Time-Sensitive Networking Digital Twin for STRIDE-based security testing

Melise al.
EURASIP Jou nal on In o ma ion Secu i y (2025) 2025:26
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s13635-025-00213-7
RESEARCH Open Access
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EURASIP Jou nal on
In o ma ion Secu i y
Time-Sensi i e Ne wo king Digi al Twin
o STRIDE-based secu i y es ing
And ea Melis1*, And ea Gio ine1 and Lo enzo Rinie i1
Abs ac
Time-sensi i e ne wo king is se o play a pi o al ole in he e olu ion o mode n indus ial and 5G ne wo ks, ena-
bling hem o mee he s ic es communica ion equi emen s o gua an eed low la ency and high eliabili y. Gi en
he c i ical and complex en i onmen s in which TSN will be deployed, such as indus ial au oma ion, au onomous
sys ems, and mission-c i ical applica ions, ensu ing obus p o ec ion agains secu i y h ea s becomes an essen ial
design conside a ion. The inhe en low-la ency and de e minis ic cha ac e is ics o TSN, while bene icial o pe o -
mance, also in oduce unique ulne abili ies ha a acke s could exploi . Consequen ly, sa egua ding ime-sensi i e
ne wo ks is undamen al o hei success ul implemen a ion and eliabili y in eal-wo ld applica ions. In his pape ,
we p esen a lexible and econ igu able Digi al Twin o TSN p o ocol alida ion and secu i y es ing. I s deploymen
in di e en and he e ogeneous es ing scena ios is ully au oma ed ia he In as uc u e as Code app oach. Ou
p oposed TSN Digi al Twin employs ad anced i ualiza ion echnologies and ne wo k emula ion ools o eplica e
he s ingen equi emen s o TSN. I also implemen s ad anced Linux queuing disciplines o emula e TSN scheduling
and a ic shaping. Finally, we assess he po en ial o adap abili y o he p oposed a chi ec u e o TSN secu i y es -
ing by simula ing wo a ack scena ios de i ed om he TSN STRIDE h ea model.
Keywo ds TSN, STRIDE, Cybe secu i y, Digi al Twin
1 In oduc ion
The manu ac u ing indus y inc easingly depends on
ad anced ne wo king echnologies o enhance machin-
e y and s eamline p ocesses. This shi unde pins he
ounda ion o Indus y 4.0— he ou h indus ial e olu-
ion—cha ac e ized by he con e gence o Ope a ional
Technology (OT) and In o ma ion Technology (IT)
sys ems. While his in eg a ion d i es inno a ion and
e iciency, i simul aneously in oduces signi ican cybe -
secu i y isks[1]. Connec ing OT ne wo ks o IT sys ems
and he b oade In e ne exposes manu ac u ing en i on-
men s o nume ous cybe h ea s, a conce n highligh ed
by di e en high-p o ile inciden s in ecen yea s[2, 3].
Amid hese challenges, indus ial ne wo ks demand
low-la ency, eal- ime communica ions o ensu e he
seamless ope a ion o c i ical p ocesses[4]. Time-Sensi-
i e Ne wo king (TSN) has eme ged as a i al echnology
o add essing hese equi emen s, enabling p ecise and
de e minis ic communica ion ac oss ne wo ks[5].
As TSN p o ocols enhance s anda d E he ne wi h ime-
sensi i e capabili ies, hey inhe i no only he adi ional
E he ne ulne abili ies bu also in oduce new a ack ec-
o s based on ime synch oniza ion and de e minism[6].
In indus ial en i onmen s, whe e synch onized ope a-
ions a e c ucial, a acks on synch oniza ion p o ocols can
cause p ocess e o s, machine y damage, o p oduc ion
hal s[7]. Fu he mo e, legacy equipmen in eg a ed wi h
TSN c ea es secu i y gaps, inc easing he isk o unau ho -
ized access and da a b eaches.
*Co espondence:
And ea Melis
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Compu e Science and Enginee ing, Uni e si y
o Bologna, Bologna, I aly
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Howe e , es ing TSN echnologies in physical en i-
onmen s o secu i y pu poses poses signi ican p ac i-
cal challenges. The specialized na u e o TSN swi ches
and de ices o en equi es a subs an ial inancial in es -
men , making i challenging o small-scale o ganiza ions
o esea ch ins i u ions o es ablish obus es beds[8].
Fu he mo e, physical es se ups a e inhe en ly in lex-
ible, as es ing new con igu a ions o scena ios equen ly
equi es addi ional ha dwa e o ex ensi e modi ica ions
o exis ing se ups [9]. This lack o scalabili y no only
inc eases cos s bu also delays es ing cycles, limi ing he
pace o de elopmen and inno a ion.
To add ess hese challenges, i ualized es ing en i-
onmen s and Digi al Twins (DTs) a e gaining ac ion
in he Indus y 4.0 landscape[10, 11]. These app oaches
enable esea che s and o ganiza ions o simula e complex
ne wo k con igu a ions and a ack scena ios wi hou he
high cos s and igidi y o physical es beds[12]. When
applied o TSN, Digi al Twins enable p oac i e h ea
de ec ion and mi iga ion, he eby enhancing he eliabil-
i y and secu i y o TSN-enabled sys ems while p ese ing
he ope a ional in eg i y o indus ial p ocesses.
