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EPA: Economy and Space
2025, Vol. 57(2-3) 287 –306
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AEconomy and Space
Regimes o alue: Economic
ans o ma ions, ecological
li elihoods, and sal coope a i es
on he Bulga ian Black Sea coas
Anna S. An ono a
Rachel Ca son Cen e o En i onmen and Socie y, LMU Munich, Ge many
Abs ac
This a icle in es iga es changing egimes o alue in he sal la s on he sou he n Bulga ian Black Sea coas
as a way o explo ing how di e se economic p ac ices e lec communi ies’ ela ions wi h hei en i onmen .
Combining a eminis poli ical economy (FPE) lens wi h pos socialis analysis o social change in Bulga ia, I
ace he sal la s’ ans o ma ion om coope a i ely managed local ecological li elihood o passi e p ope y
ende ed mos aluable when sold o de elopmen in o he now-dominan ou is indus y. In con as , I also
ou line con empo a y di e se economic p ac ices inspi ed by he sal la s, which seek al e na i e means o
concei ing he economy. D awing on hese expe iences, I a gue ha he pos socialis lens can o e a obus
pe spec i e on concep ualiza ions o he di e se economy.
Keywo ds
Feminis poli ical economy, coope a i es, pos socialism, alue, sal la s, Black Sea
F om sal la s o la s o sale: A alue ans o ma ion
“All o his [ own] is buil on sal la s, which ha e been illed in, des oyed. The las hey des oyed
and illed in was he li le sal lake ha was in on o he sani o ium, now i ’s been u ned in o a
neighbo hood o o -sale la s, mainly o Russians.” Desc ibing he sou he n Bulga ian coas al own
o Pomo ie, back in 2017, And ei1 do e immedia ely, unp omp ed, in o he hea o i s ma e ial ans-
o ma ion—and o i s economic shi . Whe e sal p oduc ion had once, in he ea ly 20 h cen u y,
unc ioned as a subs an ial economic d i e o he sou he n Bulga ian coas (Skumo , 2019, 2022),
in he con empo a y con ex i has been almos en i ely supplan ed—physically, inancially, and cul-
u ally—by ou ism.
The local communi y had once iewed i s sal la s as an inhe en sou ce o alue: in ecollec ions
o he sal la s in he 1920s and 1930s, o example, an in e locu o o an h opologis Ana Lule a’s
desc ibed he indus y as a simple ecipe: “You pu in wa e , you ake ou money” (A., ci ed in Lule a,
Co esponding au ho :
Anna S. An ono a, Rachel Ca son Cen e o En i onmen and Socie y, LMU Munich, Leopolds . 11a, Munich D-80802,
Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1295521EPN0010.1177/0308518X241295521EPA: Economy and SpaceAn ono a
esea ch-a icle2024
O iginal A icle
288 EPA: Economy and Space 57(2-3)
2021: 64, my ansla ion). Bu mos con empo a y hei s o sal la s, And ei old me, saw no alue in
hei p ope y unless hey could sell: “O e he e you’ e go a puddle o wa e – which is no hing o
you, b ings you no income – and suddenly [i you sell] you’ e become, you ha e 100,000 [le ],
you’ e a big deal” (And ei, 2017, my ansla ion). Making p o i om sal on he con empo a y coas -
line, I was old in in e iews, was di icul ; hence om mo e han 400 indi idual owne s in he indus-
y du ing he ea ly 1900s in Anchialo2 alone (Skumo , 2019), by 2023 only one p oduce emained
along he en i e coas line (In e iews wi h au ho , 2023). Thus, he alue ha he communi y had once
seen as inhe en o he na u al esou ce was now oid. In he new coas al neolibe al con ex , o be
ende ed aluable, he o me sal la s now ha e o be sold o de elopmen —made p o i able wi hin
he specula i e ou ism de elopmen and cons uc ion indus y.
