2012 status of two West Greenland caribou populations 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat. Technical Report No. 98

1 2012 status of two West Greenland caribou populations 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat Technical Report No. 98, 2016 Greenland Institute of Natural Resources 2 Title: 2012 status of two West Greenland caribou populations 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat Authors: Christine Cuyler1, Josephine Nymand1, Aslak Jensen2 and Hans Mølgaard3 1Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 570, 3900–Nuuk, Greenland 2Solviaq 15, lej 203, 3900–Nuuk, Greenland; 3P.O. Box 122, 3911–Sisimiut, Greenland Series: Technical Report No. 98, 2016 Date of publication: 20 June, 2016 Publisher: Greenland Institute of Natural Resources Financial support: Greenland Institute of Natural Resources Cover photo: Christine Cuyler: Nine caribou, Grædefjord, 08 March 2012 ISBN: 87-91214-75-0 ISSN: 1397-3657 EAN: 9788791214752 Cited as: Cuyler, C., Nymand, J., Jensen, A. & Mølgaard, H. 2016. 2012 status of two West Greenland caribou populations 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat. Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 98. 179 pp. (Part I: 1-98; Part II: 99-179). Contact address: The report is only available in electronic format. PDF-file copies can be downloaded at this homepage: http://www.natur.gl/publikationer/tekniske rapporter It is possible to obtain a printed copy of the report here: Greenland Institute of Natural Resources P.O. Box 570 DK-3900 Nuuk Greenland Phone: +299 36 12 00 Fax: +299 36 12 E-mail: [email protected] www.natur.gl 3 2012 status of two West Greenland caribou populations 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat By Christine Cuyler1, Josephine Nymand1, Aslak Jensen2 & Hans Mølgaard3 1Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 570, 3900–Nuuk, Greenland 2Solviaq 15, lej 203, 3900–Nuuk, Greenland 3P.O. Box 122, 3911–Sisimiut, Greenland Technical Report No. 98, 2016 Greenland Institute of Natural Resources 4 [Empty page] 5 Table of Contents Summary...................................................................................... 7 Resume (Danish) ........................................................................ 9 Eqikkaaneq (Greenlandic) ...................................................... 11 Introduction .............................................................................. 15 Methods ..................................................................................... 21 Results ....................................................................................... 28 Discussion ................................................................................. 34 Acknowledgements .................................................................. 48 Literature cited ......................................................................... 49 Part I, Figures 1. Ranges of Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou populations Page 15 2. The South region fjord names used to delineate areas of caribou abundance Page 17 3. Deserted hamlet Lille Narsaq 28 October 1998 Page 18 4. Line numbers with A & B end points for northeastern South region Page 24 5. Line numbers with A & B end points for north-central South region Page 24 6. Line numbers with A & B end points for south-central South region Page 25 7. Line numbers with A & B end points for southern most South region Page 25 8. Well antlered cow and calf of the Ameralik population Page 29 9. Distribution and location of the 1104 caribou observations on transect lines Page 31 10. Six caribou including two calves are hardly visible Page 32 11. Feral ewe stands with her almost yearling male lamb Page 33 12. Place name details taken from Cuyler et al. (2003) Page 62 13. Places names and route sailed 28 October 1998 Page 63 14. Numbered caribou observations….28 October 1998 Page 65 15. Place names relevant to the caribou carcass locations south of Nuuk, 1998 Page 72 16. Caribou carcass locations south of Nuuk in April-May 1998 Page 72 17. Examples of the GPS positions provided to Air Charter pilots Page 94 Part I, Tables 1. Recent late winter population parameters, Ameralik & Qeqertarsuatsiaat Page 16 2. South region, 1-12 March 2012 caribou survey, summary statistics Page 27 3. South region, 1-12 March 2012 caribou survey, estimates and densities Page 28 4. Demographic for Ameralik caribou, South region March 2012 Page 29 5. Caribou minimum count & demographics 28 October 1998 Page 65 6. Raw data for numbered caribou locations…28 October 1998 Page 67 7. Raw data on caribou carcasses located in April-May 1998 Page 73 8. South region caribou survey details for transect lines flown 1-12 March 2012 Page 76 6 9. Ameralik caribou population raw data from transect line survey March 2012 Page 78 10. Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou population raw data from transect line survey March 2012 Page 83 11. Ameralik caribou survey raw data for demographics and antler possession Page 87 12. Population estimates & minimum counts of wild caribou in Greenland Page 98 Part I, Appendices 1. 2016 Professional hunter knowledge for South region, West Greenland Page 52 2. Place names Page 62 3. 1998 Field Report: October minimum count Ameralik caribou Page 63 4. 1998 Field Report: Caribou winter mortality, near Nuuk area Page 71 5. Transect line details: March 2012 aerial caribou survey Page 76 6. Raw data from March 2012 aerial caribou survey by helicopter Page 78 7. Raw data 12 March 2012 demographics & antlers Ameralik caribou Page 87 8. Recommendations for improving future surveys Page 91 9. 2016 Regulations for caribou hunting and subsequent sale of meat Page 95 10. Past & recent Greenland caribou population estimates & minimum counts Page 98 Part II, Appendices - Photographic record* Page 99 11. Ameralik transect line snow conditions & topography Page 100 12. Qeqertarsuatsiaat (QEQ) transect line snow conditions & topography Page 125 13. Caribou feeding craters in snow, 1-12 March 2016 Page 147 14. Sun in one’s eyes & fog/icing of helicopter windows 2012 Page 163 15. How difficult is it to spot caribou? (original >6MB photos) Page 166 *All photos presented (plus hundreds more) are available in their original >6MB size at the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources F:/40-59/PaFu/42/Landpattedyr/24 Aerial Survey/2012 South/Photo DATA_South Survey 2012 7 Summary West Greenland (south of 69°N) has six caribou regions that in total contain eight sub-populations. This report presents new information about the South region, which is divided into two sub-populations, Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat. These were last surveyed in March 2006. Given unlimited harvests, long autumn hunting season as well as a winter hunting season, a new estimate of abundance was overdue. The March 2012 helicopter survey used different methods and analysis than those implemented in the 2001 and 2006 surveys. Line distance sampling was employed. Another change was that the boundary between Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat was returned to the Sermilik fjord and Sermeq glacier. The overall abundance for the entire South region (Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat combined) in March 2012 was approximately 16,500 caribou, and overall caribou density was about 1.3/km2. Although the latter is almost identical to the recommended stocking density of 1.2/km2, the density specific to the Ameralik population exceeded this. Individually, the Ameralik population was estimated to ca. 11,700 caribou (90 % CI: 8,500 – 16,000; CV = 0.18), with a density of 1.7 caribou/km2. Calf (age 9-10 months) percentage was 28.2 %, calf recruitment was 63.5 calves per 100 cows. The sex ratio was ca. 62 bulls per 100 cows. The Qeqertarsuatsiaat population is estimated to ca. 4,800 caribou (90 % CI: 3,400 – 6,800; CV = 0.21), with a density of 0.8 caribou/km2. The 2012 Ameralik population estimate is likely an underestimate because observer bias was not addressed. Further the 2012 estimate may be low in comparison with the 2006 population estimate, since the 2006 survey was less accurate but attained a similar number. Altered and atypical Ameralik caribou distribution and choice of elevation strongly suggested that the winter harvest has a disturbance impact on caribou behavior. In future there should be an appropriate hiatus between the cessation of harvest and the initiation of monitoring. The present situation necessitates a pre-survey reconnaissance for correct allocation of survey effort. New to this survey were five crippled caribou. We suspect the immediately preceding winter hunting season (end date 29 Feb 2012) was responsible. We observed no muskoxen; however five feral sheep were seen. 8 The changed survey methods could have confounded a discussion of population trend since 2006. However, the 2006 and 2012 estimates of abundance are similar and are within each other’s confidence intervals. Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat population abundance appears to have been relatively stable for that period. We suggest the caribou harvest in combination with continued high calf production is responsible for maintaining the population size close to the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) level. Given the 2012 high calf recruitment, we advise a continued high autumn harvest pressure similar to recent levels, specifically in the light of the relatively high 2012 density for Ameralik. Although the South region taken as a whole had a density close to the recommended stocking density (1.2/km2), Ameralik density was ca. 2/km2 and could rise. In the interests of caribou conservation, any growth in Ameralik population size causing high density (e.g., 4/km2 which occurred in 2001) must be prevented, because it would negatively impact vegetation, which already received overgrazing 16-20 years ago. Conserving the caribou’s forage vegetation is our best method to ensure healthy caribou and enable a good annual calf production and survival. Although caribou numbers in the South region for the period 2006-2012 were seemingly stable, there is no reason to be complacent. Hunter knowledge in 2016 suggests that caribou abundance has not declined since 2012, but may actually be rising. If true this would threaten forage vegetation and ultimately caribou numbers. Further, there are some disquieting anthropogenic changes to the caribou environment since 2012. These include altered caribou habitat use (distribution), demographics, crippling loss and new trends in hunting. These are important to consider since expected global warming will be an additional change that can bring environmental instability with negative consequences for caribou abundance. We suggest that the commercial activities directly and indirectly involved with the harvesting of caribou now make a hitherto unrecognized substantial contribution to the Greenland economy that far exceeds the meat’s market value. Meanwhile, the caribou populations in West Greenland, including Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat, are basically discrete populations inhabiting small ‘islands’ of land sandwiched between the Davis Strait and the Greenland Ice Cap. This makes the caribou vulnerable because these ‘islands’ offer nowhere-to-run-to, if and when, changes come, be these climate (e.g., drought, severe winter) or other factors (e.g., disease outbreaks, anthropogenic impacts). For wildlife management to have any chance of 9 mitigating future change(s), monitoring is necessary. Unfortunately lack of financial resources has suspended caribou surveys until further notice. Meanwhile the magnitude of the harvest is unknown, poaching may be substantial and winter hunting (which can increase mortality risk) is allowed, albeit on a restricted basis at present. With climate change lurking, we suspect the chances for catastrophic weather will rise. The future of our caribou populations, and hence the significant economic benefits obtained thereof, could be in jeopardy. Without monitoring data the current situation is unknown and scientifically founded recommendations for the sustainable use of caribou become impossible. Resume (Danish) Vestgrønland (syd for 69°N) har seks store regioner med rensdyr, der tilsammen har åtte underbestande. Denne rapport præsenterer den seneste information om Sydregionen, som er delt i to underbestande, Ameralik og Qeqertarsuatsiaat. De foregående undersøgelser her blev foretaget i marts 2006. Som følge af ubegrænset jagt, en lang jagtsæson i efteråret såvel som i vintersæsonen, var det på tide med et nyt estimat af bestanden. Helikopterundersøgelsen fra marts 2012 anvendte andre metoder og analyser end i undersøgelserne fra 2001 og 2006. Her anvendtes line distance sampling. En anden ændring var, at grænsen mellem Ameralik og Qeqertarsuatsiaat er blevet flyttet tilbage til Sermilik fjorden og Sermeq gletsjeren. Den samlede bestand i hele Sydregionen (Ameralik og Qeqertarsuatsiaat) var cirka 16.500 rensdyr i marts 2012, og den generelle bestandstæthed for rensdyr var cirka 1,3 rensdyr/km2. Selvom sidstnævnte var næsten identisk med den anbefalede bestandstæthed på 1,2 rensdyr/km2, overskred Ameralik-bestanden denne. Isoleret set blev Ameralik-bestanden estimeret til cirka 11.700 rensdyr (90% CI: 8.500 – 16.000; CV = 0,18) med en bestandstæthed på 1,7 rensdyr/km2. Andelen af kalve (9-10 måneder) var 28,2%; en rekruttering på 63,5 kalve per 100 køer. Kønsfordelingen var cirka 62 tyre per 100 køer. Qeqertarsuatsiaatbestanden er estimeret til cirka 4.800 rensdyr (90% CI: 3.400 – 6.800; CV = 0,21) med en bestandstæthed på 0,8 rensdyr/km2. Estimatet af Ameralik-bestanden i 2012 er sandsynligvis et underestimat, da bias ikke blev overvejet i forbindelse med observationerne. Ydermere er estimatet fra 2012 muligvis 16 Although both populations have been surveyed for abundance since the early 1990’s, it was first in 2001 and again in 2006, that helicopter and short length random transect lines were used. The 2001 survey indicated that the density of the Ameralik population was 3.7 caribou per km2, which was well over the recommended stocking capacity of 1.2 caribou per km2. In contrast, the Qeqertarsuatsiaat population was approximately equal to the recommended stocking capacity. Following the 2001 survey, harvest management focused on reducing Ameralik abundance to remedy overstocking and observed range degradation due to overgrazing. The 2006 survey indicated that both populations were within the advised stocking density. For several decades now, the Ameralik population has been a successful genetic mix of indigenous caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) and feral semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) (Jepsen 1999, Jepsen et al. 2002). The mixing likely began in the late 1970’s (Cuyler 1999). At the time of this 2012 survey the Qeqertarsuatsiaat population may also have become a genetic mix, owing to the continued southward movement into the Qeqertarsuatsiaat region by Ameralik animals (Cuyler et al. 2003, 2006; Local Knowledge Appendix 1). Table 1. Recent late winter population parameters of the Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat populations in West Greenland (Cuyler et al. 2003, 2007; Ydemann & Pedersen 1999). Parameter 1993 1996 2001 2006 Ameralik caribou population – SOUTH region (4) Population size estimate 1,200 4,500 31,880 9,680 Mean group size  SD 3.9 3.5 4.3  3.65 SD 5.4  3.06 SD Max group size 28 15 Density per sq km 0.2 0.9 3.7 1.16 Calf percentage 3.1 % 16.2 % 17.8 % 24.8 % Recruitment (Calf / 100 Cow) - - 40 59.8 Sex ratio (Bull > 1 year / 100 Cow) - - 83 81 Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou population – SOUTH region (5) Population size estimate 181 - 5,372 5,224 Mean group size SD 1.9 - 2.9  1.29 SD 5.2  3.28 SD Max group size 6 14 Density per sq km 0.03 - 1.1 1.02 Calf percentage 14.8 - 26.2 % 8 % Recruitment (Calf / 100 Cow) - - 61 32 Sex ratio (Bull > 