In his wo k, we p opose a scalable and ully i ual-
ized TSN Digi al Twin, designed o add ess he c i ical
need o secu i y es ing in Time-Sensi i e Ne wo king.
By le e aging ad anced i ualiza ion echniques and he
In as uc u e as Code pa adigm, ou Digi al Twin ena-
bles au oma ed deploymen , econ igu a ion, and simula-
ion o di e se TSN scena ios, p o iding a cos -e ec i e
and lexible al e na i e o physical es beds. The Digi al
Twin emula es eal-wo ld TSN beha io s by in eg a -
ing p ecise ime synch oniza ion using P ecision Time
P o ocol (PTP), ad anced queuing disciplines o a ic
shaping and p io i iza ion, and de e minis ic communi-
ca ion h ough i ualized E he ne ne wo ks.
Exis ing i ual labs and emula ion pla o ms end
o ocus on unc ional o pe o mance aspec s, o en
neglec ing he speci ic iming cons ain s and secu i y
h ea models ele an o TSN deploymen s. Ou wo k
add esses his gap by in eg a ing well-es ablished i -
ualiza ion echnologies in o a cohesi e amewo k ha
suppo s STRIDE-based h ea modeling, synch onized
a ic lows, and au oma ed secu i y es ing. The o igi-
nali y o ou app oach lies in he o ches a ion o hese
componen s o c ea e a domain-speci ic Digi al Twin
ailo ed o secu i y expe imen a ion. This enables p ac-
i ione s and esea che s o eplica e ime-sensi i e
scena ios, injec ealis ic h ea s, and e alua e sys em
beha io in a con olled and epea able way.
We demons a e he Digi al Twin capabili ies h ough
he simula ion o wo STRIDE-based a ack scena ios:
PTP Clock Poisoning and C edi -Based Shape Denial-
o -Se ice. These scena ios highligh ulne abili ies in
TSN sys ems and showcase he Digi al Twin’s po en-
ial o iden i ying secu i y gaps and es ing mi iga ion
s a egies.
In summa y, we make he ollowing con ibu ions:
• We p opose a lexible, scalable, and econ igu able
Digi al Twin o TSN p o ocol alida ion and secu i y
es ing. By le e aging i ualiza ion and he In a-
s uc u e as Code pa adigm, he Digi al Twin is ully
au oma ed, enabling apid adap a ion o di e en
es ing scena ios while educing manual e o .
• We e alua e he Digi al Twin’s sui abili y o secu i y
es ing by implemen ing wo a ack scena ios based
on he TSN STRIDE h ea model. The i s a ack,
PTP Clock Poisoning, unde mines TSN ime syn-
ch oniza ion, while he second a ack, C edi -Based
Shape Denial o Se ice, ampe s wi h he TSN
scheduling.
• The TSN Digi al Twin and he code o ep oducing
he p esen ed a acks a e publicly a ailable1.
The emainde o his pape is o ganized in o eigh main
sec ions. The Sec .2 discusses he IEEE 802.1 TSN se o
s anda ds and classi ies TSN secu i y h ea s using he
STRIDE amewo k. The Sec .3 mo i a es he need o
a TSN Digi al Twin, illus a ing he high cos s, logis i-
cal challenges, and complexi y o es ing TSN p o ocols
in physical en i onmen s. Then, he Sec .4 p esen s an
o e iew o he p oposed TSN Digi al Twin a chi ec u e,
emphasizing i s design objec i es. The Sec .5 p o ides a
comp ehensi e desc ip ion o he implemen a ion o he
TSN Digi al Twin ac oss i s h ee laye s, ocusing on he
in eg a ion o i ualiza ion echnologies and ne wo k
emula ion ools. Subsequen ly, by simula ing wo a ack
scena ios and p oposing co esponding coun e meas-
u es, he Sec .6 demons a es how he Digi al Twin can
be e ec i ely employed o TSN secu i y es ing pu -
poses. Finally, he Sec .7 analyzes ela ed wo k, and he
Sec .8 d aws ou conclusions.
2 Backg ound
2.1 Time Sensi i e Ne wo king
Time-Sensi i e Ne wo king is an ad anced se o open
s anda ds de eloped unde he IEEE 802.1 wo king
g oup o enable de e minis ic communica ion o e
E he ne -based ne wo ks. A no able ad an age o TSN
lies in i s capabili y o enable ul a-low la ency com-
munica ion wi h de e minis ic deli e y gua an ees.
I add esses he challenges o ensu ing eal- ime da a
ansmission wi h low la ency, eliabili y, and p ecision,
1 h ps:// gi hub. com/ Unibo Secu i yRe sea ch/ TSN- digi al- win
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making i sui able o c i ical applica ions in indus ies
such as manu ac u ing, ae ospace, au omo i e, and el-
ecommunica ions. Fo ins ance, in indus ial sa e y sys-
ems, TSN ensu es ins an aneous esponses, such as
he immedia e hal ing o machine y upon ac i a ion o
an eme gency s op bu on—some hing adi ional ne -
wo ks canno eliably accomplish.