This a icle aces hese changing egimes o alue in he in e connec ed economic and en i on-
men al ans o ma ions o he Bulga ian Black Sea coas line h ough he pe spec i e o he sal la s
in i s sou he n egion, a ound he Bay o Bu gas. I in es iga es hese ans o ma ions h ough a dual
lens ha combines eminis poli ical economy (FPE)—especially hinking on di e se economies a e
Gibson-G aham’s wo k (1996, 2008)—wi h pos socialis analysis o social change. Fo his align-
men , in his a icle I d aw on FPE no o s udy gende ela ions pe se bu ins ead – like o he FPE
schola s ha e done be o e me (Colla d and Dempsey, 2020) – as a obus way o widening he lens
on economic ela ions and highligh ing di e se economic p ac ices (Gibson-G aham, 2008). As FPE
schola ship has al eady no ed, while geog aphe s and poli ical ecologis s ha e inc easingly been
deba ing he concep ual dimensions o alue in he ela ionship be ween na u e and capi alism, dis-
cussions o alue in hese ields can o en employ a su p isingly s ic Ma xis concep ualiza ion o
he e m (Colla d and Dempsey, 2017; Mies, 2014). Indeed, FPE li e a u e i sel ecognizes he com-
plexi y embedded in he e m “ alue” wi hin hese discussions: a concep ha can equally signi y
capi alis exchange wo h and simul aneously he wide se o meanings asc ibed o en i onmen al
and social o ces ha a e essen ial o he unc ioning o capi alism bu equen ly emain le ou side
o i s concep ual language—like he wo k o social ep oduc ion, ca e, o li e-gi ing sys ems
(Bauha d and Ha cou , 2019; Colla d and Dempsey, 2017; Gibson-G aham and Mille , 2015).
Hence, FPE schola s ha e been equally conce ned wi h cha ing he pa e ns h ough which hese
wide meanings o alue lose wo h (becoming de alued) unde capi alism and in heo izing how hey
could be eins a ed, ei he wi hin he capi alis sys em (Kay and Kenney-Laza , 2017) o by mo ing
owa d a pos capi alis u u e (Colla d and Dempsey, 2017; Gibson-G aham, 2006; Roel ink e al.,
2015; Zanoni e al., 2017). My own app oach o in es iga ing egimes o alue in his a icle likewise
akes on he complex meanings o “ alue.” By acing he s o y o he sal la s’ own ans o ma ion,
I seek o unde s and he p ocesses ha s ipped b oade meanings o alue om hem; bu I also aim
o heo ize his o ical and con empo a y di e se economic p ac ices in his con ex ha could eins a e
hese wide meanings o alue in a (pos )capi alis con ex . Since I am speci ically in e es ed in he
g ay spaces and ansi ions be ween hese in e p e a ions, his pape delibe a ely plays wi h he poly-
semy o he e m “ alue” as bo h a mone a y and a mo al signi ie . Ne e heless, I clea ly dema ca e
h oughou whe e I mean he e m o speak o capi alis exchange wo h and whe e o b oade con-
no a ions. In he case s udies in he semi inal sec ion, I explo e how hese meanings can exis oge he
o independen ly om one ano he .
Hence, in hinking abou he sal la s’ ma e ial, socie al, and economic ans o ma ions in his
a icle, I ollow he commi men o hose FPE schola s who seek o eimagine he economy as a
ela ionship no me ely be ween capi al and human ac o s, bu also be ween human beings and hei
ecosys ems (Colla d and Dempsey, 2020; Gibson-G aham, 2008; Gibson-G aham and Mille ,
2015). Gibson-G aham and Mille , in pa icula , a gue o he need o analyze he economy “as a
his o ical, discu si e p oduc ion a he han an objec i e on ological ca ego y” and he eby o e-
g ound i in i s ela ionship wi h ecologic and socie al ela ions (2015: 8). They he e o e ad ance
a no ion o he economy as a ype o ecosys em, highligh ing he simila e ymology o he wo d
An ono a 289
“economy”: “oikos-habi a ; nomos-nego ia ion o o de ” (2015: 12). These ideas ha e been aken
u he by en i onmen al economic geog aphe s Colla d and Dempsey in hei sea ch o gene a-
i e heo ies o economic social ela ions ha can a end o nonhuman as well as human dynamics
(2020: 238). Following hese schola s’ example, he i ula egimes o alue I explo e in his a icle
a e no me ely economic, in he sense o capi alis alue, bu a he mo e- han-economic: socie al
and en i onmen al. I seek o unde s and he ans o ma ion in how local communi ies iew hei
coas line and i s economic landscape as an exp ession o socio-ecological ela ions. The egimes o
alue ha his a icle commen s on, he e o e, ela e no only o he di e en economic models ha
he Bulga ian coas line has expe ienced bu also o he a ying o ms o en i onmen al and socie al
meaning a ached o hem.
