i s lowe o bi and ha ing all ins umen s on he same pla o m (Illingwo h
e al. 2015; Weh e al. 2023). Mos impo an ly, he EC mission ea u es he i s spacebo ne ada wi h Dopple capabili y
(Kollias e al. 2018b; Kollias e al. 2014a; Kollias e al. 2022a). The a ailabili y o Dopple measu emen s om space will60
o e a unique oppo uni y o he collec ion o a global da ase o e ical mo ions in clouds and p ecipi a ion. This global da a
se is expec ed o imp o e ou unde s anding o con ec i e mo ions in clouds and help e alua e cu en pa ame e iza ions o
con ec i e mass lux in cloud esolu ion models (Manabe e al. 1964; Tied ke 1989; Bech old e al. 2001).
He e, a i s assessmen o he pe o mance o he EC CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s in deep con ec ion is p esen ed.
The main objec i es o his s udy a e o desc ibe and in e p e con ec i e co es as obse ed by he EC-CPR, le e aging join 65
Dopple eloci y and e lec i i y measu emen s, and o compa e hese obse a ions wi h geos a iona y da a. Fo he i s ime,
Dopple eloci y om a spacebo ne ada is used o iden i y and cha ac e ize con ec i e co es, p o iding insigh s in o hei
in e nal dynamics and upd a s uc u es (Kollias e al. 2023). Coinciden MSI obse a ions a e compa ed wi h geos a iona y
MSG (Me eosa Second Gene a ion) image y o assess he capabili y o passi e senso s in de ec ing con ec ion and acking
i s e olu ion.70
2 CPR Dopple eloci y obse a ions in deep con ec ion
One o he mos exci ing new measu emen capabili ies o he Ea hCARE mission is he CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s.
Se e al ac o s a e expec ed o impac he quali y o he CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s (Tanelli e al. 2002; Tanelli e al.
2005; Kollias e al. 2014b; Kollias e al. 2018a; Kollias e al. 2022b). The Ea hCARE sa elli e speed o 7.6 ms−1in oduces
signi ican b oadening (deco ela ion) o he CPR phase measu emen s ha esul s in signi ican unce ain y in he Dopple 75
eloci y es ima es (Kollias e al. 2014b; Kollias e al. 2022b). An enna mispoin ing is ano he sou ce o unce ain y (Tanelli e
al. 2005; Ba aglia e al. 2014; Puigdomènech T ese as e al. 2025). In deep con ec ion, addi ional ac o s such as a enua ion,
mul iple sca e ing (Ba aglia e al. 2008; Ba aglia e al. 2010; Ba aglia e al. 2011c), non-uni o m beam illing (Tanelli e al.
2002; Kollias e al. 2022b), and aliasing (Sy e al. 2014) can ha e a signi ican impac on he obse ed Dopple eloci ies and
in oduce conside able unce ain y and biases.80
An example o CPR obse a ions o a deep con ec i e sys em is shown in Fig. 1. The CPR obse a ions we e collec ed on
Sep embe 18, 2024, o e Wes e n A ica on a descending (day ime) o bi . He e, CPR Le el 2a (L2a) C-PRO da a p oduc s
a e used (Kollias e al. 2023). These p oduc s a e de i ed om he CPR Le el 1b da a plus auxilia y me eo ological da a. The
L2a C-PRO da a p oduc was eleased a ailable o he esea ch communi y on Ma ch 2025 (Eisinge e al. 2023). The CPR
e lec i e image (Fig. 1a) illus a es he e ical s uc u e o a wide deep p ecipi a ing sys em. CloudSa -based s udies o deep85
con ec ion mainly use he e lec i i y p o ile ea u es nea cloud op o iden i y deep con ec i e co es (DCC, Takahashi e al.