TSN encompasses a sui e o p o ocols based on s and-
a ds such as IEEE 802.1Q-2018, which p o ide mecha-
nisms o ime-sensi i e, eal- ime ansmission. These
p o ocols add ess s ingen communica ion equi e-
men s, suppo ing enhanced Quali y o Se ice (QoS).
The TSN p o ocol amily can be classi ied ocusing on
ime synch oniza ion, scheduling, con ol and o ches a-
ion, and policing and edundancy.
As desc ibed in Table 1, TSN p o ocols a e o gan-
ized in o ou key ca ego ies: Time Synch oniza ion,
Scheduling, Con ol and O ches a ion, and Policing
and Redundancy. Each one add esses a speci ic aspec
o de e minis ic ne wo king o eliable, eal- ime
communica ion.
Time synch oniza ion e e s o p o ocols ha keep all
ne wo ked de ices p ecisely aligned in ime. E e y de ice
mus be synch onized o a s anda d clock o TSN o
achie e de e minis ic beha io . The IEEE 802.1AS s and-
a d[13], using he Gene alized P ecision Time P o ocol
(gPTP)[25], enables his synch oniza ion, allowing ime-
sensi i e da a o be ansmi ed wi h he exac iming
equi ed o c i ical applica ions.
Scheduling includes p o ocols ha manage p io -
i izing and o ganizing ne wo k a ic, ensu ing ha
high-p io i y da a eaches i s des ina ion wi hou delay.
P o ocols like IEEE 802.1Qb Time-Awa e Shape [14]
di ide ne wo k communica ion in o ixed ime slo s,
allowing c i ical da a o pass wi hou in e up ion.
Addi ional p o ocols, such as IEEE 802.3bu F ame
P eemp ion[16], allow ime-sensi i e ames o in e -
up ongoing lowe -p io i y ansmissions. Meanwhile,
IEEE 802.1Qa  [18] enables o wa ding and queuing
enhancemen s ha p e en high-p io i y ames om
being delayed by less c i ical a ic.
Con ol and o ches a ion a e dedica ed o o e seeing
ne wo k esou ces and ou ing pa hs o achie e e icien
da a low. IEEE 802.1Qa [19] and IEEE 802.1Qcc[21]
p o ocols manage esou ce ese a ion, gua an eeing
ha c i ical da a s eams ha e adequa e bandwid h and
esou ces. Meanwhile, IEEE 802.1Qca [20] suppo s
pa h con ol, enabling edundan and op imized ou -
ing o enhance aul ole ance. Collec i ely, hese p o-
ocols ensu e ha ime-sensi i e a ic is p io i ized,
managed, and consis en ly con olled h oughou he
ne wo k.
Policing and edundancy add ess ne wo k eliabili y
and da a in eg i y. Policing p o ocols[23] en o ce ules
o il e ou unau ho ized o mal o med da a s eams,
he eby p e en ing conges ion and p o ec ing he ne -
wo k om po en ial secu i y h ea s, such as Denial-
o -Se ice (DoS) a acks. Redundancy p o ocols [24]
ins ead duplica e c i ical ames and ansmi hem
o e sepa a e pa hs, ensu ing da a deli e y e en in he
e en o a ne wo k ailu e.
By combining hese ca ego ies, TSN p o ides a com-
p ehensi e amewo k ha enables p ecise, eliable,
and secu e da a ansmission, es ablishing i sel as a
ounda ional echnology o indus ies equi ing de e -
minis ic communica ion.
Table 1 Classi ica ion o TSN p o ocols, di ided in o ca ego ies
Ca ego y P o ocol
Time synch oniza ion IEEE 802.1AS Time Synch oniza ion o Time-sensi i e Applica ions [13]
Scheduling IEEE 802.1Qb Time-Awa e Shape (TAS) [14]
IEEE 802.1Qch Cyclic Queuing and Fo wa ding (CQF) [15]
IEEE 802.3bu F ame P eemp ion [16]
IEEE 802.1Qc Asynch onous T a ic Shaping (ATS) [17]
IEEE 802.1Qa Fo wa ding and Queuing o Time-Sensi i e S eams (FQTSS) [18]
Con ol and o ches a ion IEEE 802.1Qa S eam Rese a ion P o ocol (SRP) [19]
IEEE 802.1Qca Pa h Con ol and Rese a ion (PCR) [20]
IEEE 802.1Qcc SRP Enhancemen s and Cen al Managemen [21]
IEEE 802.1CM TSN o F on haul [22]
Policing and edundancy IEEE 802.1Qci Pe -S eam Fil e ing and Policing (PSFP) [23]
IEEE 802.1CB F ame Replica ion and Elimina ion o Reliabili y (FRER) [24]
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2.2 TSN STRIDE h ea model
In[6], au ho s sys ema ically ca ego ized TSN h ea s
using he STRIDE amewo k [26], which iden i ies
po en ial h ea s as Spoo ing, Tampe ing, Repudia-
ion, In o ma ion disclosu e, Denial o Se ice (DoS),
and Ele a ion o P i ilege. Table2 shows how STRIDE
h ea s apply o a ious TSN p o ocols, a ge ing hei
key mechanisms and po en ially comp omising he
de e minis ic gua an ees essen ial o mission-c i ical
sys ems.