My ocus on a pos socialis con ex u he helps widen his analy ical app oach o s udying alue
beyond he ealm o capi alism o e en capi al. To do his, I also d aw on pos socialis analysis and i s
long his o y o diagnosing he complexi ies o bo h socie al ansi ions and economic di e si y. The
ield has a powe ul his o y o p oblema izing he ole o land and economics in social li e simila o
ha o FPE schola ship: as bo h Ve de y (2003) and Hann (2007a) ha e a gued, o example, he
changing s a us o p ope y in he pos socialis con ex ca ies wi h i he kno ed complexi ies o
social ela ions be ween humans and nonhuman objec s. Ye he analy ical po en ial o he pos social-
is lens has o en emained bu ied unde he coloniali y o knowledge p oduc ion, which ea s he
Eas as a si e capable a bes o empi ical bu ne e heo e ical con ibu ions (Jehlička, 2021;
Tlos ano a, 2015). Indeed, despi e i s unique expe ience wi h a ying economic egimes and he
ansi ions be ween hem, in e es in he pos socialis con ex has waned o e ime, and a gumen s
ha e e en been hea d o i s diminishing ele ance in he con empo a y wo ld (Gen ile, 2018; Mülle ,
2019). Ne e heless, pos socialism con inues o o e an especially s ong ocus on empo ali y and
he concep ually gene a i e ensions be ween up u es and con inui ies (Hann, 2007b; Mülle , 2019;
Ringel, 2022). The pos socialis expe ience complica es bina ies o socialism-capi alism by demon-
s a ing, as he s o y o he Bulga ian Black Sea coas sal la s will do he e, he con inui ies be ween
hese supposedly con as ing egimes.
I s heal hy skep icism abou bina ies makes he pos socialis con ex pa icula ly ele an o anal-
yses o alue in socie al ans o ma ions, including and especially when i comes o acing how hese
ans o ma ions p oduce di e se economies (Cima and So o á, 2022; Pa lo skaya, 2004, 2013;
Smi h and S enning, 2006). Much like FPE schola ship, pos socialis li e a u e has long hos ed dis-
cussions on he p ocesses o e alua ion and de alua ion h ough which b oade ypes o alue a e
placed ou side capi alis weal h gene a ion (Alexande , 2004; Hann, 2007a; Ve de y, 2003).
Impo an ly, his li e a u e has shown ha hese p ocesses we e no limi ed o he oiding o socialis
alues wi h he egime’s collapse; a he , wo k like Ve de y’s has demons a ed how une enly pos -
socialis capi alis e alua ion p ocesses in e p e ed wha does coun as capi alis alue, asc ibing
di e en ma ke wo h o he same ypes o p ope y, in as uc u e, o se ices mon hs o yea s apa
(2003). The e a e di ec pa allels be ween hese obse a ions and FPE c i iques on capi alis eco-
nomic heo y’s na ow de ini ions o alue as “p o i .” Fi s , bo h can be si ua ed agains a wide
con ex o he commons’ enclosu e and ex ac ion h ough he c ea ion o bounded p i a e p ope y
(Fede ici, 2004; Nigh ingale, 2019; Ve de y, 2003). Second, bo h lines o schola ship con es he
appa en uni e salism o capi alis “ alue” i sel (Colla d and Dempsey, 2017; Kay and Kenney-
Laza , 2017; Ve de y, 2003). And inally, bo h he pos socialis expe ience and FPE schola ship shi
a en ion o he di e se economic p ac ices eme ging om a wide ocus on o ms o alue (Cima and
So o á, 2022; Gibson-G aham, 2008; Gibson-G aham and Mille , 2015; Johaniso a e al., 2020;
Pa lo skaya, 2004, 2013; Smi h and S enning, 2006). In combining he wo lines o heo e ical
hough , I ollow exis ing deba es in o he gene a i e po en ial o he pos socialis con ex o al e na-
i e p ac ices mo ing agains he dominan logic o ma ke iza ion (Cima and So o á, 2022; Johaniso a
e al., 2020; Pa lo skaya, 2004, 2013; Smi h and S enning, 2006). By placing a ocus on social and
290 EPA: Economy and Space 57(2-3)
en i onmen al ela ions, mo eo e , I seek o wo k agains he “mu ual igno ance o Eas Eu opeanis s
and en i onmen al s udies schola s” once de ined by Gille (2007: 11) by u he ing he o e laps
be ween pos socialis analyses and FPE schola ship on di e se economies.