2012; Luo e al. 2014; Takahashi e al. 2017b; S ephens e al. 2024). The unde lying easoning is ha he o e shoo ing o ada
e lec i i y is an indica o o he la ge -size pa icles pushed highe up; his is only possible wi h he p esence o s ong ising
upd a s. Th ee c i e ia a e commonly adop ed o con ec ion iden i ica ion (Takahashi e al. 2014):
–CPR cloud mask (2B-GEOPROF p oduc ) g ea e han 20;90
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Figu e 1. (a) CPR e lec i i y du ing a la ge-scale, deep p ecipi a ing sys em wi h embedded con ec ion obse ed on Sep embe 19, 2024
o e he T opical Wes e n Paci ic (F ame 1760E). The ho izon al line indica es he 10 km heigh , and he blue ci cles indica e he maximum
heigh whe e a dBZ alue abo e +10 dBZ is obse ed. (b) he CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s a e a 4-km along- ack in eg a ion
(Kollias e al. 2023). Posi i e Dopple eloci ies indica e hyd ome o s’ mo emen owa ds he g ound.
–A con inuous ada echo om below 2 o abo e 10 km, hus a hick cloud deck;
–The 10 dBZ echo op heigh which is indica i e o he le el whe e la ge size pa icles a e lo ed by s ong con ec ion
(Luo e al. 2008) abo e 10 km.
In Fig. 1a he 10 dBZ echo op heigh is e y close o he 10 km heigh o a signi ican pa o he deep p ecipi a ing sys em.
In wo a eas (775-790 km and 950-975 km along ack), he 10 dBZ echo op heigh is well abo e he 10 km heigh and close 95
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o he cloud op heigh . Luo e al. 2014 in oduced a ou h c i e ion o de ec ing DCCs, which equi es ha he 10 dBZ echo
op heigh be wi hin 2 km o he cloud op heigh de e mined by he CPR.
The CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s o he same e en can assis in o e alua ing hese di e en me hodologies o
iden i ying DCCs. Figu e 1b shows he CPR Dopple eloci y a e aged o e a 4-km along- ack dis ance. The CPR Dopple
eloci y measu emen s a e shown only in a eas whe e he e CPR e lec i i y exceeds -21 dBZ. The na i e CPR along ack100
esolu ion is 500 m, hus, a o al o nine CPR Dopple eloci y es ima es ( hei espec i e eal and imagina y pa s o he lag-1
pulse pai es ima o ) ha e been a e aged (Kollias e al. 2023). The a e aging o he pulse-pai Dopple eloci y es ima o lag-1
eal and imagina y pa s is immune o eloci y olding. Be o e he along ack a e aging, he CPR Dopple eloci ies ha e
been co ec ed o an enna mispoin ing (Puigdomènech T ese as e al. 2025) and non-uni o m beam illing (NUBF) Dopple
eloci y biases (Kollias e al. 2014b; Sy e al. 2014).105
The nadi -poin ing CPR Dopple eloci y VD ep esen s he sum o he e ical ai mo ion WAIR and he e lec i i y-
weigh ed Dopple sedimen a ion eloci y o he hyd ome eo s VD
T:
VD=WAIR +VD
T.(1)
The VD
T e m can only ake posi i e alues (downwa d mo ion) while he WAIR e m can ake bo h posi i e (downd a ) and
nega i e (upd a ) alues. The majo i y o he obse ed VDin Fig. 1b a e posi i e. This implies ha he VD
Tmagni ude is highe 110
han ha o he embedded WAIR upd a s. This sugges s he p esence o negligible e ical ai mo ions (|WAIR|<2 ms−1). A
ypical example p o ile o he CPR Dopple eloci y and co esponding ada e lec i i y is s a i o m p ecipi a ion condi ions
is shown in Fig. 2. The mos p onounced VD ea u e is i s mel ing laye signa u e jus below 5 km heigh ha indica es he
phase change om he slowly alling solid ice/snow pa icles o he as alling liquid aind ops a ound he 0◦C iso he m (Fig.