In he con ex o ime synch oniza ion, spoo ing
a acks can comp omise he in eg i y o he clock-
ing hie a chy, o example, by impe sona ing a mas e
clock o in e ening in he g andmas e selec ion p o-
cess [27]. Simila ly, ampe ing wi h synch oniza ion
packe s o imes amps can in oduce delays o incon-
sis en iming in o ma ion, unde mining ne wo k eli-
abili y[28, 29]. E en c yp og aphic p o ec ions canno
ully mi iga e hese issues, as delay a acks exploi he
p opaga ion delay adjus men s inhe en in he synch o-
niza ion p ocess[30].
Scheduling mechanisms a e pa icula ly ulne able o
ampe ing and DoS a acks[31]. Unau ho ized modi ica-
ions o ga e con ol lis s o excessi e injec ion o high-
p io i y a ic can dis up he balance o a ic p io i ies,
causing esou ce exhaus ion and deg aded Quali y o
Table 2 TSN h ea s ma ching wi h co esponding STRIDE h ea s
Ca ego y Th ea ype Desc ip ion
Time synch oniza ion Spoo ing Comp omised o impe sona ed mas e clock
In e ening he g andmas e selec ion
Unau ho ized join as mas e clock
Denial o se ice Sabo aging he g andmas e
Delaying packe s
Tampe ing Tampe ing o o ging synch oniza ion packe s
Al e ing imes amps
Mixing p o ocol e sion speci ica ions
Scheduling Tampe ing Tampe ing o o ging con igu a ion packe s
Malicious and inconsis en scheduling
Denial o se ice Injec ing excessi e high-p io i y a ic
Ele a ion o p i ilege Calib a ed a acks on backbone nodes
P omo ing low-p io i y a ic
Rese a ion Denial o se ice In e ening esou ce eques p opaga ion
Blocking con ol packe s on po s and VLANs
Flooding managemen da abase
Exhaus ing esou ces by malicious ese a ion
Tampe ing Tampe ing o o ging eques packe s
Modi ying announced s eam cha ac e is ics
O ches a ion Spoo ing Comp omised o impe sona ed con olle
Malicious con igu a ion o s eams and esou ce ese a ions
Adding malicious end-poin s and b idges
Denial o se ice Sabo aging he con olle
Va ious in e aces Ta ge ing a ious in e aces
Redundancy Spoo ing Fo ging malicious packe s wi h ake sequence numbe s
Decei ing la e e o de ec ion
Tampe ing Tampe ing packe s by manipula ing sequence numbe s
Delibe a e changes o eplay a acks
Changing by andom sequence numbe s
Denial o se ice Malicious mul ipa h con igu a ion
Assigning in e sec ing pa hs
Con igu ing delay-induced pa hs
Policing Denial o se ice Loosening il e ing and a e-limi ing ules
Miscon igu a ion Miscon igu a ion o con adic ing con igu a ion
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Se ice (QoS). The de e minis ic na u e o TSN sched-
uling also makes i suscep ible o calib a ed a acks ha
a ge speci ic nodes a p edic able imes.
Con ol and o ches a ion h ea s include ele a ion o
p i ilege a acks on cen alized con olle s, whe e a ack-
e s may miscon igu e c i ical pa hs o esou ces, in o-
duce malicious endpoin s, o sabo age o ches a ion
p ocesses en i ely [32]. E en sub le miscon igu a ions,
such as e ou ing c i ical a ic h ough subop imal
pa hs, can deg ade pe o mance o e ime[33].
Finally, spoo ing o ampe ing wi h sequence numbe s
in edundancy p o ocols can cause packe duplica ion,
ou -o -o de deli e y, o eplay a acks[34]. Miscon ig-
u ed il e ing and policing ules can ei he ail o p e en
malicious a ic o inad e en ly block legi ima e com-
munica ion, c ea ing addi ional ulne abili ies[35].
3 P oblem s a emen
The es ablishmen o a i ualized es ing in as uc u e
has become a s a egic necessi y in he ad ancemen o
Time-Sensi i e Ne wo king echnologies [36]. TSN, as
a co e enable o de e minis ic ne wo king in mission-
c i ical sys ems, equi es igo ous es ing and alida ion
o ensu e pe o mance and eliabili y [37]. Howe e ,
es ing hese echnologies in physical en i onmen s is
augh wi h signi ican challenges. The high cos o TSN
swi ches[38] and he complexi y o se ing up physical
es beds pose subs an ial ba ie s, making adi ional
me hods imp ac ical o many o ganiza ions.
Tes ing TSN echnologies in physical en i onmen s
is bo h cos ly and ime-in ensi e. TSN swi ches and
de ices a e highly specialized, o en equi ing signi i-
can in es men o es ablish a comp ehensi e physical
es bed. This expense can be p ohibi i e, pa icula ly o
small-scale o ganiza ions o esea ch ins i u ions. Addi-
ionally, he ime needed o se up, main ain, and econ-
igu e physical de ices o es ing a ious scena ios can
slow down de elopmen cycles[39]. These cons ain s
limi he scalabili y and lexibili y o physical es ing, as
each new con igu a ion o scena io may equi e addi-
ional ha dwa e o signi ican modi ica ions o he es
se up.