1 year / 100 Cow) - - 72 275 17 Background - Ameralik population The Ameralik caribou population inhabits the area between Godthåbsfjord and Sermilik fjord in hunting area 4 (details in Cuyler et al. 2007). Earlier fixed-wing, high altitude, high speed surveys of 1993 and 1996 resulted in late winter pre-calving population estimates of ca. 1,200 and 4,500 respectively (Ydemann D. & Pedersen C.B. 1999). Both were underestimates (Cuyler 2007). After a hiatus of four years, surveying for caribou abundance in West Greenland began again in 2000 using changed methods, which included low altitude low speed helicopters. The number of caribou observed on the new surveys far exceeded any previous survey. Figure 2. The South region fjord names used to delineate areas of caribou abundance. Further place names are in Appendix 2. Elevations over 200m are shown in light yellow, below 200m are green. The 2001 Ameralik survey gave a late winter pre-calving population estimate of ca. 31,880 Ameralik caribou (Table 1). This was 7-fold greater than the 1996 fixed-wing estimate, and gave almost 4x the recommended stocking density, while calf percentage was low for a population without predation. When caribou density is too high and food resources limited intra-specific competition may have negative impacts on body condition and subsequently Ice Cap Nunatarsuaq Austmannadalen Greenland Isfjord Ameragdla Nuajat kua Buksefjord Hydro Plant Frederikshåb Isblink Storø Sermeq Kapisillit Bjørnesund Fiskenæsset Qeqertarsuatsiaat Ameralik fjord Godthåbsfjord Bjørneø Nuuk Sermilik fjord Buksefjord Grædefjord Alángordlia fjord Qeqertarsuatsiaat fjord 100 kilometers 050 18 reproduction. Local hunters had observed areas where overgrazing and trampling of the vegetation had occurred by 2001 (Cuyler et al. 2003). Wildlife management immediately increased quotas and season length with the goal to reduce population size and density, which would lower grazing pressure and trampling of the range and thus perhaps raise forage quantity and quality. A successful reduction in caribou number was expected to be reflected in higher calf percentages and late-winter calf recruitment (calves per 100 cows) on subsequent surveys. Increased hunter harvests between 2001 and 2006 successfully brought down the size of the Ameralik caribou population (Cuyler et al. 2007). The 2006 survey resulted in a late winter precalving population estimate of ca. 9,680 caribou, and as expected, the calf percentage and late-winter calf recruitment rose substantially. The latter suggested that a suitable winter stocking density was achieved by the time of the March 2006 survey. Figure 3. Deserted hamlet Lille Narsaq 28 October 1998: top c. 52 caribou with seashore in foreground, bottom zoom c. 18. An additional 29 were outside the photo frame for total of 81 caribou. (Photo Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid). 19 Since the 1990’s hunters have observed not only caribou abundance changes, but also distribution patterns (Cuyler et al. 2003). In 1998 caribou seemed “everywhere” south of Nuuk (Appendix 3, 4). Sailing for several hours along a 34 km stretch of shoreline between Ameralik Fjord and Buksefjord (Fig. 2, Appendix 3) 955 caribou were observed. The majority appeared to ignore the boat, e.g., those at abandoned Lille Narsaq continued foraging (Fig. 3). Calf production was high, density huge and maximum group size 111. While groups numbering 300-500 caribou were seen in Eqaluit ilordlit and Præstefjord valleys (Cuyler et al. 2003). Caribou could be shot from the beaches, and were relatively common in Nuuk’s nearby Kobbefjord. At the time harvest quotas had been extremely limited for several years. In sharp contrast, by 2012 large coastal aggregations were a thing of the past for Godthåbsfjord, Ameralik, Buksefjord, Alángordlia and Sermilik fjords. Meanwhile modest aggregations were observed increasingly further south, specifically where caribou were once scarce, e.g., Grædefjord, Fiskenæsset fjord, Bjørnesund and north of the Frederikshåb Isblink (Fig. 3). Detailed background available in Cuyler et al. (2003). Background - Qeqertarsuatsiaat population Less is known about the indigenous Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou that occur between Sermilik fjord and Frederikshåb Isblink in hunting area 5. The 1993 survey (fixed-wing, high altitude, high speed) resulted in an extremely low pre-calving population estimate of c. 181 caribou. This was an underestimate (Cuyler, 2007). A similar survey in 1995 suggested 500 caribou. A 1996 survey had no result for Qeqertarsuatsiaat. The late winter 2001 and 2006 surveys (helicopter, low altitude, and low speed) resulted in pre-calving population estimates of ca. 5,372 and 5,224 caribou respectively. Stocking density was ca. 1.1 caribou per km2, which matched the advised stocking capacity, and the observed calf percentage and late winter recruitment were high in 2001. However, the poor calf percentage and recruitment in 2006 were unexpected. The coincident and extremely skewed sex ratio suggests the possibility of cow biased harvesting over the intervening period. Detailed historical background for the Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou can be found in Cuyler et al. (2003). Past harvest management Prior to and including 1992, caribou hunting in all of Greenland was unregulated. The 1993 aerial survey estimated a low number of total caribou in West Greenland, ca. 9,000. Professional hunters denied the 1993 result vehemently. By 2000-2001 the estimate of ca. 9,000 was proven an 20 underestimate caused by inappropriate survey methods (Cuyler et al. 2002, 2003). Still, in 1993 wildlife management prohibited caribou hunting for two years (1993-1994) throughout Greenland. In 1995 management initiated, harvest quotas, seasons and designated permit types (professional, recreational). However, harvest quotas were meager and remained so into 1999. Total annual caribou permits for all of West Greenland started at about 2000 caribou in 1995 and rose to about 4000 by 1999. For the South region this situation first changed in the autumn hunting season of 2001, as a result of the 2001 helicopter survey’s larger population size estimate. Although their hunter knowledge was finally vindicated, its rejection and the hunting ban of 1993-1994, still rankles among professional hunters 23 years on in 2016. Given the large number and high density of Ameralik caribou in 2001, further population size increase was expected to exacerbate existing observed range degradation and possibly lead to a natural decline of population number owing to density-dependent forage limitation. Since this was contrary to sustainable use, wildlife management increased hunter harvest and aimed at reducing caribou abundance and density to a suitable stocking rate, i.e., 1.2 caribou per sq km (Cuyler et al. 2007). The target stocking rate was based on studies elsewhere that document associations between observed densities and changes in 1) caribou productivity, 2) dispersal, and 3) condition of the range, as described in Cuyler et al. (2007). Essentially, increased hunter harvest for both the Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat populations was achieved initially by greatly raised quotas in 2001 and 2002, lengthening the autumn season, and authorizing the harvest of all sexes and ages. These were followed in 2003 by open unlimited harvests and the addition of a winter hunting season (begun 2003). Unlimited autumn harvests continued. For example, just prior to this 2012 survey, there was also a winter January-February harvest on Ameralik caribou. In contrast, there was no winter season for Qeqertarsuatsiaat in 2012. Traditionally most caribou hunting occurred in August and September, and the majority of animals harvested were males (Loison et al. 2000), and the 1995 – 1999 hunting permits allowed only a bull harvest. Since 2001, harvest management approved the taking of cows and cows with calves, and the harvest of females increased substantially. The timing and length of hunting seasons has varied. Between 1996 and 2005 hunting seasons were lengthened three to seven-fold. Between 1996 and 1999 the length of the hunting season 21 never exceeded 27 days, 15 August to 10 September, for both recreational and professional hunters. In contrast, in 2004 the autumn season was 92 days (15 July – 15 November) for both recreational and professional hunters, with the latter receiving an additional 90-day winter season (1 December – 28 February). In 2005 the autumn season was shortened by 15 days and the winter season by one month. The 2006 survey for abundance of Ameralik caribou resulted in an abundance estimate that was much reduced and in accord with the target stocking rate (Cuyler et al. 2007). Simultaneously, calf production and recruitment increased, while the adult sex ratio was unaltered. However, analyses suggested the possibility that the 2006 Ameralik population size of ca. 10,000 might drop by 50% over the next few years (Witting & Cuyler 2011). Meanwhile, the 2006 abundance of Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou was unchanged from 2001, while demographics evidenced a skewing towards males, for which hunter preference since 2001 may have been instrumental. Present survey Given the unlimited autumn and winter harvests between 2006 and 2012 what changes, if any, had resulted in the abundance and demographics of the Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou populations? In early March 2012 the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources (GINR) once again examined these two caribou populations of the South Region in West Greenland by aerial helicopter survey. This 2012 survey replaced the multiple short length random transect lines strip method of 2001 and 2006, with distance sampling and systematic transect lines. This report presents the 2012 pre-calving abundance for the two caribou populations in the South region and demographics for the Ameralik caribou. Methods Study area The South region is currently calculated to about 12,800 km2 of permanently ice-free area, which also excludes lakes and rivers. Older calculations, which included lakes and rivers, estimated 13,473 km2 (Cuyler et al. 2003, 2007). Godthåbsfjord forms the northern border and Frederikshåb Isblink the southern border. The east and west boundaries are the Greenland Ice Cap and the Davis Strait respectively. Approximate north-south boundaries for the 22 South region are 64.8N and 62.8N. The area surveyed did not include major glaciers or the majority of large islands on the coastline between Nuuk and Frederikshåb Isblink. Bjørneø and Storø, islands in the Godthåbsfjord, were also excluded. The pre-2001 border between the Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat populations was reestablished, i.e., Sermilik fjord and the Sermeq glacier. Thus the Ameralik area is currently assessed to about 7,044 sq km, and the Qeqertarsuatsiaat about 5,756 sq km. Common to West Greenland, the South region exhibits a climate gradient. The western seacoast is wet maritime, however, the climate becomes dry continental as one moves east towards the Greenland Ice Cap. The region is sandwiched between the dominating high pressure over the Greenland Ice Cap to the East and the frequent low-pressure oceanic storm systems that sweep up from the southwest. At the nearby capital city of Nuuk, annual precipitation is 600 mm, annual mean temperature -1.4°C, with mean July temperature 6.5°C (Tamstorf et al. 2005). Topography is typically mountainous between the eight fjords, which penetrate deeply towards, and often end at, the inland Ice Cap. Elevations over 300 m cover most of the region and peaks of 1000-1500 m are common. Aside from the caribou/reindeer, the only indigenous wild mammals present in the South region are arctic hare (Lepus arcticus Rhoads) and arctic fox (Alopex lagopus Linnaeus). An additional species, muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus Zimmermann), has recently established itself in the small northeastern area known as Nunatarssuaq. These are natural immigrants from the Kangerlussuaq population (67°N, 51°W). Also, feral sheep (Ovis aries), which originated from sheep farming at Kapisillit (inner Godthåbsfjord), have maintained a small presence in Austmannadalen for several decades. These are protected, but illegal harvest occurs. Further study area details are available in Witting & Cuyler (2011). Survey design and field methods Areas surveyed included islands, lakes and rivers, omitting Ice Caps and glaciers. Similar to previous surveys March was chosen for reasons described in Cuyler et al. (2007). The 2012 aerial helicopter survey differed in design and method from the 2001 and 2006 random transect line strip-counts. This survey used line distance sampling on 61 lines of variable length. Most followed a west-east axis, reflecting the climate gradient from coastal maritime to dry continental at the Ice Cap (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7, Appendix 5). Although lines were systematically parallel, initial startand end-points for a stratum were 23 random. There were two strata, one each for expected high and low caribou density. Lines were separated by 7 and 20 km respectively. The figures 47show lines numbering 1 to 62, however, number 53 was omitted. Line-61 was flown 7 km further north than intended and as shown in figure 4. Failure to detect caribou was still considered the most important source of negative bias (inaccuracy). The typical high variability of snow cover in West Greenland terrain provides the often stationary caribou perfect background camouflage (Part II; Appendices 11, 12, 13, 14 & 15). Therefore now and since 2000; we have used an AS350-B3 helicopter, which can follow terrain features while maintaining a comparatively constant altitude above ground level even flying low and slow, while observers concentrated on detecting caribou along a relatively narrow strip width. To reduce the amount of ‘dead ground’ hidden by landscape features (a feature of previous surveys), helicopter altitude in this 2012 survey was raised to 40m (ca. 120 feet). Flight speed averaged ca. 65 km/hour and was never below 60 km/hour. Participants included three observers and one person recording data, i.e., distance to and size of each caribou group with associated GPS location. Observers, each with previous survey experience, included Greenland Institute of Natural Resources (GINR) research biologist, Christine Cuyler, professional hunter Aslak Jensen (Greenland Association of Professional Hunters (KNAPK)) from Nuuk, and Sisimiut Hunting Officer Hans Mølgaard (Greenland Fisheries & Licensing Control (GFLK)). Two observers collaboratively surveyed from the left side of the helicopter, while one did the right side alone. Josephine Nymand, research biologist with GINR was the data recorder. While surveying lines there was verbal contact among caribou observers and the data recorder. Definitions of terms and maps delineating all caribou populations in Greenland are available in Cuyler et al. (2007). Estimating abundance Distance sampling In contrast to the South region surveys of 2001 and 2006, population estimates for the two caribou populations investigated in 2012 were obtained by employing line distance sampling methods, in which distances from a line to animals detected are recorded and from these distances density and/or abundance of animal populations are estimated (Buckland et al. 2001, Thomas et al. 2010). 