2a). The 1-km CPR-a e aged Dopple eloci y p o iles exhibi he same end bu exhibi conside able luc ua ions (Kollias115
e al. 2014b). The noisiness o he CPR 1-km a e aged Dopple eloci ies makes he es ima ion o he hyd ome eo s’ size
and/o densi y a he 1-km esolu ion challenging (Kollias e al. 2022b; M oz e al. 2023). The mel ing laye signa u e is also
e iden in he CPR e lec i i y p o ile wi h a p onounced inc ease a ound he 0 ◦C iso he m (Fig. 2b). The ice- o- ain Dopple
eloci y ansi ion is a well-known ea u e o he Dopple eloci y in cold- ain sys ems, ou inely obse ed by g ound-based
and ai bo ne Dopple ada s (among o he s, Fab y e al. 1995; Heyms ield e al. 2010), bu o he i s ime wi h EC i is120
possible o see i om space.
The CPR sho wa eleng h (λ= 3.2mm) and Pulse Repe i ion F equency (PRF) de e mine he CPR Nyquis eloci y (VN)
olding (VN=λPRF/4, yellow lines in Fig. 2a). The VNis he maximum unambiguous eloci y ha can be de ec ed by he
CPR wi hou aliasing (o eloci y olding). I he VDexceeds VN hen olding occu s. Du ing s a i o m condi ions, in he
ice laye , eloci y olding is a e e en o he 1-km CPR Dopple eloci y es ima es (Fig. 2a). Below he mel ing laye , VD
T
125
can each alues up o 6.5 ms−1(Kollias e al. 2022c). He e, eloci y olding can occu especially in he 1-km CPR Dopple
eloci y es ima es, which a e al oge he noisie . In Fig. 2a he 1-km Dopple eloci y es ima es ou side he VNbounda ies ha e
al eady been co ec ed o eloci y olding. The assump ion used o he un olding is ha nega i e Dopple eloci ies below
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Figu e 2. (a) he CPR Dopple eloci y p o iles a along ack dis ance o 875 km. The 4-km CPR Dopple eloci y es ima e is shown in
g een ci cles and he 1-km Dopple eloci y es ima es wi hin a 2 km dis ance om 875 km a e shown in g ay lines. The yellow e ical lines
indica e he CPR Nyquis eloci y and he ho izon al dashed line indica es he mel ing laye heigh . (b) he co esponding CPR e lec i i y
a along ack dis ance o 875 km.
he mel ing laye in a s a i o m p ecipi a ion p o ile a e he esul s o VDexceeding +VN. Subsequen ly, all nega i e VD alues
below he 0°C iso he m a e un olded by adding 2VN o hem.130
The in e p e a ion o he CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile in deep s a i o m laye s se es as a baseline o unde s anding
con ec i e upd a s. In Fig. 1b, upd a s a e depic ed as egions wi h nega i e (upwa d) 4-km-a e aged VDes ima es in cold
empe a u es (Fig. 1b). No including he along- ack in e al 950-975 km, he clus e s o nega i e VDa e loca ed nea he
cloud op. Since ice pa icles a e smalle a colde empe a u es, i is plausible ha nea cold cloud ops, weak g a i y wa es
and upd a s con ibu e o an o e all nega i e (upwa d) CPR Dopple eloci y signal. The es ima ion o ai e ical eloci y,135
WAIR, equi es knowledge o he Dopple e minal all speed VD
T. An es ima e o he VD
Tcan be p o ided by he sedimen a ion
eloci y bes es ima e a iable in he L2A C-CD da a p oduc (Kollias e al. 2023). In e es ingly, wo egions wi h 10 dBZ echo
op heigh well abo e he 10 km al i ude exhibi such dynamical ea u es. A 950-975 km along- ack, a deep and cohe en
dynamical s uc u e is obse ed, cha ac e ized by s ong upwa d mo ions ex ending om 8 o 14 km. This e ically o ien ed
ea u e ep esen s a deep con ec i e upd a and is colloca ed wi h he highes 10 dBZ echo op heigh s. The WAIR wi hin his140
con ec i e upd a is s ong enough o cause eloci y olding, depic ed as a ed pa ch o Dopple eloci ies embedded wi hin
he nega i e Dopple eloci y clus e .