In his con ex , he concep o i ualized Digi al
Twins p o ides a pi o al solu ion o o e coming hese
challenges and limi a ions. A Digi al Twin eplica es
TSN en i onmen s in a ully digi alized o m, ena-
bling comp ehensi e es ing, con igu a ion alida ion,
and pe o mance analysis wi hou he need o physi-
cal ha dwa e[40]. Vi ualized en i onmen s acili a e
apid econ igu a ion and he simula ion o di e se
ne wo k scena ios, such as ailu e condi ions and high-
load si ua ions, ha would be challenging o eplica e
in physical se ups. By doing so, hey educe inancial
ba ie s, accele a e es ing p ocesses, and enable mo e
de ailed da a collec ion and analysis, he eby enhanc-
ing he o e all unde s anding o TSN pe o mance and
secu i y.
Despi e hese ad an ages, he adop ion o i ualized
es ing en i onmen s p esen s i s own se o challenges.
Ensu ing ha i ualized en i onmen s accu a ely emu-
la e eal-wo ld TSN beha io s is a c i ical conce n,
as inaccu acies in emula ion can lead o misleading
esul s and educe he eliabili y o es s. Addi ionally,
he complexi y o de eloping a obus i ualized es -
ing amewo k equi es expe ise in bo h TSN p o ocols
and i ualiza ion echnologies, which may no be ead-
ily a ailable. In eg a ing i ualized en i onmen s wi h
physical componen s o hyb id es ing scena ios u he
adds o he complexi y, po en ially leading o inconsis -
encies and addi ional cos s[41].
4 TSN Digi al Twin
Based on hese p ac ical p oblems and challenges, we
p esen a lexible, comple ely i ual TSN Digi al Twin
o secu i y expe imen a ion, including example a ack
scena ios. Fi s , we discuss he design objec i es ha we
conside mos ele an , and hen p oceed wi h he con-
cei ed Digi al Twin a chi ec u e.
4.1 Design objec i es
The TSN Digi al Twin we de eloped is g ounded in
he In as uc u e as Code pa adigm [42], a mode n
app oach ha ensu es he lexibili y and econ igu abili y
equi ed o ad anced es ing en i onmen s. By adop -
ing IaC, he en i e Digi al Twin can be managed h ough
decla a i e code, allowing o au oma ed deploymen ,
econ igu a ion, and scaling. This app oach elimina es
he adi ional ba ie s o manual in as uc u e man-
agemen , enabling use s o adap he en i onmen o
di e en es ing scena ios quickly. Whe he i in ol es
e alua ing ulne abili ies in TSN p o ocols o simula -
ing a ack scena ios, he econ igu abili y o e ed by IaC
ensu es ha he Digi al Twin emains a dynamic and e -
sa ile ool.
The Digi al Twin is designed o suppo secu i y expe -
imen a ion wi h a ocus on a acks a ge ing TSN Time
Synch oniza ion p o ocols and scheduling mechanisms.
These wo a eas a e c i ical in TSN en i onmen s, as
hey ensu e de e minis ic ne wo k beha io . By simula -
ing a ange o a acks, including hose ca ego ized unde
he STRIDE model, he Digi al Twin enables use s o es
and e alua e he impac o spoo ing, ampe ing, denial-
o -se ice, and o he h ea s. These simula ions o e
aluable insigh s in o he ulne abili ies o TSN sys ems,
helping o iden i y obus mi iga ion s a egies. The

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STRIDE amewo k se es as he ounda ion o s uc u -
ing he a ack scena ios, ensu ing comp ehensi e co e -
age o po en ial h ea s, and aligning he expe imen a ion
wi h es ablished h ea modeling p ac ices.
The p ima y goals o he TSN Digi al Twin a e o p o-
ide o ganiza ions wi h he abili y o gain hands-on expe-
ience wi h TSN communica ion p o ocols wi hou he
need o ex ensi e physical in as uc u e. By o e ing a
i ual es ing en i onmen , he Digi al Twin elimina es
he high cos s and logis ical challenges associa ed wi h
physical es beds. I enables use s o e alua e he impac
o con igu a ion changes in a con olled en i onmen ,
he eby a oiding eal-wo ld isks. The Digi al Twin also
acili a es es ing he in e ope abili y o TSN p o ocols
wi h a ious secu i y con igu a ions, ensu ing ha com-
ponen s unc ion eliably e en unde di e se condi ions.
Ou objec i e in de eloping he TSN Digi al Twin is
o c ea e a ool ha can be e ec i ely used o secu i y
expe imen a ion. The Digi al Twin is in ended no only
o a ack simula ion bu also o educa ion and ain-
ing pu poses, enabling use s o explo e he complexi ies
o TSN sys ems in a sa e and lexible en i onmen . To
achie e his, he Digi al Twin emphasizes cha ac e is ics
ha a e bo h unc ional and s uc u al, ensu ing a bal-
ance be ween accu acy and p ac icali y. Fideli y is a key
conside a ion, e e ing o how closely he Digi al Twin
emula es eal-wo ld TSN en i onmen s. While physi-
cal eplicas o e he highes deg ee o ideli y, he use o
i ualiza ion and emula ion echniques in he Digi al
Twin p o ides a cos -e ec i e ye meaning ul al e na i e.