24 Figure 4. Line numbers with A and B end points for the northeastern portion of the South region, caribou survey for abundance, 1-12 March 2012. Lines were separated by 7 or 20 km for high and low caribou density strata respectively. Elevations above 200m are shown in pale-yellow. Line 53 does not exist. It would have been 7km north of transect 52 running across the low elevation short neck of land. Figure 5. Line numbers with A and B end points for the north-central portion of the South region, caribou survey for abundance, 1-12 March 2012. Lines were separated by 7 or 20 km for high and low caribou density strata respectively. Elevations above 200m are shown in pale-yellow. B B A B B B B A BA B A A A A B A A AB B B A A A B AA B A A A A A A A A A 47 49 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A 43 44 45 46 48 42 50 A A A A A A A A A 40 Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Buksefjord Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station Power Station 36 37 34 41 39 A A A A A A A A A Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Kangerluarsoruseq Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn Færingehavn 35 38 33 B B B B B B B B B 25 Figure 6. Line numbers with A and B end points for the south-central portion of the South region, caribou survey for abundance, 1-12 March 2012. Lines are separated by 7 for high caribou density stratum. Elevations above 200m are shown in pale-yellow. Figure 7. Line numbers with A and B end points for the southern most portion of the South region, caribou survey for abundance, 1-12 March 2012. Lines are separated by 7 or 20 km for high and low caribou density strata respectively. Elevations above 200m are shown in pale-yellow. B B B B B B B B B 16 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 15 14 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B BA A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B 13 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A17 18 19 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A AB B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 10 12 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B28 26 25 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B 23 21 A A A A A A A A AB B B B B B B B B 30 A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 20 B B B B B B B B BA A A A A A A A A 9 11 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A 33 32 B B B B B B B B B Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Qeqertarsuatsiaat Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset Fiskenæsset 27 24 22 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A 29 31A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 9 11 B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 7 8 B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B 1 2 3 12 B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B 5 10 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 4 A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 6 32 Survey logistics In the period 1-12 March we flew seven of those days. Poor weather made five days non-flyable. Flight time totaled ca. 39 hours and 11 minutes, 13 hours more than in the 2006 survey. Refueling was necessary after about 2.5 hours of flight time. Systematic lines 34 to 62 applied to Ameralik caribou, while lines 1 to 33 to Qeqertarsuatsiaat. Figure 10. Six caribou, including two calves, are hardly visible at a distance of ca. 200 meters, line 60, 9 March. The six are running single-file across the center and right of centre. If stationary, as often occurs, some or all could have remained undetected under these conditions of mixed snow cover and shadows in rocky terrain. The latter were common at heavy foraging sites like this one. Photo C. Cuyler Caribou sightability Once again sightability of caribou within 300 meters of the transect line was a problem. Factors included incomplete snow cover, light/shadow conditions typical to early March, sun in one’s eyes and low caribou group size. The March 2012 snow cover and rocky terrain provided exceptional camouflage for caribou (Fig. 10, Part II: Appendices 11, 12, 13, 14 & 15). Detecting caribou was further compromised by the west-east orientation of most lines, which made certain that on the south-facing side of the helicopter the sun was in observer eyes and reflecting off the snow surface. Despite observers using polarized sunglasses, this intense sunlight in the eyes may have reduced sightability of caribou. It certainly increased observer fatigue. 33 The flight altitude of 40m, which reduced the amount of dead-ground, resulted in the sensation of increased flight speed because there was more ground to search and scan over. When combined with a long line length, the result was a feeling of stress and fatigue among observers. Further, the long length of most lines resulted in periods of diminished observer concentration, which could lower caribou detection given the ambient camouflage conditions. Finally, the helicopter windows frosted, which obscured visibility because ambient temperature was near -20°C. The frost and its constant physical removal (by credit card) could have decreased caribou detection. Muskoxen & sheep No muskoxen were observed, although known to inhabit the Nunatarsuaq area in the northeastern portion of the Ameralik caribou range. The area was search thoroughly and many caribou were observed. Further, five feral sheep were seen on the north (south-facing) side of Austmannadalen. Among them was a ewe with her lamb (Fig. 11). We also observed foxes, hares and ptarmigan (separate report) and one large dark phase gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus). The latter was flying alongside line 58. Figure 11. Feral ewe stands with her almost yearling male lamb at the mouth of Austmannadalen, north side. Feral sheep have inhabited Austmannadalen since about the 1970’s. Photo C. Cuyler 34 Snow cover & lack thereof Snow depth and cover varied. One specific area stood out. In contrast to most other areas surveyed, including nearby line 35, along line 36 and the western portion of line 37 there was a deep blanket of snow. By the eastern end of 37 the snow gave way to bare ground and shrubs, which were typical of lines 45, 46 and 48, owing to both the dry continental climate and the rain-shadow created by the Sermeq glacial massive to the south. Sea ice cover Sea ice was extensive in the fjords this year. For most fjords in the Qeqertarsuatsiaat area there was sea ice right to the mouth of the fjord and into the Davis Strait itself. Caribou tracks crossing sea ice to access islands was observed at the Sermilik fjord and Qeqertarsuatsiaat, and crossing the fjords to other mainland areas was common. Skidoo use Skidoo use was common in the areas south and east from the town of Kapisillit, which is about 75km ENE of Nuuk and situated in the inner Godthåbfjord. Skidoo tracks were evident all the way south to the Ameralik fjord at Kilaarsarfik/Sandness and through the mountain valleys east to the Isfjord (head of Godthåbsfjord). Discussion New survey method Abundance surveys can aim to obtain population size trends by repeating the same methods over a time series of surveys. Alternately, maximizing the accuracy of population size estimates may require the adoption of new methods. The latter may be at the expense of conclusive ‘trends’ from the last survey. Since the same method was used for the 2001 and 2006 surveys of Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat, conclusions regarding population size trends were possible. A drawback of the 2001 and 2006 surveys was that only 2% of the total South region area was surveyed. The 2012 survey, increased area coverage to 10%, and in an effort to improve estimate accuracy, employed line distance sampling. The latter would render inconclusive any hint of trends since 2006 (unless the 2012 survey was analyzed in the same manner as the 2006 survey, which it was not). The 2012 population size estimates for both Ameralik and Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou are similar to the estimates from 35 2006, which fall within the confidence intervals for 2012. If the 2012 survey is more accurate (i.e., closer to the true population size) than earlier surveys, then the absence of a trend suggests that the 2012 population size may actually be lower than the population sizes estimated in the previous surveys. Population sizes Ameralik Previously, between 2001 and 2006, there was a substantial decline in Ameralik caribou abundance achieved through harvest management (Cuyler et al. 2007, Witting & Cuyler 2011). Bayesian model predictions using the 2001 to 2006 population decrease (from about 32,000 down to 10,000) suggested that if hunting continued at the 2006 level then by 2012 the Ameralik population might decrease to about 2,790 caribou (90%CI: 425-9164) (Witting & Cuyler 2011). This did not happen. The pre-calving 2012 Ameralik population estimate was about 11,700 caribou. That analysis highlights the uncertainty surrounding model predictions derived from using a time series of only two points. More importantly, the Ameralik population size remains relatively stable despite continued high hunting pressure, which included unlimited winter harvesting. Meanwhile, Ameralik caribou density in 2012 was 1.7/km2. This exceeds the recommended target density, 1.2/km2. The 2012 density of ca. 2 caribou/km2 greatly increases the risk of overgrazing, which could ultimately negatively impact caribou abundance. Qeqertarsuatsiaat The 2012 Qeqertarsuatsiaat estimated abundance of ca. 4,800 caribou also indicates general stability since the first helicopter survey of 2001. Again despite increased hunting pressure and analyses that suggested harvest restrictions might be necessary (Witting & Cuyler 2011). Similar to Ameralik, the 2012 density is different from the 2006. For Qeqertarsuatsiaat it decreased, stays well below target, and the risk of overgrazing is assumed low. Changes The seeming stability for both populations in the South region is no reason for complacency, because there are some disquieting anthropogenic changes to the caribou environment. These include altered caribou habitat use (distribution) and demographics, crippling loss and new trends in hunting. These are important to consider since expected global warming will be an 36 additional change that can bring environmental instability with negative consequences for caribou abundance. 1. Altered distribution observed From the late 1990’s until 2001, caribou were year round inhabitants on the coastal lowlands between the Ameralik and Sermilik fjords (Cuyler et al. 2003). In March 2001 about 60% of all Ameralik caribou observed were foraging in that same coastal lowland habitat (Cuyler et al. 2003, 2007). This is evidence that these lowlands were preferred habitat. By 2006 the numbers of observed animals dropped to under 40 and were seen only between Buksefjord and Sermilik fjord areas. In 2012, just 7 caribou were observed, which equated to about 1% of all observed. Alternately, this is a 98% reduction in Ameralik caribou use of the lowlands since 2001. Being coastal lowlands, the usual suspects for altered caribou distribution in March would include forage limitation due to deep snow or icing, e.g., from rain-on-snow or thaw-refreeze. Direct field measurements were not obtained, however; neither Nuuk weather data (DMI 2014) nor local knowledge (Appendix 1) implicates either of these culprits. Predation is not considered because large predators do not exist in West Greenland. Hunting, as a disturbance, is a third and very plausible suspect. There was no winter hunting in 2001 when caribou use of the coastal lowlands was high. There was, however, winter hunting in both 2006 and 2012 and immediately preceded the aerial surveys those years. Skidoo disturbance is a further suspect since their use for hunting was first confirmed in the winter 2006 in the Buksefjord and Sermilik fjord area (Cuyler et al. 2007). Skidoo tracks were also seen during the 2012 survey. During winter 2012, KNAPK professional hunter Aslak Jensen (pers comm.) knew of extensive caribou hunting by skidoo in the areas around and south of Kapisillit, extending right through to Ameralik fjord. Skidoo hunting could explain the observed low numbers and density of caribou in that same area, and similarly the high numbers and density of caribou observed to the east on Nunatarssuaq and to the south of Austmannadalen. The former is a rather inaccessible adjacent area of high elevation sandwiched between the Isfjord and the Greenland Ice Cap, while the latter may be even more difficult to access by skidoo. 37 The winter harvest season appears to impact elevations used by the caribou. Where a wide selection of elevations is available, caribou prefer foraging lowlands in winter. Typical winter elevations preferred by Greenland caribou are less than 200 m (Cuyler unpublished). Yet the 2012 survey, which began immediately following the end of the Ameralik winter hunting season, observed habitat use at median elevations of 626 m for Ameralik and 507 m for Qeqertarsuatsiaat. This suggests that winter hunting creates disturbances that make caribou avoid their preferred optimal winter forage at lower elevations. We suspect that winter hunting of caribou changed their natural distribution, creating areas of artificially high and low caribou density. A man-made caribou distribution will have direct impact on caribou population estimates, if surveys for abundance stratify survey effort as per expected from past natural caribou distributions. Fortunately, this study conducted a one-day reconnaissance prior to beginning the aerial survey and assigned high and low caribou strata accordingly. Winter hunting either just prior to or during a survey that resulted in a changed caribou distribution is a serious challenge to estimating population size. Deep snow or icing could do the same. Thus a helicopter reconnaissance determining caribou distribution is necessary before any survey begins and specifically if a hunting season has just finished or a serious weather event has occurred. Although an added expense, it is a justifiable one, since the forthcoming population estimate requires a correct stratification of high and low caribou density areas for allocation of survey effort (Appendix 8). In the absence of pre-survey reconnaissance flights, a natural caribou distribution is preferable to an artificial unpredictable man-made one. 2. Crippled caribou The 2012 total observed in the South region was 1795 caribou, i.e., combining observations from both transect lines and demographic observations. This included five crippled animals, which has never before been experienced by the survey observers despite a history of 11 surveys. One possible cause would be firearm crippling, since four of the five were Ameralik caribou where the winter 2012 hunting season had just ended. Only one cripple was a Qeqertarsuatsiaat animal where winter hunting was prohibited in 2012, but might have occurred. The majority of the crippled were cows. Their calf production, as well as survival, was likely compromised. Crippling cows, if widespread and common, could undermine the future of these two 38 populations, and confound wildlife management efforts, especially since the magnitude of crippled animal deaths is unknown. The Greenland Institute of Natural Resources is aware of abundant personal stories from past autumn hunting seasons concerning observations of hunters firing in excess of 20-50 bullets at fleeing caribou. Additionally, author experience alone numbers fourteen such observations since 2001. The usual result of such erratic shooting is only a crippled animal or two and none killed, or all missed. Since 2013, on any given trip into the back country, one can seldom avoid observing limping or bleeding caribou. One hunter reported shooting dead an animal in September 2015 only to discover that it had been shot previously the same season, which rendered all of the meat inedible due to advanced septicemia. This crippled animal would have undoubtedly died shortly thereafter regardless. For improving population dynamics modeling, four North American management plans for migratory caribou herds suggest increasing annual harvest statistics by 20% to account for deaths from injuries, e.g., crippling, motor vehicle accidents and poaching. The uncertainty inherent in any suggested figure is acknowledged. 