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Figu e 3. (a) CPR e lec i i y du ing a deep con ec i e e en sys em on Sep embe 18, 2024 o e Wes e n A ica (F ame 1752E). The blue
ci cles indica e he heigh whe e mul iple sca e ing e ec s become impo an . The e ical dashed lines indica e he loca ions whe e CPR
p o iles will be shown in la e igu es. (b) he CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s a e a 4-km along- ack in eg a ion (Kollias e al. 2023).
Posi i e Dopple eloci ies indica e hyd ome o s’ mo emen owa ds he g ound. The black con ou indica es he a ea whe e he 4-km CPR
Dopple eloci y s anda d de ia ion exceeds 2 ms
−1. A box o 3 km along- ack by 2 km in ange is used o he es ima ion o he s anda d
de ia ion.
The complexi y o he VDp o iles in deep con ec ion is examined using a sample deep con ec i e cloud (DCC) obse ed
by he CPR (Fig. 3). The DCC is loca ed be ween 300 and 350 km along ack and is cha ac e ized by o e shoo ing cloud
ops eaching up o 17 km in al i ude. S ong a enua ion is obse ed (Fig. 3a), and he smoo h appea ance o ada e lec i i y145
echoes ex ending o and below he su ace indica es he p esence o mode a e mul iple sca e ing e ec s (Ba aglia e al. 2010).
Regions con amina ed by mul iple sca e ing a e cu en ly iden i ied in he C-FMR p oduc (Kollias e al. 2023) using a simple
lagging app oach based on he me hodology p oposed by Ba aglia e al. 2011a. The blue- illed ci cles deno e he heigh
a which mul iple sca e ing e ec s on ada e lec i i y a e expec ed o become signi ican . To co ec ly in e p e Dopple
eloci ies in deep con ec ion, i is essen ial o in es iga e he in luence o mul iple sca e ing on he Dopple signal (Ba aglia150
e al. 2011b). Howe e , since his is no he ocus o he cu en s udy, ou in e p e a ion will be limi ed o he po ion o he
VDp o iles abo e he heigh whe e mul iple sca e ing e ec s begin o become signi ican .
The DCC VDmeasu emen s a e shown in Fig. 3b. The VDp o iles subs an ial a iabili y, wi h egions o bo h posi i e and
nega i e alues. The ange o VD alues span he ull Nyquis in e al [-VN: +VN]. The con ec i e VDp o iles a e cha ac e ized
by equen Dopple eloci y aliasing. Fig. 3b p esen s he 4-km a e aged VD. Veloci y aliasing is e en mo e p onounced a 155
he 1-km a e aged VD. The obse ed VD a iabili y se es as a s ong indica o o he p esence o con ec i e upd a s and
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Figu e 4. (a) he CPR e lec i i y p o ile a along- ack dis ance o 309 km. The blue illed ci cles sec ion o he CPR e lec i i y p o ile
indica e he CPR ange ga es whe e he Dopple eloci y es ima es a e conside ed una ec ed by mul iple sca e ing. The g een iangle
indica es he heigh o he maximum ada e lec i i y. (b) The 4-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g een illed ci cles) and he 1-km CPR
Dopple eloci y p o ile (g ay illed ci cles). The black dashed e ical lines indica e he CPR Nyquis Dopple eloci y. (c) The un olded
4-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g een illed ci cles) and he un olded 1-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g ay illed ci cles). The black
dashed e ical lines indica e he CPR Nyquis Dopple eloci y
downd a s. In Figu e 3b, he black ou line highligh s egions whe e he s anda d de ia ion o Dopple eloci y exceeds 2 m/s.
The s anda d de ia ion is calcula ed wi hin a mo ing window o 3 km ho izon ally and 2 km e ically, cen e ed on each pixel,
o cap u e Dopple eloci y a ia ions in bo h he along- ack and ac oss- ack Dopple eloci y di ec ions.