The choice o hese echniques is guided by he need o
achie e es ing goals wi hou comp omising scalabili y o
usabili y.
4.2 Digi al Twin a chi ec u e
The implemen a ion o he TSN Digi al Twin was
achie ed h ough a combina ion o i ualiza ion ech-
nologies, au oma ion ools, and ne wo k simula ion
amewo ks. The p ima y goal was o c ea e a lexible,
scalable, and au oma ed i ualized es ing en i onmen
ha enables expe imen a ion wi h TSN p o ocols, wi h
a pa icula ocus on a acks a ge ing ime synch oni-
za ion and scheduling mechanisms. The design le e -
ages he In as uc u e as Code (IaC) pa adigm, which
is implemen ed using Ansible 2. This ool enables he
deploymen , econ igu a ion, and scaling o he en i e
en i onmen h ough decla a i e code, signi ican ly
educing se up complexi y and enhancing ep oduc-
ibili y. Ansible’s agen less a chi ec u e ensu es ha
con igu a ions can be applied seamlessly o e SSH,
au oma ing he p o isioning and managemen o i ual
machines and ne wo k con igu a ions wi h e iciency and
consis ency[43].
The a chi ec u e o he TSN Digi al Twin is ep esen ed
in Fig.1. The TSN Digi al Twin a chi ec u e is s uc u ed
ac oss ou main laye s, each con ibu ing speci ic unc-
ionali ies: he ha dwa e laye , he ke nel laye , he Vi IO
laye , and he use space laye .
The ha dwa e laye ep esen s he physical esou ces
o he hos machine, which se es as he ounda ion o
he en i e TSN Digi al Twin in as uc u e. This laye
includes he CPU, RAM, GPU, and ne wo k in e aces,
p o iding he compu a ional powe and connec i i y
equi ed o suppo he i ualized en i onmen . As he
g ound o he a chi ec u e, he ha dwa e laye ensu es
ha he pe o mance and scalabili y o he Digi al Twin
mee he demands o TSN es ing and expe imen a ion.
A he ke nel laye , he sys em employs KVM (Ke nel-
based Vi ual Machine) and QEMU o enable ha dwa e-
accele a ed i ualiza ion. This combina ion ensu es
e icien esou ce u iliza ion and nea -na i e pe o -
mance, c ea ing a obus base o hos ing he i ualized
componen s.
The Vi IO laye is he co e enable o TSN capabili-
ies wi hin he Digi al Twin. I suppo s ul a-low la ency
communica ion and eal- ime cons ain s essen ial o
TSN ope a ions. By implemen ing Vi IO a bo h he ke -
nel and use space le els, his laye minimizes I/O o e -
head h ough di ec memo y sha ing be ween hos and
gues sys ems. Mo eo e , i inco po a es he necessa y
mechanisms o TSN scheduling, including mul i-queue
suppo and ad anced queuing disciplines, o ensu e p e-
cise a ic shaping and de e minis ic deli e y o ne wo k
a ic.
The use space laye consis s o QEMU p ocesses, each
ep esen ing a i ual machine (VM) con igu ed as a
TSN endpoin , such as a clien , se e , o swi ch. These
VMs un he P ecision Time P o ocol[44] o synch o-
nize clocks ac oss he ne wo k ollowing he schema in
Fig.2, a c i ical equi emen o main aining de e minis-
ic beha io in TSN en i onmen s. This laye , combined
wi h he capabili ies o he Vi IO laye , enables he emu-
la ion o ealis ic TSN scena ios, p o iding a comp ehen-
si e pla o m o es ing, expe imen a ion, and alida ion.
5 Digi al Twin implemen a ion
In his sec ion, we p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew
o he implemen a ion o each laye o he TSN Digi-
al Twin, wi h a ocus on he key enabling echnologies
ha make his amewo k an e ec i e ool o emu-
la ing TSN en i onmen s. Each laye o he a chi ec-
u e has been me iculously designed o eplica e he
s ingen equi emen s o TSN, including low-la ency
2 h ps:// www. ansib le. com/
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communica ion, de e minis ic packe deli e y, and p e-
cise ime synch oniza ion.
I is essen ial o no e ha by u ilizing In as uc u e-as-
Code de elopmen , we acili a e he au oma ed deploy-
men o each laye wi hou equi ing addi ional manual
con igu a ion. This au oma ion ensu es a consis en and
e icien se up p ocess ac oss all sys em componen s. The
only use -de ined pa ame e s a e he numbe and ype
o TSN endpoin s speci ied in he hos use space laye ,
o e ing bo h lexibili y and scalabili y o adap o a ying
ne wo k scena ios. This app oach simpli ies he deploy-
men p ocess while p o iding a obus and e sa ile
Digi al Twin o es ing, alida ing, and op imizing TSN
p o ocols unde ealis ic condi ions.