3. Demographics Ameralik Although not necessarily disquieting in all aspects, demographics has changed since the 2001 survey. The good news is that the late winter calf percentage and recruitment improved. In 2001 calf percentage was only 18%. By 2006 this rose to 25% and coincided with the large reduction in population size. It rose again to 28% by 2012. These indicate that caribou density on the range since 2006 promotes a maximal calf production and survival. The modest 2012 increase may be connected to the following point. The ratio of bulls to cows has declined. Although more cows typically will mean more calves, this could ultimately make regulating population numbers difficult. Initially the bull to cow ratio dropped only slightly, between 0.83 and 0.81 per cow, in the period 2001-2006. However, the 2012 value was about 0.62 bulls per cow. Finally, the observed maximum group size has swung from 28 down to 15 and back up to 24 for the same period, while average group sizes have remained generally 4-6 caribou ± 3. Qeqertarsuatsiaat Although not a complete data set we can discuss some demographic changes since the 2001 survey. On a positive note, while late winter calf percentage 39 and recruitment plummeted between 2001 and 2006 (Table 1), recovery was evident by 2012 when the rough value obtained from transect lines indicated a minimum of 18% calves. This value is under Ameralik’s, however, correctly identifying calves on transect lines is difficult and many may have been misclassified, so we assume the true calf percentage was higher. Rather disquieting in 2006 was the low number of cows, which evidenced itself in the low calf percentage and a male-skewed bull to cow ratio of 2.75 bulls for every cow (Cuyler et al. 2007). Given that calf percentages improved by 2012, we may with some confidence assume that the relative number of cows has also improved. Unfortunately time did not allow a detailed demographic of the Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou in 2012. Maximum group size rose between 2001 and 2006 and appears to have remained high through 2012, beginning at 6, increasing to 14 and finally being 11 respectively. Average group sizes have fluctuated. Initially, in 2001, groups were uniformly small, i.e., 3 ±1 S.D. Since then Ameralik animals have immigrated into the Qeqertarsuatsiaat range (Cuyler et al. 2003, 2007). Ameralik animals possess a greater tendency to aggregate, owing to their feral reindeer heritage. Although at first group size increased to 5 ±3 S.D. with the new influx, by 2012 it was again averaging 3 caribou, albeit with double the standard deviation (i.e., ±2 S.D.). 4. Hunting trends Any discussion of the 2012 status and subsequent wildlife management implications must acknowledge that 4-years have passed between the survey and the writing of this report. Hunting has changed over the intervening period. These changes may impact caribou foraging behavior, distribution as well as movements, and the number harvested annually. Quantifying possible changes is difficult, while harvest per population remains guess work (Appendix 9) and crippling loss is unknown. Several recent trends include the following:  More boats  Bigger and faster boats  Advanced GPS technologies  Use of social media  Recreational hunters selling their catch  Poaching (hunters without permits) To hunt caribou in Greenland you need a boat. Today’s hunters have rapid access to the back country. Quantifying the rise in boat numbers between 2010 and 2016 proved impossible, because no records are kept and anchorages are 40 often ad hoc. The best source was the Godthåb Boat Club membership information. For the period 2010 and 2015 boat number increased and many were larger and faster than in the past. Hunters typically use advanced GPS equipment for both marine and terrestrial purposes. Many use local social media for immediate information about where caribou are to be found on a specific day. Between 2010 and 2016 the population in Nuuk rose by 1,500 inhabitants, i.e., from 15,500 to 17,000 inhabitants, an increase of almost 10% (Statistics Greenland 2016). Today you can experience too many hunters in the terrain (Appendix 1). Within a 60 km radius from Nuuk there is hardly an anchorage that does not contain 5-10 boats on weekends. Even at twice the distance, Grædefjord will have at least one boat per bay (Appendix 1). Further, many lakes have also experienced a marked rise in the number of boats with small outboard engines stationed on their shores. Previously 4 to 6 caribou annually were considered sufficient per household (Nuka Møller-Lund pers comm.). Today the primary goal for some recreational hunters is no longer the filling of the family freezer, but monetary, e.g., selling the meat. The latter is legal, but comes with several restrictive caveats (Appendix 9). We suggest there may be the potential for overharvesting, given profit motive, current open harvesting with long autumn season and lack of harvest control by Conservation Officers. Poaching Since 2012 there may be a sizeable number of poachers, i.e., those without hunting permits, which would result in under reported harvests in Piniarneq. Today the impression is that there are more hunters in the Nuuk area than ever before, however, the number of purchased hunting permits indicates the opposite. In the period between 2010 and 2015 for the Nuuk area the number of professional permits purchased annually remained steady at around 63. In contrast the number of recreational permits dropped from 1095 to 615 (APNN Nuka Møller-Lund pers comm.). This is a 44% decrease in purchased recreational permits. The situation is similar for all of Greenland in that period, i.e., professional permits purchased remained stable around 2000, while recreational permits dropped from 5548 to 3811, a decrease of 31% (APNN Nuka Møller-Lund pers comm.). The stability in the professional permits may be inaccurate. This winter 2016 the local Nuuk chapter (NAPP) of the professional hunter’s union (KNAPK) accounts 83 persons among their 41 members, while the other hunter’s union, Neqitaq, has about 20 members. The combined total of about 103 professional hunters in Nuuk does not match up with the 63 actual professional permits currently in use. Given common opinion that hunters are more numerous today, two possible explanations for this might include, 1) that the remaining hunters are more active, or 2) that many hunters are not purchasing hunting permits. The latter is supported by the abrupt drop in purchased permits in 2012, which coincided with a 4x increase in purchase price, i.e., from 50 to 200 Danish kroner, which was raised again in 2015 to 250 Danish kroner. The new prices applied to both professional and recreational permits (APNN Nuka MøllerLund pers comm.). Since checking for hunting permit possession by Conservation Officers effectively never occurs in some municipalities, e.g., Nuuk, then purchasing one may seem an unnecessary expense to many. If the 30-40% drop among recreational permits and the discrepancy in professional numbers truly reflects the current number of poachers out hunting without hunting permits then harvest figures obtained through Piniarneq reporting will be below actual catch numbers. What do the caribou need? Requirements for maximum production Negative consequences for caribou production often arise from environmental instability because the latter can be in opposition to what caribou require. Pathogens and some other factors notwithstanding, to achieve maximum production caribou primarily need accessible, abundant, nutritious forage. Additionally, for each season, caribou need undisturbed access to the preferred habitat associated with that period, and once on that habitat caribou need to forage and ruminate at their leisure. This is especially true of critical habitats, which include calving, late-summer-early-autumn and winter ranges. The former is necessary for production and the latter two for ‘fattening-up’ and survival respectively. Autumn harvest season Large numbers of hunters coming at the caribou from all angles over a 10 week autumn season brings several things to mind. The hunting season coincides with late-summer-early-autumn range use by the caribou, and 48 include the shipping import and sale of goods involved directly or indirectly in caribou harvest (e.g., boats, fuel, navigation gear, guns, hunting gear etc.), as well as, boat service maintenance and goods, motor service and maintenance, twice annual truck transport of boats, boat storage, the establishment and upkeep of harbours, outfitting etc. and the employment of those involved in the associated industries. Not only will the income of professional hunters suffer if caribou numbers decline, but also the above service industries likely stand to lose money and employment opportunities. Widespread negative economic consequences might be felt throughout communities. Meanwhile the magnitude of the harvest is unknown and winter hunting is sanctioned. With climate change lurking, we suspect the chances for catastrophic weather will rise. Caribou populations elsewhere around the globe are in decline, some steeply, of causes usually unknown. Greenland caribou are likely vulnerable. The future of our caribou populations, and hence the significant economic profit obtained thereof, could be in jeopardy. Monitoring, which is the foundation for updating the advice on the utilization of the caribou stocks, is out-of-date. Among all this uncertainty, are two known’s. First, after an initial successful decrease Ameralik caribou density again rose and was almost twice the recommended by 2012. Secondly, for Greenland caribou with their high reproductive capacity (Cuyler & Østergaard 2005), the precautionary principle is best applied to conservation of their range, i.e., the forage vegetation. Even if caribou density were to abruptly drop below recommended (e.g., possible causes include overharvest or catastrophic weather), Greenland caribou could recover abundance quickly where their range quality is good. Since overgrazing takes decades to repair, preventing overgrazing is the recommended method for continued caribou stocks, or for promoting recovery after a decline. Acknowledgements This project was financed by the Greenland Institute for Natural Resources, Nuuk Greenland. Grateful thanks go to Air Greenland and their helicopter pilot Pol Telness for his safe flying. Thanks also to the Greenland Association of Professional Hunters (KNAPK) and Greenland Fisheries Licenses Control 49 (GFLK) for providing experienced observers, who were excellent at spotting caribou despite poor snow cover conditions. Generous jet-fuel contributions came from True North Gems (Fiskenæsset) and from the Buksefjord HydroPower Station for which we were very grateful. We thank Inaluk Schmidt Jacobsen for providing the DMI climate data in a usable format. Grateful thanks are due Natuk Olsen, Inaluk Jakobsen, Mala Broberg, Bjarne Lyberth and Nuka Møller-Lund for simultaneous translation during the collection of local knowledge. We also thank Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen and Fernando Ugarte for useful reviews of the manuscript and Joseph Patrick McCullough for proofreading. Literature cited Aanes R, Sæther B-E. & Øritsland N.A. 2000. Fluctuations of an introduced population of Svalbard reindeer: the effects of density dependence and climatic variation. Ecography. 23: 437-443. Adamczewski J., Gunn A., Poole K.G., Hall A., Nishi J. & Boulanger J. 2015. What Happened to the Beverly Caribou Herd after 1994? Arctic 68(4): 407-421. Albon S.D., Stien A., Irvine R.J., Langvatn R., Ropstad E. & Halvorsen O. 2002. The role of parasites in the dynamics of a reindeer population. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 269: 1625-1632. Buckland S.T., Anderson D.R., Burnham K.P., Laake J.L., Borchers D.L. & Thomas L.2001. Introduction to Distance Sampling. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Braun C.E. (editor) 2005. Techniques for wildlife investigations and management. 6th edition – March 2005. The Wildlife Society. Bethesda Maryland, USA. 974 pp. CARMA (Circum Arctic Rangifer Monitoring & Assessment network). www.carma.caff.is/ Clausen B.A., Dam K., Elvestad K., Krogh H.V. & Thing H. 1980. Summer mortality among caribou calves in West Greenland. Nord Vet. Med. No. 31: 291-300. Cuyler C. 2007. West Greenland caribou explosion: What happened? What about the future? Proceedings of the 11th North American Caribou Workshop, Jasper, Alberta, Canada, 2327 April 2006. Rangifer, Special Issue No. 17: 219-226. Cuyler C. & Linnell J.D.C. 2004. Årlig vandringsmønster hos satellitmærkede rensdyr i Vestgrønland. Kapitel 6: 189-210 – In: Aastrup P. (ed.) Samspillet mellem rensdyr, vegetation og menneskelige aktiviteter i Vestgrønland. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 49. 321 pp. Cuyler L.C., Rosing M., Egede J., Heinrich R. & Mølgaard H. 2005. Status of two West Greenland caribou populations; 1) Akia-Maniitsoq, 2) Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 61. Part I-II, 64+44 pp. 50 Cuyler C., Rosing M., Heinrich R., Egede J. & Mathæussen L. 2007. Status of two West Greenland caribou populations 2006, 1) Ameralik, 2) Qeqertarsuatsiaat. Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical report No. 67. 143 pp. (Part I: 1-74; Part II: 75143). Cuyler C., Rosing M., Linnell J.D.C., Loison A., Ingerslev T. & Landa A. 2002. Status of the Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut caribou population (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) in 2000, West Greenland. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 42. 52 pp. Cuyler C., Rosing M., Linnell J.D.C., Lund P.M., Jordhøy P., Loison A. & Landa A. 2003. Status of 3 West Greenland caribou populations; 1) Akia-Maniitsoq, 2) Ameralik & 3) Qeqertarsuatsiaat. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 46. 74 pp. Cuyler C., Rosing M., Linnell J.D.C., Lund P.M., Loison A. & Landa A. 2004. Neria & Qassit caribou minimum count & herd structure, in 2000, Paamiut, West Greenland. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 48. 46 pp. Cuyler C., White R.G., Lewis K., Soulliere C., Gunn A., Russell D.E. & Daniel C. 2012. Are warbles and bots related to reproductive status in West Greenland caribou? 13th North American Caribou Workshop. 25-28 October 2010, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. In: Rangifer, Special Issue No. 20: 243-257. Cuyler C. & Østergaard J. 2005. Fertility in two West Greenland caribou populations 1996/97: Potential for rapid growth. Wildlife Biology. 11(3): 31-37. DMI. 2014. www.dmi.dk Gates C.C., Adamczewski J. & Mulders R. 1986. Population dynamics, winter ecology and social organization of Coats Island caribou. Arctic. 39(3): 216-222. Grønnow B., Medlgaard M. & Nielsen J.B. 1983. Aasivissuit – the great summer camp. Archaeological, ethografical and zoo-archaelogical studies of a caribou hunting site in West Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, Man & Society 5: 96 pp. Jepsen B.I. 1999. Populationsgenetiske studier af vildren (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) and tamren (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) i Vestgrønland. MSc Thesis, Botany Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. 64 pp. (in Danish). Jepsen B.I., Siegismund H.R. & Fredholm M. 2002. Population genetics of the native caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) and the semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Southwestern Greenland: Evidence of introgression. Conservation Genetics. 3: 401-409. Kutz S., Bollinger T., Branigan M., Checkley S., Davison T., Dumond M., Elkin B., Forde T., Hutchins W., Niptanatiak A. & Orsel K. 2015. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae associated with recent widespread muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic. Canadian Veterinary Journal. 56: 560-563. Landa A., Jeremiassen S.R. & Andersen R. 2000. Rensdyr og moskusokser i Inglefield Land, Nordvestgrønland. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 31. 21 pp. 51 Loison A., Cuyler C., Linnell J.D.C. & Landa A. 2000. The caribou harvest in West Greenland, 1995-1998. Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute of Natural Resources. Technical Report No. 28. 33 pp. Meldgaard M. 1986. The Greenland caribou – zoogeography, taxonomy and population dynamics. – Meddelelser om Grønland, Bioscience. 20: 1-88. Miller F. & Gunn A. 2003. Catastrophic die-off of Peary caribou on the Western Queen Elizabeth Island, Canadian High Arctic. Arctic. 56(4): 381-390. Piniarneq. 2016. Jagtinformation og fangstregistrering. Naalakkersuisut, Government of Greenland. www.sullissivik.gl Roby D.D. & Thing H. 1985. Behaviour of West Greenland caribou during a population decline. Holarctic Ecology 8(2): 77-87. Skjenneberg S. & Slagsvold L. 1968. Reindriften og dens naturgrunnlag. Scandinavian University Books, Universitetsforlaget. 332 pp. Skogland T. 1985. The effects of density-dependent resource limitations on the demography of wild reindeer. Journal of Animal Ecology. 54: 359–374. Staaland, H., Scheie, J.O., Grøndahl, F.A., Persen, E., Leifseth, A.B. & Holand, Ø. 1993. The introduction of reindeer to Brøggerhalvøya, Svalbard: grazing preference and effect on vegetation. Rangifer 13 (1): 15–19. Statistics Greenland. 2016. www.stat.gl Thomas L., Buckland S.T., Rexstad E.A, Laake J.L., Strindberg S., Hedley S.L., Bishop J.R.B., Marques T.A. & Burnham K.P. 2010. Distance software: design and analysis of distance sampling surveys for estimating population size. J. Appl. Ecol. 47(1): 5-14. Thing H. & Clausen B. 1980. Summer mortality among caribou calves in Greenland. pp. 434437. – In: E. Reimers, E. Gaare and S. Skjenneberg (eds). Proceedings of the Second International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium. Røros, Norway 1979. Direktoratet for vilt og ferskvannsfisk. Trondheim. 779 pp. Tyler N. 2010. Climate, snow, ice, crashes, and declines in populations of reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus L.). Ecological Monographs. 80(2): 197-219. Vibe C. 1967. Arctic animals in relation to climatic fluctuations. Meddelelser om Grønland. 170: 1-227. Vors L.S. & Boyce M.S. 2009. Global declines of caribou and reindeer. Global Change Biology. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01974. Warenberg K., Danell Ö., Gaare E. & Nieminen M. 1997. Flora i reinbeiteland. – In: B. Ekendahl and K. Bye (eds). Nordisk Organ for Reinforskning og A/S Landbruksforlaget. ISBN 82-529-2139-6. 112 pp. Witting L. & Cuyler C. 2011. Harvest impacts on caribou population dynamics in south west Greenland. 12th North American Caribou Workshop. Happy Valley/Goosebay, Labrador, Canada, 4-6 November 2008. Rangifer Special Issue No. 19: 135 – 145. Ydemann D. & Pedersen C.B. 1999. Rensdyr i Vestgrønland 1993-1996. Unpublished report to Pinngortitaleriffik – Greenland Institute for Natural Resources, Nuuk, Greenland (in Danish). 68 pp. 52 Appendix 1 2016 Professional hunter knowledge for South region, West Greenland Three meetings with the Nuuk Chapter of the Greenland Hunter’s Union (KNAPK) took place at their head office in early 2016 (17, 18 February and 23 March). The language of the meetings was Greenlandic and Danish. This appendix is a faithfully translated and paraphrased documentation of the knowledge and opinions provided by the attending professional hunters. Contact information for the participants may be obtained from the first author of this report. Participants KNAPK: Nikolaj Heinrich, Morten Heinrich, Aqqaluk Lothsen, Aslak Jensen, Karl Egede, Johannes Egede, Inuk Berthelsen, Lars Mathæussen, Anqunnguaq Josefsen, Steffen Andersen, Anthon Mathæussen and Bjarne Lyberth. Greenland Institute of Natural Resources: Christine Cuyler, Inaluk Jakobsen, Mala Broberg and Natuk Olsen. Department for Fisheries Hunting and Agriculture: Nuka Møller Lund. 1993-1994 Hunting Ban Professional hunters want biologists to take their knowledge seriously. Although twenty-three years ago, the hunting ban of 1993-1994 still rankles professional hunters. They were not heeded by wildlife management. Their knowledge was ignored. At that time they lacked evidence/data to support their knowledge and their Greenlandic hunting culture left them ill equipped to argue their case with ‘proofs’ as per Western paradigms. Today as always, the hunters are interested in maintaining caribou abundance. Harvest regulation should ensure there are not too many caribou or too few. Regular meetings of professional hunters and Greenland Institute of Natural Resources biologists for knowledge exchange would be a step in the right direction. Ideas could be shared without always being in agreement. 53 Ameralik knowledge 1990’s caribou There were too many caribou due to the 1993-94 hunting prohibition. – Angunnguaq Josefsen Caribou even occurred in Qinngorput Bay, which today is a suburb of Nuuk. – Lars Mathæussen 2003 caribou They were many caribou in the Ameralik region. – Lars Mathæussen 2013 & 2014 caribou The caribou taken inside the Ameralik Fjord in the 2013 and 2014 winter hunting seasons had excellent body condition. – Nikolaj Heinrich 2015 caribou Caribou are unpredictable. In the 1990’s they were widespread along the outer coast, but for a period, ca. 2006-2010, they were not. Now there are many small juveniles, so they are breeding well. In 2015, for the moment, they are once again out at the coast, i.e., visible from the mouth of Ameralik Fjord south to Buksefjord, and again from the mouth of Buksefjord south to Sermilik Fjord. By November-December these animals had moved further inland. Today’s easy availability of large numbers of caribou along the outer coasts has changed hunting customs. Now, most hunting occurs on the coast. No one goes up into the back country anymore, so the animals there never see hunters, and are essentially ‘protected’. – Nikolaj Heinrich In autumn of 2015 there were so many caribou in the Kapisillit area that you could not count them. There are more than before. – Steffen Andersen Caribou abundance seems stable and animals may be found throughout the entire region in the autumn. During the rut group sizes of 20-30 animals are common everywhere. Further, relative to the past, there are certainly not fewer mother-calf pairs. – Lars Mathæussen In September and October, on the south side of Ujaragssuit pâvat (northernmost eastern corner Ameralik range) caribou were abundant and 54 had excellent body condition, e.g., 4-5 cm rump fat. In September many caribou were visible along the north shore of Ameralik Fjord around Qârusulik (south of Qôrqut). In October lots of caribou were in the lowland area immediately east of the bottom fjord containing Færingshavn. – Johannes Egede There were plenty of caribou in the river valley south of the Nuajat kûat (Ameragdla, the inner bottom of Ameralik Fjord) during August, but then none were present in September, because they moved south. – Karl Egede In late August 2015, a group of 18 caribou were seen on the north side of Alangordlia fjord (just before the ‘tidal falls’). All were harvested. – Aslak Jensen & Nikolaj Heinrich Caribou harvested up until 1953, when I was on my first hunt, never evidenced any warble larvae parasites. However, these appeared only two years after the 1952 release of many [263] semi-domestic reindeer in the Itivnera/Kapisillit area. – Anqunnguaq Josefsen 2016 caribou On 17 February, twelve small caribou were observed in the lowlands (elevations less than 200 m) west of Itivnera. In the winter hunting season, March, caribou were easy to find in two lowland (elevations less than 200 m) areas on the headland north of Kapisillit. These were the Qinguata tasia valley (east of Amitsuarssuk Fjord) and the far eastern reaches of Kangiussaq Bay. They were also plentiful around the Qôrqut bay. – Johannes Egede In March caribou were plentiful in all the lowlands (less than 200m) surrounding the Kapisigdlit Kangerdluat (fjord leading to Kapisillit) and also in Eqaluit ilorluit Bay on south shore Ameralik Fjord (Ameragdla). Caribou were also present in Præstefjord. One shot on the inner north shore was skinny (no fat), while several shot on the outer southern shores had ca. 1.5 cm rump fat. – Inuk Berthelsen On 21 March there were many caribou along the coast south of Ameralik Fjord, e.g., at Lille Narsaq and also at the Qarajat iluat Bay, where he took two. The situation was similar in Præstefjord, where he took three. – Nikolaj Heinrich 55 Ameralik caribou abundance is increasing, as evidenced by the noticeably greater number of animals seen along the outer coast when we are sailing the coasts to hunt sea mammals. This indicates a high probability that the inland also has many caribou. This winter, hunters did not need to go further to fill their catch. – Morten Heinrich Also in March, differences in body condition associated with warble infection intensity were noted at Buksefjord. Midway into Buksefjord in a river valley on the south shore, Karl took seven small bodied ones. All had poor body condition (little or no fat) and many warble larvae on their backs. He took a further seven big [adult] caribou at the mouth of Buksefjord on the south shore. These are far fewer warbles and had better body condition. – Karl Egede 2015 vegetation Muskoxen are now inhabiting the relatively small area of Nunatarsuaq (northeastern corner of Ameralik region) and are ruining the vegetation for the caribou. – Lars Mathæussen Weather & sea ice In the 1950’s the winter weather was stable and cold, and the Isfjord (innermost Godthåb/Nuuk Fjord was always ice covered, as was the fjord into Kapisillit. There was always snow for Christmas. Caribou were few then, so they hunted Arctic fox instead. The cold and deep snow depth [ca. 1 m] of winter 2015 did not seem to adversely affect the caribou, however, what does negatively affect the caribou are layers of ice over the snow and especially covering the ground itself. If it rains and then freezes this is a problem for the caribou. – Anqunnguaq Josefsen The 2013 winter hunting season was a good year for access to the Ameralik caribou, because there was little sea ice to prevent sailing and the snow depths were alright. Similarly the 2014 winter season was good, again because of the lack of sea ice, although there was lots of snow. – Nikolaj Heinrich 56 Qeqertarsuatsiaat knowledge 2015 caribou In 1982 around the Fiskenæsset area, to find caribou hunters had to go all the way inland to the Ice Cap. In 2015 they could shoot 50 animals in one place and basically from the boat. – Inuk Berthelsen In the 1950’s and ‘60’s you would be lucky to see one or two caribou in the Grædefjord area. In 2015 there are lots of animals there. Also, there are more and more mother-calf pairs. All the animals are smaller bodied now. – Nikolaj Heinrich From 2012 until 2015, the general impression is that caribou abundance, distribution and group size have all remained relatively stable. In contrast, the frequency of sighting mother-calf pairs has increased. – Aslak Jensen In the autumn hunting seasons of 2014 and 2015, caribou were doing well (good body condition) and the number of calves was high over the entire Qeqertarsuatsiaat region (Sermilik Fjord to Frederikshåb Isblink), however, the animals were of smaller body size and less afraid of hunters. Steffen supported these observations and added that small bodied caribou were in the lowlands, while the big sized animals were far up in the mountains. The latter came down to the lowlands only in the night, so that the only chance to get them was in the very early morning hours or to pursue them in the high mountains. – Nikolaj Heinrich & Steffen Andersen The presence of warble larvae in caribou differs. North of Bjørnesund the caribou are infected with warbles, but south of Bjørnesund they are not. The animals south of Bjørnesund are huge and possess thick rump fat, and this includes even the calves. – Nikolaj Heinrich & Steffen Andersen Inside Grædefjord caribou wariness for hunters could vary widely. About halfway into the fjord some animals were afraid of his boat’s arrival and others appeared completely undisturbed. – Nikolaj Heinrich Regarding the caribou between Sermilik Fjord and Frederikhåb Isblink, if you want big fat caribou then you must go to the area just north of Frederikshåb Isblink. Also the caribou number has been increasing in Bjørnesund; however, these do not have as much rump fat as those near Frederikshåb Isblink. With 57 each year that passes, it seems there are more and more caribou in the areas south of Bjørnesund, which has poorer vegetation. – Nikolaj Heinrich In 2015 they saw caribou for the first time in the lake area south of Bjørnesund and east of 50°W. Initially there were 20 to 50 animals, and later more were observed. – Aslak Jensen & Nikolaj Heinrich 2016 caribou In the 2016 winter hunting season, caribou were present at the very mouth of Grædefjord. The caribou were harder to spot because they hide well in this terrain, unlike further north along shores of Præstefjord and Qarajat iluat . Caribou could be seen on the north side at the mouth of Grædefjord and there were many tracks on the south side. Their body condition (fat reserves) has never been so good in wintertime. The caribou had warble infections but were still fat. The sea-ice extent in Grædefjord almost reached the fjord mouth. Almost at the edge of that sea-ice, there were caribou tracks evidencing a large number had crossed the fjord. They were moving from north to south. – Nikolaj Heinrich In March, all pregnant females harvested on the south shore of the mouth of Grædefjord had good body condition (fat reserves). Other animals could have up to 4 cm of rump fat, while those adult males that lacked body fat still possessed lots of muscle and appeared to be in good condition. – Johannes Egede 2015 vegetation Between Sermilik Fjord and Frederikshåb Isblink, the vegetation seems good. There has been no noticeable overgrazing or increased number of caribou trails. On the south side of Bjørnesund, about ½-way in, there is an area covered with lichen mats that was first observed in 2001 (Cuyler et al. 2003). Aslak has kept an eye on it ever since. Neither he nor Nikolaj have ever observed more than three caribou foraging this area in summer, and never in winter. The lichen mats are still intact and lush. – Aslak Jensen & Nikolaj Heinrich In the summer and autumn of 2015 there was a mushroom explosion in elevations less than 200m on the islands at the mouth of Bjørnesund and peninsula to the south. Mushrooms were everywhere. They shot eight caribou 64 (departure 08.00, return 17:20). Counting of caribou began at Sarfat and finished at the northern most point of Qeqertaussaq in Qarajat iluat bay. Boat to shore distance was typically about 200 m. Participants included the following from the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, project leader Christine Cuyler (research scientist), Sofie Jeremiassen (biology assistant), Arild Landa (Department Head), Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid (research scientist), and a friend of Aqqalu, Hans Bådsgård. Determining caribou sex & age Although a spotting scope (32 x magnifications) was onboard it was unusable owing to the movement and rocking of the boat. Leitz binoculars (8 x magnifications) were used for all observations. For this study, positive sex identification was determined by the presence or absence of a vulva and/or urine patch on the rump, which reliably indicates a female. Although antler size and shape is unreliable for sex and age determination, extremely large well developed antlers always indicate a mature bull. Smaller thinner antlers with a definite forward-pointing ‘attack’ aspect can be juvenile males. Similar antlers but with a backward-flip to the top point are typically adult females. General body shape (rectangular female, ‘V’ male) and longer face/head on mature males can also aid sex and age determination. We assigned only two age classes: calf (age  6-months) and adult (age > 1year). Both were determined by body size, since 6-month old calves of both sexes are smaller than all other age classes in