Two example p o iles co esponding o he along- ack loca ions indica ed by he black dashed lines in Fig. 3b a e analyzed160
he e o explo e he complexi y o he VDin deep con ec i e co es. The i s p o ile is shown in Fig. 4. The CPR e lec i i y p o-
ile is p esen ed in Fig. 4a. The blue- illed ci cles ma k he CPR ange ga es whe e Dopple eloci y es ima es a e conside ed
una ec ed by mul iple sca e ing. Addi ionally, VDes ima es nea he cloud op a e excluded i CPR e lec i i y alls below
–15 dBZ. The maximum e lec i i y is obse ed a an al i ude o 11 km, mo e han 5 km below he cloud op. The co espond-
ing VDp o iles, a e aged o e 1-km and 4-km along- ack in e als, a e shown in Fig. 4b. The black dashed lines deno e he165
CPR Nyquis eloci y bounds, while he e ical yellow line indica es ze o Dopple eloci y. As expec ed, he 4-km-a e aged
VDexhibi s lowe a iabili y wi h heigh compa ed o he 1-km VDes ima es. This e ical co ela ion is expec ed, gi en ha
he CPR pulse leng h is 500 m and VDis es ima ed e e y 100 m.
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Figu e 5. (a) The CPR e lec i i y p o ile a along ack dis ance o 321 km. The blue illed ci cles sec ion o he CPR e lec i i y p o ile
indica e he CPR ange ga es whe e he Dopple eloci y es ima es a e conside ed una ec ed by mul iple sca e ing. The g een iangle
indica es he heigh o he maximum ada e lec i i y. (b) The 4-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g een illed ci cles) and he 1-km CPR
Dopple eloci y p o ile (g ay illed ci cles). The black dashed e ical lines indica e he CPR Nyquis Dopple eloci y. (c) The un olded
4-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g een illed ci cles) and he un olded 1-km CPR Dopple eloci y p o ile (g ay illed ci cles). The black
dashed e ical lines indica e he CPR Nyquis Dopple eloci y.
He e, we ocus on in e p e ing he VDes ima es wi hin he sec ion iden i ied as ha ing eliable Dopple eloci y e ie als.
Beginning wi h he 4-km p o ile: nea he cloud op, he VDis posi i e, indica ing he p esence o an upd a . Below 14 km,170
he VD u ns nega i e, which may indica e he p esence o la ge hyd ome eo s alling, a downd a , o a combina ion o he
wo, esul ing in an appa en downwa d mo ion. The ab up jump o mo e han 10 m/s in he p o ile a 12.5 km is a ibu ed
o eloci y aliasing. In gene al i he absolu e alue o he di e ence be ween wo consecu i e Dopple measu emen s exceed
he Nyquis eloci y, hen adding ±2VN o one o he eloci y p oduces a smoo he p o ile. Due o he noisiness o he
measu emen he iden i ica ion o a old is no so s aigh o wa d and he e will be some ambigui y o poin s wi h jumps in D
175
close o N(e.g. o he 4-km in eg a ion alues be ween VN−1and VN+1 m/s). In his example he di e ence is much la ge ,
so olding is iden i ied unambiguously and un olding is s aigh o wa d. All he segmen o he p o ile be ween 9 and 12.5 km
is he e o e aliased; Fig. 4c shows he un olded 1-km and 4-km VDp o iles. The aliased nega i e sec ions o he 4-km p o ile
ha e been co ec ed by adding 2VN. The un olded 4-km p o ile displays a smoo h e ical s uc u e. Excep o a small egion
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Figu e 10. Successi e images depic ing he ime e olu ion 10 minu es be o e (a), 5 minu es be o e (b), closes in ime (c), 5 minu es a e
(d) and 10 a e (e) Ea hCARE o e pass 2530D on No embe 7 h, 2024, zoom on cell 2. The colo s ep esen he b igh ness empe a u e
om channel 9 (10.8µm), measu ed by MSG apid scans. Black solid line ep esen he g ound ack o Ea hCARE, co ec ed o pa allax
(dashed line is he o iginal g ound ack). Red ma ke s co espond in shape o Fig. 8a. The black s a is he posi ion o he minimum
b igh ness empe a u e ha is acked.