5.1 Ke nel laye implemen a ion
The ke nel laye o he TSN Digi al Twin u ilizes KVM
and QEMU o e icien i ualiza ion, p o iding a
obus ounda ion o hos ing TSN-speci ic applica-
ions. In eg al o his laye is he implemen a ion o
Vi ual Dis ibu ed E he ne (VDE), a key echnology
ha emula es E he ne ne wo k en i onmen s en i ely
in so wa e[45]. VDE in oduces i ual swi ches and
i ual cables, mi o ing he a chi ec u e o physical
E he ne ne wo ks. VDE swi ches unc ion like ha d-
wa e swi ches, dynamically associa ing MAC add esses
wi h i ual po s o enable seamless packe o wa d-
ing. Vi ual cables in e connec hese swi ches, allow-
ing ne wo k opology lexibili y wi hou he cons ain s
o physical ha dwa e.
Fig. 1 A chi ec u e o he TSN Digi al Twin
Fig. 2 PTP G andmas e , Bounda y, and Sla e Clocks. In he igu e, “M” s ands o Mas e while “S” deno es Sla e
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The inclusion o VDE in he ke nel laye is essen ial
o se e al easons. I enables he c ea ion o complex,
dis ibu ed i ual ne wo ks whe e componen s such
as swi ches and endpoin s can un on di e en physi-
cal hos s. This dis ibu ion mi o s eal-wo ld TSN
en i onmen s, allowing o ealis ic es ing scena ios.
VDE also scales wi h he in as uc u e, suppo ing
mul iple in e connec ed swi ches and i ual machines.
This scalabili y is c ucial o simula ing la ge-scale TSN
ne wo ks, pa icula ly o es ing scena ios in ol ing
high de ice densi y o di e se opologies. Addi ion-
ally, VDE ne wo ks a e en i ely i ual, ensu ing ha
expe imen al a ic emains isola ed om he physi-
cal ne wo k. This isola ion enables he sa e execu ion
o expe imen s, including es ing malicious scena ios
such as DoS a acks, wi hou isking eal-wo ld dis up-
ions. VDE in eg a es wi h a ious i ualiza ion pla -
o ms, including QEMU and Use -Mode Linux, making
i highly adap able. I s i ual in e aces a e based on
he TAP in e ace, appea ing as ha dwa e in e aces o
he ope a ing sys em, o e ing compa ibili y wi h exis -
ing ools and p o ocols.
TAP ( e minal access poin ) in e aces play a pi o al
ole in his a chi ec u e [46]. TAP in e aces emula e
E he ne de ices, enabling he ansmission and ecep-
ion o aw E he ne ames be ween i ual machines
and he ke nel’s ne wo k s ack. Thei abili y o mimic
he beha io o physical ne wo k in e aces makes hem
indispensable o es ing TSN p o ocols. TAP de ices a e
ins an ia ed wi hin he ke nel using he un d i e , which
is con igu ed wi h he IFF_TAP lag, allowing hem o
unc ion as E he ne endpoin s. Each TAP in e ace is
linked o a ile desc ip o ha ac s as a communica ion
channel be ween he use space and he ke nel. E he ne
ames ansmi ed by a i ual machine h ough i s TAP
in e ace a e ecei ed by he ke nel’s ne wo k s ack and
ou ed o hei des ina ion. Simila ly, incoming ames
om he i ual ne wo k each he TAP in e ace and
a e p esen ed o he i ual machine as i hey o igina ed
om a physical E he ne po .
In he TSN Digi al Twin, TAP in e aces a e seam-
lessly in eg a ed wi h VDE. Each TAP de ice is con-
nec ed o a VDE swi ch po , c ea ing a ully i ualized
E he ne ne wo k. This connec ion emula es he unc-
ionali y o a physical E he ne swi ch, including MAC
add ess lea ning, a ic o wa ding, and packe isola-
ion. The VDE swi ches and TAP in e aces collec i ely
c ea e a ealis ic E he ne en i onmen whe e TSN-
speci ic ea u es, such as de e minis ic a ic schedul-
ing and ime synch oniza ion, can be ho oughly es ed.
The combina ion o TAP and VDE ensu es a high- idel-
i y emula ion o TSN beha io s, such as a ic shaping,
delay simula ions, and packe d opping, p o iding a
cos -e ec i e al e na i e o physical TSN-speci ic ha d-
wa e swi ches and cabling.
By inco po a ing VDE in o he ke nel laye , he TSN
Digi al Twin ensu es a obus , scalable, and cos -e ec-
i e en i onmen o e alua ing and enhancing TSN
p o ocols. This emula ion amewo k no only suppo s
ad anced es ing scena ios bu also b idges he gap
be ween heo e ical analysis and p ac ical implemen a-
ion. TAP in e aces enable i ual machines in he TSN
es bed o unc ion as ully ope a ional TSN nodes. These
in e aces connec o VDE swi ches, o ming a cohesi e
ne wo k whe e TSN p o ocols can be deployed and e al-
ua ed unde con olled, ep oducible condi ions.
The use o TAP in e aces in conjunc ion wi h VDE
o e s mul iple ad an ages. TAP in e aces emula e E h-
e ne de ices wi h high ideli y, making hem ideal o
es ing TSN p o ocols ha depend on p ecise E he ne -
laye beha io . By ope a ing di ec ly a Laye 2, TAP
in e aces enable he es bed o eplica e TSN-speci ic
a ic pa e ns, including ea u es such as ame p eemp-
ion and p io i y-based scheduling. Fu he mo e, hei
di ec communica ion wi h he ke nel bypasses he a-
di ional socke API, educing I/O o e head and ensu ing
low-la ency packe handling, which is c i ical o main-
aining he s ic iming equi emen s o TSN p o ocols.