This a icle’s conclusions d aw on a wide body o esea ch. The ma e ials I ci e he e include semi-
s uc u ed in e iews conduc ed in 2017–2018 (Be na d, 2006), semi-s uc u ed in e iews and
Q-so s (Ba y and P oops, 1999) conduc ed in he win e and sp ing o 2023, and a chi al documen s
ob ained om he cen al (So ia) and egional (Bu gas) Bulga ian S a e A chi es in 2018–2019 and
in 2023. Bo h ounds o in e iews solici ed na a i es on he coas line’s social and en i onmen al
ans o ma ion om a o al o 33 pa icipan s selec ed h ough a pu pose ul app oach (Palinkas e al.,
2015) designed o ep esen a a ie y o oices and pe spec i es on he sou he n Bulga ian Black Sea
coas line (see Table 1). Howe e , he wo selec ion p ocedu es di e ed sligh ly om one ano he .
Pa icipan s o he in e iews in 2017–2018 we e chosen h ough a modi ied snowball app oach
(Fa quha son, 2005). Those in 2023 we e selec ed h ough a pu pose ul s a i ied sampling p ocedu e
ha i s iden i ied a di e se g oup o s akeholde s ep esen ing a ying agen ial and s uc u al pe -
spec i es and hen app oached indi idual s akeholde s om all o hese g oups, a emp ing o co e a
b oad o e iew om key pe spec i es. In his second g oup, hal o he pa icipan s— ha is, hose
who did no ep esen a go e nance ins i u ion—we e also asked o pa icipa e in a Q-so designed o
inqui e in o coas al communi ies’ pe cep ions o blue jus ice designed a e Benne e al.’s amewo k
(2021). The Q-so su ey was co-p oduced in he con ex o he wide Ho izon Eu ope esea ch con-
so ium Empowe Us, which also unded he second ound o in e iews; o his a icle, I d aw on he
Q-so ma e ial only ligh ly o illus a e my poin s owa d he end o he nex sec ion and ins ead
e lec mo e deeply on insigh s ga he ed om he in e iews hemsel es alongside a chi al ma e ials,
ollowing an o iginal na a i e analysis app oach (An ono a, 2021). The Empowe Us esea ch con-
so ium also has a wide ole in helping o es ablish a longe - e m co-p oduc i e pa ne ship be ween
mysel and he Bu gas eam o he Bulga ian Biodi e si y Founda ion on he Black Sea coas , wi h
whom I collabo a ed o selec pa icipan s o be in e iewed in 2023. The same pa ne ship has also
in o med he discussion o con empo a y ac i i ies seeking o di e si y he economic landscape
owa d he end o he a icle by b inging me in close con ac wi h hem.
Acco ding o a ime-hono ed academic cus om, mos c i ical schola ship in es iga ing he e i al
o economic ac i i ies a e he end o socialism has ocused on cha ing he ailu es (Do ondel and
Şe ban, 2020; Rajko ić, 2023; Thees eld and Boe sky, 2005). While no en i ely immune o his
sho coming, in his a icle I also delibe a ely ocus on posi i e de elopmen s, highligh ing o ms o
c ea i e and cons uc i e economic ac i i ies on he Bulga ian Black Sea coas ha ha e aken he sal
la s as hei inspi a ion o cause. Taking my lead again om FPE, which a gues ha economic knowl-
edge and p ac ices need o be unde s ood wi hin he shi ing his o ic, poli ical, and cul u al con ex s
ha p oduced hem (McDowell, 2016; Mi chell, 2008) and calls o mo e ep esen a ion o he eco-
nomic di e si y hidden in plain sigh (Colla d and Dempsey, 2020; Gibson-G aham, 1996, 2008,
Table 1. B eakdown o pa icipan s’ occupa ions ac oss bo h ounds o in e iew collec ion (2017–2018 and
2023).