Ea hCARE mission, equipped wi h a Dopple -capable ada , ills his c i ical obse a ional gap and ma ks he beginning o a
new e a o sa elli e-based ada measu emen s o imp o e ou unde s anding o con ec i e dynamics.
Be o e launch, he e we e nume ous ques ions ega ding he quali y o Dopple eloci y measu emen s in deep con ec ion,
pa icula ly due o an icipa ed challenges such as s ong a enua ion, mul iple sca e ing, non-uni o m beam illing (NUBF)
e ec s, he limi a ions imposed by a na ow Nyquis eloci y ange, and he complexi y in oduced by he e ical and ho i-305
zon al a iabili y o con ec i e co es. In his s udy, CPR ansec s ac oss a ious con ec i e sys ems a e analyzed o assess and
illus a e he impac o hese challenges on he in e p e a ion o Dopple eloci y p o iles.
The a ailabili y o Dopple eloci y measu emen s om space p o ides aluable new insigh s in o he p esence, as well
as he ho izon al and e ical ex en , o con ec i e upd a s and downd a s. Dopple eloci y-based de ec ion o con ec i e
co es is compa ed wi h adi ional e lec i i y-based me hods. This compa ison is expec ed o in o m a e ision o he de ec ion310
c i e ia used in p e ious spacebo ne ada s udies.
Fu he mo e, when combined wi h co-loca ed in a ed obse a ions om geos a iona y sa elli es, CPR Dopple measu e-
men s o e new pe spec i es on he use o cloud- op cooling a es—compu ed as ime de i a i es o b igh ness empe a-
u e—as p oxies o con ec i e in ensi y.
Some p elimina y conclusions o his wo k a e summa ized in he ollowing.315
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Figu e 11. Minimum b igh ness empe a u e (in K) wi hin he cell, as de ec ed and acked wi h obac. Red dashed line co esponds o he
EC o e pass ime. (a) Cell 1. (b) Cell 2.
1. The i s images o Dopple eloci ies measu ed by he Ea hCARE Cloud P o iling Rada (EC-CPR) o e an unp ece-
den ed iew o con ec i e mo ions on a global scale. While hese images immedia ely e eal he p esence o con ec ion,
he quan i a i e in e p e a ion o he CPR signal—such as he es ima ion o upd a and downd a eloci ies o con ec-
i e mass luxes—will equi e u he analysis. This need a ises om he inhe en complexi y o con ec i e dynamics,
compounded by signal noise and he limi a ions imposed by he na ow Nyquis eloci y ange.320
The CPR Dopple eloci y measu emen s will se e as he ounda ion o a dynamics-based con ec ion iden i ica ion
algo i hm, designed o augmen exis ing e lec i i y-based de ec ion me hods. As demons a ed in he case s udy, pa am-
e e s such as he s anda d de ia ion o Dopple eloci y compu ed wi hin a 3 km ho izon al by 2 km e ical window, o
he equency o Nyquis eloci y oldings, can se e as eliable indica o s o con ec i e ac i i y.
2. The de elopmen o a obus algo i hm o un olding CPR Dopple eloci y (VD) measu emen s in deep con ec i e325
clouds is cu en ly unde way. The i s s ep is o cha ac e ize he complexi y o he VD ield and o iden i y he p ima y
sou ces o eloci y discon inui ies in deep con ec ion. Ini ially, he ocus will be limi ed o con ec i e p o iles exhibi ing
ewe han h ee Dopple eloci y oldings a he 4-km along- ack esolu ion—an app oach expec ed o encompass
mo e han 99% o he obse ed CPR VDp o iles. In cases whe e eloci y aliasing is no obse ed in he 4-km a e aged
VD, bu is p esen in he 1-km a e aged p o ile, he 4-km a e aged VDcan be used as a weak cons ain o un old he330
1-km a e aged VDby minimizing he di e ence be ween he wo. In mo e complex cases, such as hose shown in his
s udy, he mo phology o he CPR e lec i i y p o ile will be used o de e mine he e ical con inui y o he con ec i e
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column. In addi ion, VDes ima es a 500 m (na i e CPR along ack esolu ion), 1-km o 4-km will be combined o he
es ima ion o he un olded CPR VDp o ile.