In p ac ice, TAP in e aces enable i ual machines
in he TSN es bed o unc ion as ully ope a ional TSN
nodes, such as end de ices o swi ches. These in e aces
connec o VDE swi ches, o ming a cohesi e ne wo k
whe e TSN p o ocols can be deployed and e alua ed
unde con olled, ep oducible condi ions. The combi-
na ion o TAP in e aces and VDE ensu es ha he i -
ualized TSN ne wo k accu a ely eplica es eal-wo ld
condi ions, acili a ing de ailed es ing o p o ocol beha -
io , pe o mance, and esilience unde di e se scena ios.
Ul ima ely, he TAP-VDE in eg a ion ensu es he p ecise
emula ion o ea u es such as ame scheduling and clock
synch oniza ion, making i possible o analyze he beha -
io o TSN s anda ds in de ail.
5.2 Vi IO laye implemen a ion
The Vi IO laye se es as a c i ical componen o he
TSN Digi al Twin, enabling e icien communica ion
be ween gues i ual machines and he hos sys em.
The in eg a ion be ween Vi IO and QEMU pe mi s o
expose i ual de ices such as ne wo k adap e s h ough
d i e s ha ope a e di ec ly wi h he gues Ope a-
i e Sys em[47], minimizing he o e head o ha dwa e
emula ion. This e iciency is essen ial o eplica ing he
de e minis ic and low-la ency beha io s equi ed in TSN
en i onmen s.
A i s co e, Vi IO elies on wo p ima y componen s:
he Vi IO de ices implemen ed in QEMU and he
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Melise al. EURASIP Jou nal on In o ma ion Secu i y (2025) 2025:26
Vi IO d i e s wi hin he gues ope a ing sys em. These
componen s wo k oge he o deli e high-pe o mance
I/O ope a ions wi h minimal o e head, aligning pe ec ly
wi h he de e minis ic and low-la ency equi emen s o
TSN p o ocols.
Vi IO de ices a e i ual ep esen a ions o ha d-
wa e componen s, including ne wo k in e aces, block
de ices, and consoles. These de ices a e implemen ed
wi hin QEMU and a e exposed o he gues ope a ing
sys em h ough s anda dized anspo mechanisms,
Pe iphe al Componen In e connec (PCI) o Memo y-
mapped I/O and po -mapped I/O (MMIO). Al hough
hese de ices appea as physical ha dwa e o he gues ,
hei unc ionali y is en i ely i ual, elying on QEMU o
execu e he ac ual I/O ope a ions. In he con ex o he
TSN Digi al Twin, he Vi IO-ne de ice se es as a i -
ual ne wo k adap e , in e ac ing seamlessly wi h he hos
sys em’s esou ces h ough he TAP in e ace. This se up
ensu es ha TSN-speci ic a ic lows can be emula ed
accu a ely.
On he gues side, he Vi IO d i e acili a es com-
munica ion wi h he Vi IO de ices p esen ed by QEMU.
These d i e s, op imized o pa a i ualized en i on-
men s, u ilize sha ed memo y bu e s and ci cula
bu e s uc u es, known as i queues, o handle I/O
ope a ions. When he gues OS needs o ansmi da a,
such as a TSN packe , he Vi IO d i e places he packe
and i s associa ed me ada a in o a i queues. The d i e
hen no i ies QEMU h ough a i ual in e up , signal-
ing ha he da a is eady o p ocessing. QEMU e ie es
he packe om he i queue and ansmi s i h ough
he hos ne wo k s ack using a TAP in e ace. This p o-
cess ensu es he e icien and low-la ency deli e y o TSN
a ic.
In he e e se di ec ion, when he hos sys em ecei es
da a o he gues , QEMU places he incoming da a in o
he i queues sha ed wi h he gues OS. A no i ica ion
is sen o he Vi IO d i e , which e ie es he da a and
deli e s i o he app op ia e applica ion o ne wo k s ack
in he gues . This bidi ec ional in e ac ion ensu es a
seamless low o TSN packe s, c ucial o main aining he
p ecise iming and eliabili y equi ed in TSN en i on-
men s. This p ocess is illus a ed in Fig.3.
The Vi IO laye in he TSN Digi al Twin is signi ican ly
enhanced by he mul iqueue ea u e, a solu ion designed
o o e come he scalabili y limi a ions o single-queue
ne wo k con igu a ions. In adi ional se ups, VMs wi h
mul iple i ual CPUs ( CPUs) a e cons ained by he
p esence o a single ing ess (RX) and eg ess (TX) queue.
This c ea es a bo leneck whe e inc easing he numbe o
Fig. 3 Vi IO laye implemen a ion on Qemu and in e ac ions wi h he ke nel and use space laye s h ough he Vi IO de ice and d i e
Page 16 o 17
Melise al. EURASIP Jou nal on In o ma ion Secu i y (2025) 2025:26
Consen o publica ion
No applicable.
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no compe ing in e es s.
Recei ed: 13 Feb ua y 2025 Accep ed: 11 Augus 2025
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