Occupa ion # pa icipan s # Q-so s
Heads o egional ins i u ions 3 0
Expe s a a na ional o egional ins i u ion 8 0
Local ins i u ional expe s o ep esen a i es 5 1
Resea che s & educa o s 5 1
Local en ep eneu s o small-scale business owne s 5 4
NGO expe s and en i onmen al ac i is s 7 3
An ono a 291
2014), I place a en ion on he in en i e means con empo a y ac o s ha e employed o di e si y he
economic o e ings o bo h ou ism and local ci izens by pu suing ac i i ies ha align wi h na u e
conse a ion goals on he coas line. Leading up o hese di e se economic p ac ices, he a icle p o-
ceeds as ollows. In he nex sec ion, I ou line con empo a y pe cep ions o he coas line’s economic
landscape as being domina ed by a single ac i i y ( ou ism), which p oduces a ype o alue ha
a ely lands wi hin local communi ies. I illus a e he pe cep ions se e al in e locu o s sha ed wi h me
ha his i e a ion o he economy amoun s o an unsus ainable, he e ogenous economy simila o an
ecologically impo e ished landscape.
Seeking o unde s and he con ex s om which his sense o impo e ishmen a ose, as well as o
unde s and he landscape o economic hinking om which con empo a y di e se p ac ices eme ge, I
hen place he sal la s’ changing alue in i s his o ical con ex . To do so, I d aw on a chi al e idence
and schola ship pe aining o he coope a i es ha once accoun ed o he p e alen economic model
on he sou he n Bulga ian coas line and isi e hnog aphies o he pos socialis ansi ion o cha his
economic model’s ans o ma ion. The ea e , in he inal sec ion, I illus a e and commen on con-
empo a y e o s by nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions and membe s o he local communi y o ein ig-
o a e some o he sal la s’ inhe en alue h ough p ac ices I analyze as con ibu ing o a di e se
economy (Gibson-G aham, 2008). In his way, I explo e he deba e on wha kinds o alue can be
eins a ed bo h wi hin a di e si ied capi alis imagina y and looking beyond i a pos capi alis
possibili ies.
A monoc op economy: Tou ism on he Bulga ian Black Sea coas
The subsump ion o sal la s in o he ou ism de elopmen along he sou he n Bulga ian coas line is
in some ways unsu p ising gi en he indus y’s dominance in his con ex . Indeed, he e has long been
a g ea deal o alue o be ex ac ed om he ou is indus y. Recognized by he socialis go e nmen
as i s bes e u n o in es men nea ly om i s concep ion (Poli bu o o he Cen al Commi ee o he
Bulga ian Communis Pa y (Poli bu o), 1960: 122-3), a e 1989 he indus y was iden i ied as a
main pilla o he ansi ion o capi alism and hus as a p io i y o p i a iza ion and o eign in es -
men (Holle an, 2020; Koulo , 1996). F om he ea ly 1990s onwa d, US and EU de elopmen unds,
Spanish companies chasing he nex bo om ung o he ou is ma ke , and EU na ionals looking o
holiday homes and cheap p ope y all in es ed hea ily in he Bulga ian coas line’s de elopmen
(Ande son e al., 2012; Holle an, 2017, 2020). By 2016, he ou is indus y had g own o con ibu e
well o e 12% o he g oss domes ic p oduc (Bulga ian Minis y o Tou ism, 2017); meanwhile, o e
he yea s p eceding Bulga ia’s 2007 accession o he EU, eal es a e sales—mos o which occu ed
ei he in So ia o in ou is dis ic s, especially he coas line—inc eased a epo ed 56.6 imes
(Ande son e al., 2012). As a esul o hese dynamics, he Bulga ian Black Sea sho eline expe ienced
a cons uc ion boom o massi e p opo ions. F om a epo ed 74,277 beds in coas al municipali ies in
1999 (S anche e al., 2015), he ho el and lodging base had g own mo e han wo and a hal imes o
203,085 beds by 2012 (Na ional S a is ical Ins i u e, n.d.); in he i e yea s be ween 2002 and 2007
alone, he lodging capaci y in he coas al dis ic o Bu gas inc eased nea ly nine old (Ande son e al.,
2012). Acco dingly, he sal la s a e a om he only landscape o be undamen ally eshaped by he
ou is indus y on he Bulga ian Black Sea coas o e he las ew decades: dunes, species, and u ban
landscapes ha e all o e whelmingly been e o med o con o m o a ou is landscape (An ono a and
an Dam, 2022).