October. Observations provide percentage of calves within the total number of caribou seen and calf recruitment, which is the ratio of calves per 100 cows. Group size was based on proximity or group cohesion during a flight response. Results Weather & snow conditions Sunny and clear all day, little wind, air temperature approximately -4C. A relatively thin layer of snow covered much of the terrain, albeit in a patchy manner. Only the tidal zone, boulders and steep mountain cliffs were snowfree. Making notes and observations took more time than expected owing to the large numbers of caribou. Therefore there was not time enough to sail the 65 planned route, which would have taken us all the way south to Utorqarmiut, at the mouth of the Buksefjord. Caribou number Already beginning at Lille Narsaq (abandoned hamlet about 20 km south of Nuuk) caribou were noticeably abundant. There we observed 133 in the near vicinity of the buildings. The entire minimum count netted a total of 955 caribou (Table 5) which were by and large within 300-500 meters of the shoreline along a 34 km stretch of coast south of Nuuk (Fig. 13). Group size averaged 12.6 ± 19.4, median was 6, maximum was 111 caribou and minimum was one (Table 6). Figure 14. Numbered caribou observations, groups (  ), areas (red hatching), 28 October 1998. Two caribou had antlers caught in piles of fishnet at Qarajat summer houses (▲ ▲ 21). Table 6 contains corresponding details for each observation number. Elevations between 0 and 200 m are green; over 200 m are yellow. Table 5 Caribou minimum count and demographics, 28 October 1998, from a subsection of the Ameralik population, South region, West Greenland. Caribou sex & age Percentage1 Observed Female adult 43.9 % 107 Calf (age < 6 months) 31.1 % 76 Male adult 25.0 % 61 Unknown sex & age - 711 TOTAL 100 % 955 1 Only for those sexed and aged 73.5 kilometers 35 Qarajat iluat Bay 36 37 0 Qeqertaussaq 34 27 33 32 31 29 26 28 30 21 22 19 25 23 24 15 16 20 Lille Narsaq 13 9 10 11 12 17 14 18 5 67 8 2Sarfat 3 1 4 66 Demographics The similarity of antler growth between mature females and juvenile males made positive sexing and ageing by identifying a vulva patch too time consuming for the number of animals involved. This and also the long observation distances, large group sizes, and group movements mixing animals about, made it only possible to definitively sex and age 244 of the total 955 caribou seen (Table 5). Autumn calf recruitment was 71 calves per 100 cows. The bull to cow ratio was 57 bulls to every 100 cows. Many caribou were immediately above the tidal zone or beaches. They appeared to be eating grasses growing at the shoreline and on the grassy mounds of past human habitation. Caribou that had been feeding on what appeared to be grasses near the two Qarajat summer houses (Fig. 13, yellow triangle no.21) had left behind apricot coloured urine everywhere in the surrounding snow. The grass species was identified as Calamagrostis spp (Danish rørhvene; Greenlandic, siorpaaluk). Pelt colour variation Although most caribou seen possessed coloration normal to wild indigenous caribou, still there were many with an overall unusually dark pelage. Also, one all white animal and two near all white caribou were observed. Antlers Approximately 10 to 12 mature bulls (age > 4-years) had already lost their antlers. One mature bull had lost only one antler. Most adults had antlers including the females, whether with a calf-at-heel or not. The calves themselves often had noticeably long antler pegs. The majority of adult females possessed two antlers, which typically were as well developed as antlers on sub-adult males (age 2-3 years). Death by fishnet Two caribou were found with their antlers entangled in fishing nets. One was dead. This was the only dead caribou we observed. Fish nets had been stored on land above the tide line on both sides of the little Qarajat cove where there were two summer houses. In each instance the nets were loosely piled into a large mound. On the west-side of this tiny cove was a female that had died recently, i.e. within the past 2-12 hours, of a twisted and broken neck. Ravens had only just begun to feed at her anal region, the mouth and nose being 67 twisted under the neck and head were as yet intact. On the east-side of the cove, a young male was entangled. He was alive. We freed him. Vegetation The caribou appeared to be feeding upon a tall grass that grew at the shoreline and around the grassy mounds of past and present human habitation. We took a grass sample, which was later identified as Calamagrostis spp. (Danish rørhvene; Greenlandic, siorpaaluk). Miscellaneous Wildlife Observations We also observed two sea eagles (Haliaetus albicilla). These were on the north side of the Qarajat iluat Bay. Several harp seals (Phoca groenlandicus) poked their heads up above the sea surface. Ravens (Corvus corax) were numerous at several sites. Table 6. Raw data1 for numbered caribou locations figure 13. 28 October 1998. ID Time Group size Unknown sex & age Cow adult Calf Bull adult Caribou Distance to shore (m) 1 09:40 4 0 0 0 4 ≤ 20 2 09:43 7 6 1 ≤ 300 3 09:46 8 4 2 2 0 ≤ 300 4 09:50 81 13 35 20 13 ≤ 100 5 10:30 5 5 ≤ 100 6 10:38 8 8 ≤ 10 7 8 8 10-50 8 7 5 1 1 0 10-50 9 5 5 10-50 10 23 23 ≤ 100 10 6 6 ≤ 100 10 14 14 ≤ 100 10 2 2 ≤ 100 10 2 2 ≤ 100 10 2 2 ≤ 100 11 28 7 10 8 3 10-5 12 6 6 10-5 13 3 3 10-50 13 2 2 10-50 13 1 1 10-50 13 3 3 10-50 13 7 7 10-50 14 17 17 10-50 68 15 5 5 10-50 16 6 0 3 2 1 10-50 17 4 0 2 2 0 ≤ 100 18 18 18 ≤ 300 19 7 7 ≤ 300 20 6 6 ≤ 300 21 11:30 1 0 0 0 1 5 22 2 0 1 0 1 ≤ 300 23 9 0 4 4 1 ≤ 300 23 6 0 5 1 0 ≤ 300 23 4 0 0 0 4 ≤ 300 24 12:30 80 80 ≤ 300 25 12:30 5 1 1 1 2 ≤ 300 26 12:30 8 0 4 4 0 ≤ 300 27 12:30 20 20 ≤ 300 28 12:30 12 11 1 ≤ 300 29 4 0 0 0 4 ≤ 300 30 7 0 3 3 1 ≤ 300 31 5 0 3 2 0 ≤ 300 31 2 0 1 1 0 ≤ 300 31 2 0 1 1 0 ≤ 300 31 1 0 0 0 1 ≤ 300 31 5 0 2 2 1 ≤ 300 31 2 0 1 1 0 ≤ 300 31 2 0 0 0 2 ≤ 300 31 4 0 2 2 0 ≤ 300 32 7 7 ≤ 300 33 54 54 ≤ 300 33 50 50 ≤ 300 33 2 0 0 0 2 ≤ 300 33 7 0 0 0 7 ≤ 300 33 3 0 0 0 3 ≤ 300 33 4 0 1 1 2 ≤ 300 34 6 6 ≤ 300 34 1 1 ≤ 300 34 7 7 ≤ 300 34 27 27 ≤ 300 34 8 0 4 4 0 ≤ 300 34 7 0 3 3 1 ≤ 300 34 111 111 ≤ 300 34 50 50 ≤ 300 34 14 14 ≤ 300 35 15:00 13 13 ≤ 500 35 15:00 7 7 ≤ 500 35 15:00 3 3 ≤ 500 69 35 15:00 30 30 ≤ 500 35 15:00 16 16 ≤ 500 35 15:00 1 1 ≤ 500 36 22 4 9 5 4 ≤ 500 37 1 1 ≤ 500 37 4 4 ≤ 500 37 16 0 9 6 1 ≤ 500 37 15:50 8 8 ≤ 500 TOTALS 955 711 107 76 61 ALL Unknown COW CALF BULL 1 Blank cells indicate where there was no data recorded or unknown. Where zeros occur indicates no animals of that sex or age. Discussion Ameralik caribou are a genetic mix of indigenous wild caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) and Norwegian semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and this was reflected in the variety of pelt colours among individuals. Most possessed the usual pelage common to indigenous caribou, however, white, near all white as well as many that had an unvarying overall dark brown pelt also were observed. The well developed antler growth on females was in sharp contrast to what is typical of female caribou observed on Akia-Nordlandet, which seldom have both antlers, if any at all (Cuyler unpublished). (Caribou on Akia-Nordlandet, which is opposite Nuuk to the north, belong to what is now known as the AkiaManiitsoq population). Being the 28th of October, the peak period for the autumn breeding rut would have finished. So several mature males (age > 4years) having already dropped at least one antler was not surprising. Uncovered fishnet stored in piles at the shore can entangle the antlers of caribou and cause mortality. Since caribou appear to actively seek the forage surrounding summer houses, we recommend that piles of old or unused fishnets should be securely covered, e.g., by tarpaulin, or burnt. Alternatively, discarded fishnets could be returned to Nuuk for disposal at the municipality incinerator. This study observed 955 caribou that belonged to the Ameralik population. The autumn calf percentage and recruitment (respectively 31% and 71 per 100 cows) indicate that both calf production and survival is optimal and high. The bull to cow ratio may be a reflection of the bull only harvesting over the past 70 four years. We do not expect the ratio to impede or reduce conception among cows. Most caribou were observed within 500 meters of the shoreline, and many were within 100 meters. Since the length of shoreline was 34 km, then a maximum estimate of the area surveyed would be approximately 17 km2 (0.5 x 34 km), which would give a conservative density of 56.2 caribou per km2. This supports the numerous reports in 1998 by local hunters that there were ‘many’ caribou south of Nuuk. The density 56/km2 can only be regarded as enormous. Ameralik caribou are known to aggregate in groups numbering hundreds of animals. This is the direct result of their feral semi-domestic reindeer heritage. Thus we do not assume this density applies to the entire 12,800 km2 area of the Ameralik region. Regardless, 56.2 caribou / km2 are not compatible with sustainable caribou grazing on the vegetation and lichens. What we observed is 46x larger than the recommended target density of 1.2 caribou/km2. Overgrazing will occur. Conclusions In late October 1998, there were many caribou south of Nuuk along the sea shore. Caribou density was abnormally high and would quickly cause overgrazing. Calf production among the observed caribou suggests that the 1998 Ameralik population had the potential for an explosive growth in numbers. 71 Appendix 4 1998 Field report: Caribou winter mortality, near Nuuk area By Christine Cuyler, Sofie Ruth Jeremiassen & Vittus Nielsen Introduction In March and April 1998, the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources (GINR) received several telephone calls from agitated locals. All had observed many dead caribou at several locations south of the capital city Nuuk (64° 10’ 27.34”N, 51° 44’ 9.87”W). These included the bottom of Kobbefjord, the Kingittorsuaq (Hjortetakken) Mountain, the Ugpik bay/fjord area, and the bottom of Buksefjord (Fig. 14). At the first two locations some carcasses were close to shore and others on the mountainsides, but all were visible from the shore. At Buksefjord the dead caribou were reported frozen into the fjord sea ice. There were 20 visible caribou carcasses, curled up as if sleeping, and several ‘holes’ where further bodies may have been and already sunk through the thin ice (Jens Bjerge pers comm.). For the first time in living memory, large numbers of dead caribou were being seen in the Nuuk region. The locals voiced their concern that the caribou had starved to death, because caribou abundance appeared high in near shore areas. For example locals out sailing would always spot a number of caribou on any boat trip. Purpose The goal of this investigation was to find out how many caribou had died, where they had died and the cause(s), which could include disease, accidents, starvation and poaching. Methods Biology assistant Sofie Ruth Jeremiassen led the sample collection. The Greenland Fisheries and Licensing Control (GFLK) provided their Nuuk Conservation Officer, Vittus Nielsen and his assistant Jokum, and the two GFLK boats used. We made two boat trips. We sailed south of Nuuk on 20 April 1998 in an 18 foot aluminum outboard open dory and scouted the bottom of Kobbefjord, about the Kingittorsuaq Mountain and then the Ugpik bay/fjord. The second trip was 14 May 1998 when we sailed a larger 25 foot cabin boat into the 72 bottom of Buksefjord and also scouted the Qeqertaussaq shoreline. We scanned the shores and mountains with binoculars (8 x magnifications) to locate caribou carcasses, and then went ashore to collect carcass samples and data. Carcass data collected included Global Positioning System (GPS) location, elevation and comments regarding possible cause of death. Samples collected were the mandibles, metacarpus (foreleg) and metatarsus (hind leg) when these remained at the carcass site. Figure 15. Place names relevant to the caribou carcass locations south of Nuuk in April-May 1998. Figure 16. Caribou carcass locations south of Nuuk in April-May 1998. 10 Kangerdluarssunguup taserssua 20 kilometers Buksefjord Hydro-power Station Ameralik fjord 0 Buksefjord Nuuk (430 m) Lille Narsaq Qeqertaussaq Ugpik (Hjortetakken) Kobbefjord Kingittorsuaq (1188 m) Buksefjord 20 dead on sea ice 7-9 dead under snow A B #'s 6, 7 #1 Nuuk #'s 8, 9, 10 #'s 2, 3, 4, 5 (shot dead) #'s 11, 12, 13, 14 #'s 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 20010 kilometers 73 Table 7. Raw data1 on caribou carcasses located in April-May 1998 on sea coast south of Nuuk; female (F), male (M), unknown (-). Date ID Sex Age class Location Elevation Latitude Longitude 20 Apr 1 F Adult Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 48.6” 51° 36’ 48.6” 20 Apr 2 M Juvenile Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 3.5” 51° 35’ 10.5” 20 Apr 3 M Adult Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 3.5” 51° 35’ 10.5” 20 Apr 4 - - Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 3.5” 51° 35’ 10.5” 20 Apr 5 F Juvenile Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 3.5” 51° 35’ 10.5” 20 Apr 6 - - Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 16” 51° 34’ 2.2” 20 Apr 7 F Juvenile Kingittorsuaq - 64° 6’ 16” 51° 34’ 2.2” 20 Apr 8 M Adult Ugpik 10 m 64° 5’ 44.3” 51° 33’ 18.1” 20 Apr 9 M Adult Ugpik 10 m 64° 5’ 44.3” 51° 33’ 18.1” 20 Apr 10 M Adult Ugpik 10 m 64° 5’ 44.3” 51° 33’ 18.1” 14 May 11 F Adult Qeqertaasaq 105 m 63° 56.254’ 51° 26.050’ 14 May 13 - Calf Qeqertaasaq 105 m 63° 56.254’ 51° 26.050’ 14 May 12 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 105 m 63° 56.254’ 51° 26.050’ 14 May 14 - Calf Qeqertaasaq 105 m 63° 56.254’ 51° 26.050’ 14 May 15 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 18 m 63° 56.497’ 51° 26.068’ 14 May 16 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 18 m 63° 56.497’ 51° 26.068’ 14 May 17 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 18 m 63° 56.497’ 51° 26.068’ 14 May 18 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 18 m 63° 56.497’ 51° 26.068’ 14 May 19 M Adult Qeqertaasaq 18 m 63° 56.497’ 51° 26.068’ May A - - Buksefjord ice 0 m 63° 55’ 25” 50° 57’ 46” June B - - Buksefjord - 63° 56’ 43” 50° 51’ 13” 1 Now corrected for original data entry errors on sex and age. Results In total, 19 dead caribou were found (Fig. 15, Table 7). Owing to activity by scavengers, e.g., ravens and gulls, typically little but bones remained by the time we visited the sites. On April 20, seven caribou skeletons were located in the Kingittorsuaq area on the Hjortetakken Mountain. The cause of death was a snow avalanche. Nearby in Ugpik, the skeletons of three large mature bull caribou were found. All three had been shot dead and their hind legs removed. The bottom of Kobbefjord was full of sea ice and therefore could not be reached by boat for scouting. By 14 May when we made our second boat trip, the fjord ice in the bottom of Buksefjord was breaking up and melting. The reported 20 caribou carcasses had disappeared. Our scouting of the sea shore and cliffs in Buksefjord revealed no further carcasses. Leaving the mouth of Buksefjord, we observed about 10 caribou walking down out of the 80 9 Mar 60 left 2 1 30 776 64.587 -50.0891 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 50 740 64.5873 -50.0828 9 Mar 60 left 1 0 250 684 64.5883 -50.0669 9 Mar 60 left 5 2 500 684 64.5883 -50.0669 9 Mar 60 right 5 2 100 626 64.5957 -49.9723 9 Mar 60 right 4 1 300 626 64.5957 -49.9723 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 0 626 64.5957 -49.9723 9 Mar 60 left 1 0 100 626 64.5957 -49.9723 9 Mar 60 left 5 0 500 569 64.5962 -49.9615 9 Mar 60 left 2 1 200 569 64.5962 -49.9615 9 Mar 60 left 9 0 500 530 64.5972 -49.9529 9 Mar 60 left 1 0 350 530 64.5972 -49.9529 9 Mar 60 0 5 2 0 507 64.5983 -49.9453 9 Mar 60 0 6 2 0 508 64.5987 -49.9419 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 300 513 64.5989 -49.9404 9 Mar 60 left 1 0 600 579 64.5999 -49.9402 9 