3. The CPR p o ides a unique capabili y o obse ing embedded con ec ion and sub-kilome e -scale con ec i e cells,335
he eby o e coming key limi a ions o con ec i e obse a ions de i ed om geos a iona y image y. In pa icula , con-
ec i e mo ion es ima es based on cloud- op cooling a es a e e ec i e p ima ily o upd a s ha a e bo h compa able
in size o he geos a iona y senso ’s esolu ion ( ypically la ge han 2 km a mid-la i udes) and loca ed nea he cloud
op. As such, his me hod is gene ally limi ed o con ec i e cells in he ea ly s ages o de elopmen o o hose exhibi ing
o e shoo ing ops..340
4. Geos a iona y image y, on he o he hand, o e s signi ican po en ial o p o iding he spa io- empo al con ex o con-
ec ion—such as whe he i is pa o a mesoscale sys em o an isola ed cell, and whe he i is in he ea ly, ma u e, o
decaying s age o i s li ecycle. Addi ionally, geos a iona y obse a ions a e well-sui ed o quan i ying upd a s eng h in
isola ed con ec i e cells, whe e he ime se ies o minimum cloud- op b igh ness empe a u e is expec ed o be s ongly
co ela ed wi h he in ensi y o he upd a .345
The Dopple capabili y o Ea hCARE’s Cloud P o iling Rada (CPR) ep esen s a majo inno a ion, enabling he di ec
obse a ion o e ical ai mo ions and he e minal all speeds o hyd ome eo s. None heless, subs an ial e o is s ill equi ed
o ully ha ness his capabili y and con e hese measu emen s in o ac ionable insigh s o a mosphe ic science and modeling.
As a nex s ep, a new con ec ion classi ica ion amewo k will be de eloped using Dopple eloci y and ada -de i ed
ea u es. Once es ablished, his classi ica ion—when in eg a ed wi h syne gis ic geos a iona y obse a ions—will suppo he350
sys ema ic iden i ica ion o con ec i e egimes and hei associa ed cha ac e is ics. This amewo k will hen be applied o
gene a e global-scale s a is ics.
These e o s will signi ican ly enhance ou unde s anding o con ec i e dynamics a he global scale and a e expec ed o
in o m and alida e high- esolu ion wea he and clima e models.
Acknowledgemen s. The esea ch by AG has been suppo ed by he PANGEA4CalVal p ojec (G an Ag eemen 101079201) unded by he355
Eu opean Union. AB has been unded by he Space I Up p ojec unded by he I alian Space Agency, ASI, and he Minis y o Uni e si y
and Resea ch, MUR, unde con ac n. 2024-5-E.0 - CUP n. I53D24000060005. PK and BPT we e suppo ed by he Eu opean Space Agency
(ESA) unde he Clouds, Ae osol, Radia ion – De elopmen o IN eg a ed ALgo i hms (CARDINAL) p ojec (RFQ/3-17010/20/NL/AD)
and he Na ional Ae onau ics and Space Adminis a ion (NASA) unde he A mosphe ic Obse ing Sys em (AOS) p ojec (Con ac numbe :
80NSSC23M0113).360
Au ho con ibu ions. AG pe o med he analysis and p o ided he d a o he manusc ip , AB supe ised he s udy and e iewed he pape ,
PK p o ided he desc ip ion o he Dopple eloci y analysis and e iewed he pape , BPT p o ided he upda ed da ase and e iewed he
pape .
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Compe ing in e es s. A leas one o he (co-)au ho s is a membe o he edi o ial boa d o A mosphe ic Measu emen Techniques.
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