When And ei and I i s me , in 2017, he spoke ex ensi ely abou he sal la s in Pomo ie ha had
been illed in o make way o new cons uc ion. Mos o he esul ing la s o sale cons uc ed in
hei place, he old me, had been sold o o eign in es o s, o en Russians, esul ing in he o ma ion
o wha locals ha e called “Li le Russia” o “Li le Moscow” wi hin he own in one o he a eas
whe e sal la s had once been (2017). When And ei and I me in Pomo ie again, in 2023, he windows
292 EPA: Economy and Space 57(2-3)
o he co ee shop in which we sa looked ou on wo sepa a e p ope y lende s, one o which ad e is-
ing en i ely in Russian (see Figu e 1). The building housing he co ee shop, hose in which he p op-
e y lende s we e loca ed, and indeed he en i e neighbo hood in which we me had once been aken
up by sal la s.
The Russian-language p ope y lende s aise—besides oubling geopoli ical implica ions in he
wake o Russia’s 2022 in asion o he Uk aine—p essing ques ions abou he ex en o which local
communi ies ha e ac ually e ained capi al in he ou is indus y: ha is, inancial, cul u al, o al o-
ge he any capi al. This e y ques ion has been deba ed. Among he mo e posi i e e alua ions o he
ou is indus y om he ea ly 1990s, Ghodsee’s (2005) book The Red Ri ie a claimed ha i bene-
i ed he women i employed du ing he ansi ion om pos socialism, allowing hem o ans e he
language skills and cul u al capi al hey had acqui ed wi hin i o he capi alis ma ke a a ime when
many s uggled (2005). This op imis ic iew has been con es ed, howe e , by Lule a’s mo e ecen
e hnog aphic wo k in he same indus y (2021). In Lule a’s es ima ion, he women bene i ed by hei
wo k in ou ism in he way ha Ghodsee desc ibes we e ela i ely ew, while mos women employed
by he indus y ei he emained engaged in lowe -paid “women’s wo k” like housekeeping o ki chen
wo k (2021). In a b oade sense, oo, much o he p o i om he ou is and la s- o -sale indus ies
along he coas line has ailed o land locally. Es ima es based on o icial s a is ics ha e sugges ed ha
mo e han hal o he o eign ou is s isi ing Bulga ia s ayed in p ope ies o hei own o hose
owned by iends o ela i es, esul ing in no di ec economic bene i o he local communi y (Yane ,
2019). Lule a has shown ha local-based business owne s o en pe cei e hemsel es as “su i ing”
a he han “ h i ing” (2021). Mo e g imly, Kaloyan sha ed wi h me ha locals “had been clea ly
Figu e 1. P ope y lende s in a neighbo hood buil on op o o me sal la s. Pho o by au ho , 2023.
An ono a 293
gi en o unde s and ha wha is on o e o hem om he new oppo uni ies was simply o sell hei
a mlands and gi e up he en ep eneu ship o o he s” (2018, my ansla ion). In o he wo ds, he new
ype o alue o be ex ac ed om coas al p ope y—pe cei ed, as And ei’s accoun o he sal la s
illus a es, o be he only ype o alue a ailable— a ely een e ed he communi y, ha ing been li e -
ally ex ac ed.
In in e iews and Q-so s I conduc ed in 2023, I also lea ned ha membe s o he communi y who
ac i ely seek o engage wi h he con empo a y coas al ou ism indus y as en ep eneu s—as opposed
o simply en e ing he indus y in he ole o employees—o en eel hemsel es o be acing s ong
headwind. Fa om encou aging small ini ia i es, one local en ep eneu sha ed wi h me ha egional
and municipal ins i u ions o en app op ia ed po en ially success ul p i a e ideas: “you p opose a
p ojec o do some hing meaning ul o socie y, gi e hem all he in o ma ion eady-made, hey s eal
i om you, ake you in ellec ual labo , copy i om you, and simply change he numbe s o i e
imes mo e” (Damian, 2023, my ansla ion). Along wi h o he pa icipan s, Damian hus exp essed a
commonly sha ed pe cep ion ha he local municipali y ook o e , monopolized, o ou compe ed—
a he han enabled—en ep eneu ial ini ia i es (2023). Local municipali ies hemsel es, howe e ,
ha e likewise exp essed s ong conce n wi h he need o di e si y he economic landscape and mo e
away om wha one o icial s a egic documen has e med as “a pos socialis and dep essi e” de el-
opmen model (Bu gas Municipali y, 2021: 253, my ansla ion). Thus, he e p e ailed a sense ha
he e we e cu en ly oo ew economic oppo uni ies on he sou he n Bulga ian coas line o o dina y
ci izens. When asked i she hough ha di e en economic ac i i ies we e seen as equally impo an
on he coas line, Da ina eplied, “Mm, I don’ know i ha ’s exac ly ue. . . Wha key economic
ac i i ies do we ha e? As we men ioned he e’s a lo o p ope y ading. Small business is mos ly
lacking, e en economic ac i i ies. . . Gi e me an example, wha am I eally missing?” (2023, my
ansla ion). He hesi a ion spoke eloquen ly o he p e alence o p ope y specula ion and he accom-
panying lack o economic di e si y ha we e bo h disce nable on he Bulga ian sho e.