Mar 60 0 2 1 0 684 64.6007 -49.92 9 Mar 60 left 2 1 20 684 64.6007 -49.92 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 0 603 64.6014 -49.9043 9 Mar 60 right 11 3 100 603 64.6014 -49.9043 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 50 603 64.6014 -49.9043 9 Mar 60 left 4 1 50 568 64.6016 -49.8992 9 Mar 60 left 3 1 500 539 64.6019 -49.8954 9 Mar 60 right 1 1 50 469 64.6034 -49.8733 9 Mar 60 right 1 0 200 462 64.6042 -49.8635 9 Mar 60 left 2 1 150 334 64.6063 -49.821 9 Mar 60 left 2 0 250 334 64.6063 -49.821 9 Mar 60 0 4 2 0 317 64.6073 -49.8091 9 Mar 60 0 2 0 0 317 64.6073 -49.8091 9 Mar 60 left 2 0 150 317 64.6073 -49.8091 9 Mar 60 right 3 0 300 336 64.6082 -49.8019 9 Mar 60 right 5 0 100 353 64.6085 -49.7999 9 Mar 60 left 2 0 20 353 64.6085 -49.7999 9 Mar 60 right 2 1 300 423 64.6091 -49.7952 9 Mar 60 left 6 0 0 423 64.6091 -49.7952 9 Mar 59 left 1 0 100 829 64.565 -49.5373 9 Mar 59 left 2 1 100 840 64.5642 -49.5486 9 Mar 59 left 2 1 500 818 64.5597 -49.6102 9 Mar 59 right 3 0 0 770 64.558 -49.6272 9 Mar 59 right 1 0 300 718 64.5561 -49.6444 9 Mar 59 right 2 1 200 718 64.5561 -49.6444 9 Mar 59 right 1 0 100 718 64.5561 -49.6444 9 Mar 59 left 3 1 300 713 64.5558 -49.6498 9 Mar 59 left 6 0 150 1228 64.541 -49.8669 9 Mar 59 left 2 1 100 1228 64.541 -49.8669 81 9 Mar 59 left 8 0 300 1228 64.541 -49.8669 9 Mar 59 0 2 1 0 1074 64.5396 -49.8733 9 Mar 59 left 2 1 300 1049 64.5392 -49.8884 9 Mar 59 left 1 0 20 1029 64.5357 -49.9376 9 Mar 59 right 2 0 0 970 64.5335 -49.9542 9 Mar 59 right 3 1 0 978 64.53 -49.9958 9 Mar 59 right 1 0 0 978 64.53 -49.9958 9 Mar 59 left 2 1 150 915 64.5286 -50.0092 9 Mar 59 right 4 0 800 903 64.528 -50.0185 9 Mar 58 left 2 1 100 264 64.467 -49.9695 9 Mar 58 left 2 1 200 264 64.467 -49.9695 9 Mar 58 right 5 2 200 327 64.4688 -49.9654 9 Mar 58 left 4 2 0 716 64.4731 -49.8931 9 Mar 58 right 2 0 100 631 64.4742 -49.8741 9 Mar 58 right 1 0 100 631 64.4742 -49.8741 9 Mar 58 left 1 0 30 646 64.4786 -49.8185 9 Mar 58 left 2 1 20 736 64.4814 -49.7876 9 Mar 58 right 3 1 50 846 64.4871 -49.7035 9 Mar 58 right 2 1 100 832 64.4884 -49.6894 9 Mar 58 left 7 2 300 722 64.4901 -49.6672 9 Mar 58 right 2 0 300 738 64.4904 -49.6614 9 Mar 58 0 3 1 0 688 64.4908 -49.6557 9 Mar 58 left 2 1 200 572 64.4927 -49.6334 9 Mar 58 0 2 1 0 558 64.4982 -49.5563 9 Mar 58 left 1 0 500 638 64.5001 -49.5315 9 Mar 58 left 2 0 200 720 64.503 -49.4934 9 Mar 57 left 1 0 200 959 64.4387 -49.5133 9 Mar 57 left 4 1 0 959 64.4387 -49.5133 9 Mar 57 right 3 0 200 933 64.4379 -49.5222 9 Mar 57 right 2 0 20 886 64.4365 -49.5383 9 Mar 57 right 1 0 0 758 64.4341 -49.5813 9 Mar 57 left 1 0 500 707 64.4308 -49.6254 9 Mar 57 left 4 1 250 708 64.4304 -49.6333 9 Mar 57 left 2 1 300 778 64.4295 -49.6522 9 Mar 57 left 3 0 300 778 64.4295 -49.6522 9 Mar 57 left 2 0 200 698 64.4273 -49.6834 9 Mar 57 left 3 0 0 698 64.4273 -49.6834 9 Mar 52 left 12 0 550 144 64.4033 -49.9764 9 Mar 52 left 1 1 300 419 64.3752 -50.3458 9 Mar 51 0 4 2 0 318 64.3498 -49.8488 9 Mar 51 right 7 1 250 318 64.3498 -49.8488 9 Mar 51 right 5 0 300 354 64.3501 -49.8611 9 Mar 51 right 4 1 300 354 64.3501 -49.8611 9 Mar 51 left 1 1 50 421 64.3497 -49.8676 9 Mar 51 left 3 1 250 964 64.3425 -49.9572 82 9 Mar 51 left 4 2 100 925 64.3408 -49.982 9 Mar 51 right 12 1 150 219 64.3233 -50.2028 9 Mar 51 0 6 2 0 538 64.3121 -50.3607 9 Mar 50 left 8 0 500 701 64.2714 -50.0372 9 Mar 50 left 2 1 250 701 64.2714 -50.0372 9 Mar 50 right 2 1 200 723 64.2724 -50.0261 9 Mar 50 left 4 2 100 723 64.2724 -50.0261 9 Mar 50 right 3 0 0 920 64.2808 -49.9469 9 Mar 50 right 2 1 200 823 64.2824 -49.9209 9 Mar 50 right 8 2 550 790 64.2827 -49.9139 9 Mar 50 right 8 2 100 728 64.2865 -49.8557 9 Mar 50 right 4 2 100 724 64.2904 -49.8016 9 Mar 56 0 0 9 Mar 55 0 2 1 0 929 64.3887 -49.3297 9 Mar 55 left 2 1 500 959 64.3889 -49.324 9 Mar 54 right 1 0 20 802 64.3152 -49.4669 9 Mar 54 0 2 1 0 761 64.3125 -49.4987 9 Mar 54 right 3 1 100 770 64.3124 -49.5002 9 Mar 54 right 2 1 300 834 64.3123 -49.5088 9 Mar 54 right 2 0 10 861 64.3114 -49.527 9 Mar 54 right 1 0 150 859 64.3101 -49.5426 9 Mar 54 right 1 0 250 853 64.31 -49.5477 9 Mar 49 left 2 1 350 709 64.2344 -49.7187 9 Mar 49 left 6 2 0 593 64.2275 -49.7962 9 Mar 49 right 11 0 0 553 64.2269 -49.805 9 Mar 49 left 3 0 400 553 64.2269 -49.805 9 Mar 49 left 4 1 250 553 64.2269 -49.805 9 Mar 49 left 3 1 800 553 64.2269 -49.805 9 Mar 49 left 5 0 500 553 64.2269 -49.805 9 Mar 49 left 6 0 600 300 64.2235 -49.8485 9 Mar 49 left 2 1 150 361 64.2223 -49.8663 9 Mar 49 left 7 0 500 349 64.2216 -49.8723 9 Mar 49 left 2 1 150 339 64.2206 -49.8837 9 Mar 49 left 2 1 150 231 64.2179 -49.9176 9 Mar 49 left 7 2 50 245 64.2166 -49.9344 9 Mar 49 right 9 2 20 250 64.215 -49.9532 9 Mar 49 left 1 0 250 268 64.2146 -49.9594 9 Mar 49 right 3 1 230 185 64.2125 -49.9884 9 Mar 49 left 5 2 20 167 64.2118 -49.9955 9 Mar 49 right 5 1 150 222 64.2105 -50.0154 9 Mar 49 right 2 0 250 230 64.2103 -50.0197 9 Mar 49 right 2 1 300 230 64.2103 -50.0197 9 Mar 49 right 3 0 250 230 64.2103 -50.0197 9 Mar 49 right 14 0 0 236 64.2097 -50.0392 9 Mar 49 right 2 1 100 199 64.2095 -50.0422 83 9 Mar 49 right 2 0 250 110 64.2085 -50.0525 9 Mar 49 left 3 0 250 110 64.2085 -50.0525 9 Mar 49 right 2 1 0 89 64.2068 -50.0618 9 Mar 49 left 8 2 200 89 64.2068 -50.0618 9 Mar 49 left 2 1 10 91 64.2065 -50.072 12 Mar 62 right 3 1 50 723 64.2605 -50.7644 12 Mar 62 left 11 2 650 536 64.2781 -50.582 12 Mar 38 right 1 0 30 198 63.67716 -51.3682 12 Mar 38 right 2 0 100 198 63.67716 -51.3682 12 Mar 38 left 3 1 500 139 63.67592 -51.4169 12 Mar 39 0 0 All Calf Elevation (m) Ameralik TOTALS 701 148 599 Average elevation Calf percentage % 21.1 280 S.D. Sub-total Right 322 626 Median elevation Sub-total Left 325 1312 Maximum elevation Sub-total 0-line 54 89 Minimum elevation Table 10. Qeqertarsuatsiaat caribou population raw data from transect line survey, March 2012. All lines included, also those with zero caribou observed. Date Line No. Side Total Caribou Calf Distance to animal (m) Approx. Elevation (m) Latitude Dec.degree Longitude Dec.degree 2 Mar 9 0 0 2 Mar 11 0 0 2 Mar 12 right 6 0 50 381 63.0942 -49.7483 2 Mar 12 left 2 1 200 478 63.0999 -49.6902 2 Mar 12 left 1 0 0 549 63.0999 -49.6757 2 Mar 12 left 1 0 50 840 63.0947 -49.6083 2 Mar 13 left 3 0 352 657 63.1523 -49.6602 2 Mar 13 right 4 1 100 816 63.162 -49.5991 2 Mar 13 left 2 0 200 835 63.1621 -49.5968 2 Mar 13 right 7 2 200 868 63.1643 -49.5618 2 Mar 14 right 1 0 300 848 63.2218 -49.5636 2 Mar 14 right 1 0 200 733 63.2177 -49.6456 2 Mar 14 left 2 0 0 524 63.2145 -49.6884 2 Mar 14 left 3 1 600 524 63.2145 -49.6884 2 Mar 14 right 4 1 250 495 63.2123 -49.7138 2 Mar 14 left 1 0 300 483 63.2072 -49.7677 2 Mar 21 right 3 0 129 676 63.2013 -49.8436 2 Mar 21 left 3 1 20 675 63.2015 -49.8506 2 Mar 21 left 4 1 333 676 63.2016 -49.8602 2 Mar 21 left 1 0 333 676 63.2016 -49.8602 84 2 Mar 21 right 2 1 20 688 63.2019 -49.8715 2 Mar 21 left 1 0 0 730 63.2012 -49.8829 2 Mar 21 right 2 0 200 763 63.2002 -49.8926 2 Mar 21 left 1 1 298 797 63.1931 -49.9536 2 Mar 21 right 3 1 210 700 63.1896 -49.9724 2 Mar 21 left 3 2 50 700 63.1896 -49.9724 2 Mar 21 left 2 0 0 682 63.1874 -49.9883 2 Mar 21 right 3 0 200 709 63.187 -49.994 2 Mar 21 0 2 0 0 719 63.1696 -50.1676 2 Mar 21 right 3 0 255 697 63.1568 -50.2858 2 Mar 21 left 2 1 100 587 63.1553 -50.3461 2 Mar 21 left 1 0 300 512 63.1552 -50.3533 2 Mar 21 left 2 1 0 246 63.1543 -50.3828 2 Mar 21 left 1 0 10 23 63.154 -50.4078 2 Mar 21 right 7 0 0 134 63.1538 -50.4282 2 Mar 21 right 1 0 150 264 63.1539 -50.4466 2 Mar 21 left 4 0 0 264 63.1539 -50.4466 2 Mar 20 0 4 1 0 388 63.0936 -50.4322 2 Mar 20 right 2 1 150 468 63.0969 -50.3972 2 Mar 20 right 5 0 600 567 63.1001 -50.364 2 Mar 20 right 2 1 50 560 63.1042 -50.3133 2 Mar 15 right 1 1 50 653 63.2417 -50.0551 2 Mar 15 left 2 0 200 741 63.2444 -50.0338 2 Mar 15 right 6 2 20 366 63.2843 -49.6906 2 Mar 15 right 2 0 200 446 63.2896 -49.6432 2 Mar 15 0 3 1 0 824 63.2927 -49.5492 2 Mar 16 right 3 0 350 943 63.3627 -49.4519 2 Mar 16 right 2 0 150 893 63.3589 -49.5155 2 Mar 16 right 1 0 150 893 63.3589 -49.5155 2 Mar 16 right 1 0 20 636 63.3436 -49.718 2 Mar 16 left 2 0 500 589 63.3426 -49.7282 2 Mar 16 right 4 1 320 509 63.3405 -49.7471 2 Mar 26 left 3 0 30 595 63.3365 -49.7913 2 Mar 26 left 4 0 30 595 63.3365 -49.7913 2 Mar 26 0 1 0 0 602 63.3361 -49.8008 2 Mar 26 right 2 1 180 581 63.3358 -49.8052 2 Mar 26 right 4 0 200 557 63.3356 -49.8088 2 Mar 26 right 4 0 100 540 63.3348 -49.818 2 Mar 26 right 2 1 150 555 63.3343 -49.8218 2 Mar 26 left 2 0 500 575 63.3318 -49.8478 2 Mar 25 0 0 2 Mar 23 left 2 0 279 515 63.2063 -50.5037 2 Mar 23 left 2 0 0 487 63.2073 -50.4953 2 Mar 23 left 3 0 400 367 63.2092 -50.4557 85 2 Mar 23 right 3 2 50 625 63.2108 -50.4366 2 Mar 23 left 1 0 232 677 63.212 -50.422 2 Mar 23 left 2 1 100 -9 63.2343 -50.2425 7 Mar 19 left 1 0 250 612 63.5097 -49.9509 7 Mar 19 left 1 0 0 572 63.5095 -49.9546 7 Mar 19 left 3 0 450 549 63.5094 -49.9573 7 Mar 19 right 2 1 400 525 63.5092 -49.9672 7 Mar 19 right 2 0 400 531 63.5091 -49.9705 7 Mar 17 left 2 1 800 854 63.4164 -49.56 7 Mar 17 left 1 0 50 826 63.4026 -49.7148 7 Mar 17 right 3 1 400 790 63.4022 -49.7211 7 Mar 17 left 2 1 500 523 63.3996 -49.7523 7 Mar 9 0 10 0 50 234 62.9794 -50.2722 7 Mar 1 right 4 2 731 20 62.5319 -50.2006 7 Mar 1 right 3 0 731 20 62.5319 -50.2006 7 Mar 1 right 4 2 731 20 62.5319 -50.2006 7 Mar 2 0 0 7 Mar 3 0 0 7 Mar 4 left 4 0 500 507 62.7672 -49.872 7 Mar 5 right 3 0 500 707 62.916 -49.8016 7 Mar 5 left 4 0 600 783 62.9028 -49.7691 7 Mar 6 right 4 0 0 1080 63.0277 -49.625 7 Mar 6 right 2 0 500 966 63.0336 -49.642 7 Mar 6 0 2 0 0 755 63.0453 -49.6768 7 Mar 7 0 0 7 Mar 8 0 0 7 Mar 10 right 4 0 400 891 63.0091 -49.9034 7 Mar 10 left 2 1 80 1252 62.9999 -49.9964 7 Mar 22 left 2 1 50 182 63.2022 -50.6334 7 Mar 24 left 8 0 200 139 63.2424 -50.942 7 Mar 24 left 3 0 250 139 63.2424 -50.942 7 Mar 24 left 4 0 711 139 63.2424 -50.942 7 Mar 24 left 3 1 700 222 63.2534 -50.789 7 Mar 27 right 4 1 100 339 63.334 -50.5867 7 Mar 27 right 1 0 250 465 63.3278 -50.6697 7 Mar 27 right 4 1 150 254 63.3156 -50.8104 7 Mar 27 right 1 0 50 240 63.3153 -50.8135 7 Mar 27 right 1 0 0 240 63.3153 -50.8135 7 Mar 27 left 3 1 200 254 63.3156 -50.8104 7 Mar 27 left 5 3 300 227 63.314 -50.8264 8 Mar 33 0 0 8 Mar 32 left 2 1 500 523 63.4339 -50.9368 8 Mar 32 left 1 0 80 450 63.4246 -51.0211 8 Mar 31 right 1 0 0 214 63.4203 -51.0759 86 8 Mar 31 left 3 1 150 180 63.4194 -51.0866 8 Mar 31 left 5 2 100 176 63.4188 -51.0936 8 Mar 31 left 4 0 0 176 63.4188 -51.0936 8 Mar 31 left 1 0 100 227 63.418 -51.1036 8 Mar 31 left 3 0 300 227 63.418 -51.1036 8 Mar 31 right 2 1 0 302 63.4175 -51.1103 8 Mar 29 left 1 0 200 78 63.3574 -51.0618 8 Mar 29 left 10 1 220 60 63.3585 -51.051 8 Mar 29 left 3 0 800 86 63.3604 -51.0287 8 Mar 29 left 1 0 200 67 63.3667 -50.955 8 Mar 29 right 2 0 300 58 63.3696 -50.9086 8 Mar 29 right 4 2 200 58 63.3696 -50.9086 8 Mar 29 0 2 1 0 75 63.3704 -50.9002 8 Mar 29 right 2 0 50 75 63.3704 -50.9002 8 Mar 29 left 4 2 50 75 63.3704 -50.9002 8 Mar 29 right 5 2 300 88 63.3713 -50.8909 8 Mar 29 left 1 0 1000 221 63.3734 -50.8748 8 Mar 30 left 2 0 250 104 63.3843 -50.7674 8 Mar 30 left 4 1 300 215 63.3853 -50.7588 8 Mar 30 right 2 0 0 384 63.3857 -50.7474 8 Mar 30 right 2 1 300 454 63.3862 -50.7342 8 Mar 30 right 11 0 600 466 63.3896 -50.6864 8 Mar 30 right 9 0 300 466 63.3896 -50.6864 8 Mar 30 right 7 0 200 423 63.391 -50.675 8 Mar 30 right 6 2 200 442 63.3917 -50.6667 8 Mar 30 right 11 3 150 477 63.3932 -50.6476 8 Mar 30 right 6 0 125 477 63.3932 -50.6476 8 Mar 30 right 4 1 350 448 63.3943 -50.6373 8 Mar 30 0 3 1 0 458 63.3953 -50.6306 8 Mar 30 right 2 1 75 458 63.3953 -50.6306 8 Mar 30 right 3 0 200 476 63.3958 -50.6253 8 Mar 30 right 3 1 50 436 63.4126 -50.4091 8 Mar 30 right 5 2 50 584 63.4163 -50.3611 All Calf Elevation (m) TOTALS 403 71 479 Average elevation Calf percentage % 17.6 264 S.D. Sub-total Right 220 40 507 Median elevation Sub-total Left 156 27 1252 Maximum elevation Sub-total 0-line 27 4 0 Minimum elevation 87 Appendix 7 Raw data 12 March 2012 demographics & antlers, Ameralik caribou population, South region, West Greenland Table 11. Ameralik caribou survey raw data for demographics and antler possession among females, 12 March 2012. Group Size Male juvenile Male adult Female with antlers Female with no antlers Calf Location 7 2 1 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 4 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 1 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 8 3 2 3 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 7 1 2 1 3 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 1 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 14 2 1 7 4 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 1 1 2 Nunatarsuaq 5 2 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 3 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 2 Nunatarsuaq 4 1 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 2 Nunatarsuaq 4 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 2 Nunatarsuaq 88 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 6 1 3 2 Nunatarsuaq 6 1 2 3 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 1 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 5 1 3 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 2 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 6 1 4 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 4 4 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 4 4 Nunatarsuaq 2 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 3 1 2 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 2 2 Nunatarsuaq 3 3 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Nunatarsuaq 1 1 Isfjord 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 15 1 11 3 Austmannadalen N side 4 2 2 Austmannadalen N side 7 1 3 3 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 89 3 1 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 3 3 Austmannadalen N side 9 2 5 2 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 5 1 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 10 2 1 5 2 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 10 2 5 3 Austmannadalen N side 7 1 5 1 Austmannadalen N side 7 5 2 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 10 3 5 2 Austmannadalen N side 3 1 2 Austmannadalen N side 3 1 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 4 4 Austmannadalen N side 4 2 2 Austmannadalen N side 6 3 3 Austmannadalen N side 2 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 3 1 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 11 3 2 6 Austmannadalen N side 1 1 Austmannadalen N side 6 1 3 2 Austmannadalen N side 3 2 1 Austmannadalen N side 11 1 2 6 2 Austmannadalen N side 6 2 2 2 Austmannadalen N side 2 2 Austmannadalen N side 6 2 3 1 Austmannadalen S side 6 2 3 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 1 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 6 1 2 3 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 4 1 2 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 3 3 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 3 1 2 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 11 6 5 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 1 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 1 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 6 1 2 2 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 6 1 4 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 2 1 1 Ameragdla-Nuajat kua 2 1 1 Buksefjord Hydro Plant 1 1 Buksefjord Hydro Plant 24 2 4 12 6 Sermilik mouth N side 96 Further, the numbers of caribou removed from a population cannot be obtained from the government’s nation-wide Piniarneq reporting. Piniarneq is based solely on where a hunter lives. Since in any given hunting season hunters may harvest caribou from several populations, the Piniarneq database is totally inadequate at providing the number of animals removed from a specific population. It is impossible to allocate which caribou were shot from each population. Sale of caribou meat It is a widespread belief among the general public that only professional hunters may legally sell