Simila ly, when asked i hey el ha he bene i s o economic de elopmen on he Bulga ian
Black Sea coas line we e ai ly dis ibu ed as o 2023, mos pa icipan s disag eed (In e iews wi h
au ho , 2023). A common pe cep ion was ha nei he na ional no egional policy p io i ized he eal
needs o communi ies: “ he ype o policy cu en ly implemen ed by he s a e oge he wi h he
municipali ies,” Damian old me, “is in e es d i en. I ’s no based on a long- e m ision. They [ he
poli icians] a e businessmen, businessmening” (2023, my ansla ion). Rela edly, pa icipan s high-
ligh ed how his economic a mosphe e encou aged unsus ainable p ac ices. Anelia, o ins ance,
spoke o a eigning “appe i e o o e nigh p o i ” in he en ep eneu ial landscape ha saw mos
in es men s esul in a one-season ini ia i e di ec ly on o he beach: “you’ll jus be wo king one sea-
son, you’ll be selling ied ish o 10 le o andom passe s-by. You won’ e en ge ich, bu you’ll
sully up a place like ha ” (2023, my ansla ion). Cha ac e is ically, he dominan economic a i ude
ou lined by bo h Damian and Anelia esul ed in nei he inancial no en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
Indeed, he unsus ainabili y o he ou is indus y has long been ci ed bo h by schola s—who ha e
shown ha despi e he ballooning in es men s, e enues emain ela i ely low compa ed o compe -
ing des ina ions like Tu key o G eece (S anche e al., 2015; Yane , 2019)—and by na ional and
egional ins i u ions, which consis en ly call o he need o di e si y he indus y (Bulga ian Minis y
o Tou ism, 2017; Bu gas Municipali y, 2021).
In sho , he sou he n Bulga ian Black Sea coas could be desc ibed as an economic and ecological
landscape domina ed by a singula indus y wi h a scan numbe o economic ac i i ies. This si ua ion
comes in di ec con as o he unc ional and heal hy capi alism model which, as eminis poli ical
economis s ha e poin ed ou , “ unc ions, accumula es and ep oduces i sel h ough he e ogenei y”
(Colla d and Dempsey, 2020). Along wi h bo h Gibson-G aham and Mies, Colla d and Dempsey
poin ou he necessi y o ecognizing he “con ingen and localized,” unique in en i e p ac ices
ei he displaced by, o p esen bu o e looked wi hin, he dominan capi alis imagina y (2020). An
294 EPA: Economy and Space 57(2-3)
en i onmen al imagina y can be use ul o his ask. I he Bu gas Bay coas al economy we e e-
imagined as an ecosys em, as Gibson-G aham and Mille u ge us o do (2015), i would be mo e akin
o a monoc op cul u e o an o e g azed meadow. Much like hese examples, howe e , he homogenic
economy on he Bulga ian Black Sea coas is nei he a p ede e mined conclusion no an absolu e
u h; ins ead, i eme ged om a pa icula se o cul u al and socie al alues and i s seeming domi-
nance co esponds o a pa icula economic imagina y and na a i e. Looking deepe in o he eme -
gence o his landscape helps place mo e a en ion on he possible al e na i es o indeed on exis ing
p ac ices ha ha e been hus a o e looked.