their catch, i.e., meat, fish and birds. The truth is otherwise. It is legal for recreational hunters to sell their catch, including caribou, and even at the local market, albeit only if the local municipal bylaws allow (Selvstyrets bekendtgørelse nr. 7 af 27 juni 2013 beskyttelse og fangst af vilde rensdyr, §7 Stk. 2: De enkelte kommuner træffer beslutninger vedr. indhandling og salg på "brættet" for fritidsfangere). As regards the sale of caribou meat, there is little difference between recreational and professional permits. The same rules apply to both, i.e., Hjemmestyrets bekendtgørelse nr. 21 af 27 juli 1998 om levnedsmiddelvirksomheder (chapter 1, §1. Stk. 7). Both may sell their catch directly to the final consumer. There are two main caveats. It is illegal to store meat for later sale or to advertise. Advertising includes all forms for public solicitation, e.g., by newspaper, radio, TV, notice boards, e-mail lists, social media, etc. The ‘final consumer’ is defined as the person cooking and eating the caribou. Examples of those not a part of this definition would typically include, hotel kitchens, restaurants, hospitals, and grocery stores or chains. These must require that the hunter, professional or recreational, has a certificate for food handling and hygiene before they may buy the game or fish. In 2013 the Veterinary and Food Safety Board in Greenland (Veterinærog Fødevaremyndigheden i Grønland (VFMG)) began holding courses in food handling and hygiene for the ‘primary producers’ (hunters) with veterinarians teaching. The course was open for all and called Certifikatkursus i hygiejne og egenkontrol for primærproducenter af fødevarer. Since spring 2016 the course will be taught by the Food College Greenland (INUILI; Levnedsmiddel Akademiet Narsaq) in South Greenland. The course is now named: Hygiejne for primærproducenter. This course, and others, may be found at the following website: http://www.inuili.gl/da/Kurser/Kurser-2016 97 The current INUILI curriculum is identical to that offered by VFMG and includes much of Hjemmestyrets bekendtgørelse nr. 21 af 27 juli 1998 om levnedsmiddelvirksomheder, with specifically the contents of chapters 10 and 12 being taught. Similar to VFMG’s certification, successful completion of the INUILI course permits a primary producer to sell game (e.g. red meat and birds) and fish to hotel kitchens, restaurants and 24-hour care facilities. VFMG currently teaches another course for primary producers called Anti mortem fanger kursus. Designed specifically for hunters of caribou and muskoxen, this course involves an evaluation of individual animals before their being chosen for harvest. The purpose is to meet European Union (EU) standards, which will permit carcass delivery to slaughter facilities that are authorized for meat export to the EU. To date, four persons in Kangerlussuaq (Søndre Strømfjord) and three in Qaqortoq have taken the course and received certificates. There is an exception to the ‘rule’ of final consumer. Those hotel kitchens, restaurants and 24-hour care facilities having registered chefs/cooks already authorized in food handling and hygiene may buy directly from professional and recreational hunters without requiring the hunter to possess a certificate in food handling and hygiene. 98 Appendix 10 Past and recent Greenland caribou population estimates & minimum counts Table 12. Population estimates and minimum counts of wild caribou in Greenland, given in order from north to south latitudes1. Caribou Population Region No. Region Name 1977 / 78 1993 1994 1995 1996 1999 2000 2001 2002 2005 2006 2010 20124 Inglefield Land 10 - - - - 100 - 2,260 - - - - - - Olrik Fjord 9 . - - - - - - - 38* - - - - Nuussuaq Halvø 8 - 170 - - 400 - - - 400 1.164* - - - Naternaq 1 Naternaq 100 80 - 271 - - - - - - - - KangerlussuaqSisimiut 2 North 17,900 3,788 7,727 6,196 10,869 - 51,6003 - - 90,4643 - 98,300 Akia-Maniitsoq 3 Central 5,300 3,506 3,080 6,408 6,806 - - 46,236 - 35,807 24,000 Ameralik 4 South - 1,341 1,458 4,553 4,458+ - - 31,880 - - 9,680 - 11,700 Qeqertarsuatsiaat 5 South - - - 5,372 - - 5,224 - 4,800 Qassit 6 Paamiut - - - - - - 196* - - - - - Neria 7 Paamiut - - 181 407 - - 1,600 (332*) - - - - - Total Greenland Approximate Estimate - 9,000 13,000 18,000 22,000 - - 140,0002 - - 141,0002a - 139,0002b 1Estimates between 2000 and 2010 were obtained using survey methods and design unlike those employed from 1993 to 1999. Therefore conclusions about trends in population size are inappropriate, because the population size differences between these two time periods are not assumed readily comparable. Similarly the 2012 survey of the South region used new survey methods as compared to the 2000-2010 period. 2 Rough sum of population estimates obtained in 1999, 2000 and 2001. 2a Rough sum of population estimates obtained in 2005 and 2006. 2b Rough sum of population estimates obtained in 2010 and 2012. 3 Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut estimates from 2000 and 2005 were obtained using somewhat dissimilar methods, i.e. the 2005 survey reduced flight altitude by 85 m, speed by ca. 45 km/hr, and strip width by 400 m. The two estimates are therefore not assumed readily comparable and should not be interpreted as indicating population trend for this population for the time period 2000-2005. 4 The 2012 estimates may receive an update following a quality-check in autumn 2016. * Minimum counts. Sources: Ydemann & Pedersen 1999, Linnell et al. 2000, Landa et al. 2000, Cuyler et al. 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2011 and current study. 99 [Empty page] 99 PART II Photographic record South region helicopter survey photos 1-12 March 2012 All photographs presented in the five appendices of Part II were taken by Christine Cuyler, and from the left front side of helicopter, which maintained an altitude of ca. 40 m. Distances (m) to caribou, if given, are approximate and estimated from 0-line. Compass headings given: North (N), South (S), East (E) and West (W). Appendices 11, 12, 13 and 14 – all photographs were resized to 200KB. Appendix 15, all photographs presented are unaltered and original size, >6MB. See Figures 4 to 7 for transect line locations. All photographs and more are available at full size (>6MB) on the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources server: F:/40-59/PaFu/42/Landpattedyr/24 Aerial Survey/2012 South/Photo DATA_South Survey 2012 Figure 18. Group of 24 Ameralik caribou on the sea ice among islands at the mouth Sermilik Fjord on the north side, view S, 12 March 2012. 100 Appendix 11 Ameralik transect line snow conditions & topography Ameralik South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 19. Line 45 flying A to B, ca. 35 caribou (not visible) were foraging near lakeshore, view E, 8 March 2012. Figure 20. Line 45 flying A to B, three (3) caribou centre photo, view NE, 8 March 2012. 101 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 21. Line 44 flying B to A, view SW, 8 March 2012. Figure 22. Line 44 flying B to A, windswept rocky terrain, two (2) caribou ½-way right of centre photo, view SW, 8 March 2012. 102 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 23. Line 43 flying A to B, sunny south-facing rocky slopes where caribou have been foraging extensively, view N, 8 March 2012. Figure 24. Line 43 flying A to B, sunny south-facing rocky slopes where caribou have been foraging extensively, view NE, 8 March 2012.Backgrounds like these reduce caribou sightability, specifically when the caribou are stationary. 103 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 25. Line 46 flying A to B, snow cover is minimal, view to NE, 8 March 2012. Figure 26. Line 46 flying A to B, snow cover is minimal, view to NE, 8 March 2012. 104 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 27. Line 47, near start B-point, flying B to A, landscape windswept, view S, 8 March 2012. Figure 28. Line 47, flying B to A, four (4) caribou on steep rocky slope just below centre in dark shadow, view NW, 8 March 2012. 111 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 40. Line 51, top rugged, descending into big valley, 14 caribou foraging in dark willows right of centre, flying B to A, views W on 0-line, 9 March 2012. 112 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 41. Line 50, plenty of bare ground/rock showing, flying A to B, view NE, 9 March 2012. Figure 42. Line 50, rocks’ colour resembles caribou pelage, flying A to B, view NE, 9 March 2012. 113 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 43. Line 56, the 0-line is beside the glacier tongue, flying A to B, view ESE, 9 March 2012. Figure 44. Line 56, poor snow cover and rocky terrain, flying A to B, view NE, 9 March 2012. 114 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 45. Line 55 flying A to B, view NE, 9 March 2012. Figure 46. Line 55, caribou tracks & foraging on this slope, mother with calf in upper right quadrant centre, flying A to B, view E on 0-line, 9 March 2012. 115 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 47. Line 54, near start B-point little snow many rocks, flying B to A, view SW, 9 March 2012. Figure 48. Line 54 flying B to A, view SSW, 9 March 2012. 116 Ameralik South Region: HI-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 49. Line 49, Austmannadalen valley’s slopes drop away sharply from 0-line making sighting the many caribou among the willows difficult, flying B to A, view SW, 9 March 2012. Figure 50. Line 49 Austmannadalen’s south-facing slopes and valley bottom were well foraged by caribou, six caribou just up from centre, flying B to A, view backwards SE, 9 March 2012. 117 Ameralik South Region: LOW-density, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 51. Line 37 near B-point, views first N and then E on 0-line, 3 March 2012.Beyond beyond B-point the high density stratum began. 118 Ameralik South Region: LOW-density, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 52. Line 34, view along 0-line looking E, 3 March 2012. Above the snow poor valley just E of B-point and south of east end of the Kangerdluarssungûp tasersuap lake; Below the uplands close to A-point. 119 Ameralik South Region: LOW-density, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 53. Line 42 flying B to A, rocky terrain has little snow cover, view W, 8 March 2012. Figure 54. Line 42 flying B to A, view SW, 8 March 2012. 120 Ameralik South Region: LOW-density, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 55. Line 41 flying B to A, on the windswept rocks three (3) caribou are standing, view W, 8 March 2012. Figure 56. Line 41 flying B to A, cow & calf standing up & right of centre, view SW, 8 March 2012. 127 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 68. Line 16 flying B to A, view SW, 2 March 2012. Figure 69. Line 19 flying B to A, taken at start B-point, view W, 7 March 2012. 128 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 70. Line 19 flying B to A, view SW, 7 March 2012. Figure 71. Line 18 at start A-point, flying A to B, view E, 7 March 2012. High angled slopes as depicted here, confound estimating distances to the caribou, specifically for observer(s) on the down-slope side where the terrain rapidly falls away. 129 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 72. Line 18 flying A to B, view NE, 7 March 2012. Figure 73. Line 17 start B-point, flying B to A, view WSW, 7 March 2012. 130 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 74. Line 17 flying B to A, approaching A-point, view WSW, 7 March 2012. Figure 75. Line 28 just after start B-point, flying B to A, view W, 7 March 2012. Gorge in background was steep sided and deep. Maintaining the 40m altitude above ground requires skillful piloting of the helicopter, specifically when ambient wind direction and velocity can change abruptly. 131 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 76. Line 28 flying B to A, view NW down and out the gorge to fjord, 7 March 2012. Figure 77. Line 28 flying B to A, approaching A-point, view SW, 7 March 2012. 132 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 78. Line 7 flying B to A, rocky outcrops were typical, view WSW, 7 March 2012. Figure 79. Line 3 near start A-point, flying A to B, view SE, 7 March 2012. 133 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 80. Line 3, large and small boulders scattered everywhere were typical for much of this transect line, and reduced caribou sightability, flying A to B, view ESE, 7 March 2012. Figure 81. Line 2, start at B-point, flying B to A, view NW, 7 March 2012. 134 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 82. Line 2 at A-point end, view S across the ‘flats’, 7 March 2012. Figure 83. Line 1, just east of B-point end, view N across the ‘flats’ from the Frederikshåb Isblink, 7 March 2012. 135 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 84. Line 10, flying B to A, at start B-point, view SW, 7 March 2012. Terrain drops sharply away from the 0-line on left side of helicopter. Figure 85. Line 10 flying B to A, view SW, 7 March 2012. 136 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 86. Line 22, solar glare as flying B to A, close to start B-point, view SW, 7 March 2012. Figure 87. Line 22, solar glare as flying B to A, close to end A-point, view SW, 7 March 2012. 143 QEQ South Region: HIGH-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 97. Line 30, flying A to B, view E along 0-line, 8 March 2012. Figure 98. Line 30, flying A to B, view S from 0-line, 8 caribou and tracks, 8 March 2012. 144 QEQ South region: LOW-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 99. Line 4 flying B to A, view WNW, 7 March 2012. Figure 100. Line 4 flying B to A, view WNW, 7 March 2012. 145 QEQ South region: LOW-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown. Figure 101. Line 5 flying A to B, view SE, 7 March 2012. Figure 102. Line 5, approaching end –point, flying A to B, view SE, 7 March 2012. 146 QEQ South region: LOW-density stratum, transects (not all) in order flown Figure 103. Line 6 flying B to A, view WNW, 7 March 2012. Figure 104. Line 6, flying B to A, nearing end A-point, 2 caribou feeding on steep slope (right of centre photo), view WNW, 7 March 2012. 147 Appendix 13 Caribou feeding craters in snow, 1-12 March 2016. Preferred foraging was on south-facing slopes or on flats and valley bottoms. Mountainside slope angle reflects actual, because camera was held horizontal. Figure 105. Caribou feeding craters in the snow on south-facing slopes in the Ameralik LOW-density stratum along eastern portion of line 37, 3 March. 148 Caribou feeding craters: Ameralik LOW-density stratum Figure 106. Caribou feeding craters in the snow on south-facing slopes in the Ameralik LOW-density stratum along eastern portion of line 37, 3 March. In top photo, three caribou can be seen at the bottom centre. 149 Caribou feeding craters: Ameralik LOW-density stratum Figure 107. Caribou feeding craters in the snow on south-facing slopes in the Ameralik LOW-density stratum along eastern portion of line 37, 3 March. 150 Caribou feeding craters: Ameralik HIGH-density stratum Figure xx. Line 44, caribou feeding craters, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 8 March. Figure 108. Line 43, caribou feeding craters along rocky slope of lake shore, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 8 March. 151 Caribou feeding craters: Ameralik HIGH-density stratum Figure 109. Line 42, caribou feeding craters over entire slope, four (4) caribou right of centre, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 8 March. Figure 110. Line 48, caribou feeding craters, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 8 March. 152 Caribou feeding craters: Ameralik HIGH-density stratum Figure 111. Nunatarsuaq, line 60, caribou feeding craters over entire sunny slope, five (5) caribou centre, six (6) caribou upper left but still in sunlight, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 9 March. Figure 112. Nunatarsuaq, line 60, caribou feeding craters throughout rocky rough terrain, Ameralik HIGH density stratum, 9 March.