Coope a i es, pos socialis land es i u ions, and b oken models o
economic-ecological ela ions
Unde s anding he sal la s’ alue ans o ma ion and he po en ial o hei es i u ion as a sou ce o
meaning ul economic and ecological ela ions equi es a sho o ay in o his o y. As schola s o
di e se economies in pos socialis con ex s ha e p e iously no ed (Cima and So o á, 2022;
Johaniso a e al., 2020; Pa lo skaya, 2013), Cen al and Eas Eu opean cases p esen ich heo e ical
g ound o di e se economic p ac ices no only because o he u bulen aspec s o hei pos socialis
ans o ma ions bu also because o he long al e na i e economic adi ions e iden in hei p esocial-
is pas . Bulga ia is no excep ion. In he ea ly 1900s, coope a i es we e a p e alen economic model
in he managemen o na u al esou ces ac oss Bulga ia, including on he coas line. Go e ned unde
a special 1907 coope a i e law, which ensu ed he inancial supe ision o he Bulga ian Ag icul u al
Bank (la e he Bulga ian Ag icul u al and Coope a i e Bank) and he legal o e sigh o ins i u ions
like he Minis ies o Jus ice, Finance, and T ade (Bulga ian Minis y o Finances, 1936-7; Bulga ian
Sal P oducing Coope a i e Socie y “Pomo iiski solni si,” 1934-7; Law o he Coope a i es, 1907)
coope a i es ose in p ominence quickly: om 870 in 1921 o 3,502 in 1939 (Mad ow, 1938; Thees eld
and Boe sky, 2005). The coope a i e model was pa icula ly well-sui ed o he p e-wa Bulga ian
economy gi en he p ominence o small-scale ag icul u al holdings: as o 1926, 85% o ag icul u al
c opland belonged o small (unde 30 ha) a ms (Mad ow, 1938). I was, howe e , also a model based
on a long his o y o cheap ag icul u al c edi designed o suppo bo h he poo es amilies and collec-
i e unde akings (Mad ow, 1938). Thus, he coope a i e model eme ged om socie al needs and
p esupposed collec i e hinking.
Acco dingly, hese coope a i es also played an impo an socie al and economic ole, displaying
wha JK Gibson-G aham has e med he “commi men o aluing communi y sus ainabili y o e and
abo e immedia e pe sonal consump ion” (Gibson-G aham, 2003: 143). Coope a i es along he
Bulga ian coas line ended o hold a socie al ole beyond ha o communi y ade s. His o ical
esea ch shows examples o local coope a i es no only aking ca e o he collec i e managemen ,
anspo , o p ice-se ing o ma e ials bu also unding local schools, cul u al cen e s, and lib a ies,
issuing newspape s, and e en pe o ming communi y con lic dissolu ion on cases like bounda y
disag eemen s, “indecen ac s in public places,” o “b eaches o mo ali y” (Rayche ski, 2016: 60–
61). The ype o economic hough his ep esen ed could be illus a ed h ough he pape s o he
Bulga ian Fishing Coope a i es’ Headqua e s in Bu gas, es ablished in 1938. They e eal how he
Headqua e s wo ked o alle ia e i s membe s’ inancial bu den in he win e o 1941 h ough p o id-
ing membe s in e es - ee loans o gea and supplies, secu ed agains he season’s p ojec ed ca ch
(Bulga ian Fishing Coope a i e, 1941). Minu es om he managemen boa d’s mee ing show ha in
aking he decision, “[ ]he mos p essing conce n [was] ha o inding a way o alle ia e [ ishe men’s]
ishing in en o y deb s” (Ayano , 1938: 90, my ansla ion). In e u n, he coope a i e isked he
Bulga ian Ag icul u al and Coope a i e Bank’s i e, which soon he ea e be a ed he managemen
boa d as being “unable o show a su icien ly adesman-like and o ganiza ional a i ude” owa d i s
inances and ecommends s ic e deb collec ion policies (Bulga ian Ag icul u al and Coope a i e
An ono a 295
Bank, 1942, my ansla ion). In sho , he coope a i e p io i ized i s membe s’ li elihood and u u e
secu i y o e i s p o i . Ves ed in social ep oduc ion, hey ea ed alue as a social good and managed
hei inances acco dingly.
In he con ex o Pomo ie/Anchialo, he sal la s had likewise been managed by sal coope a i es.
As ea ly as 1894, sal p oduce s in Anchialo olun a ily ga e up i e pe cen o hei p o i o pay o
sho e de ense p o ec ing he own (and he sal la s; Bulga ian Minis y o Finances, 1936). A e a
de as a ing lood in 1915 ha caused subs an ial damages o he indus y, an eme gency und was
es ablished o help und u gen epai s; by 1922, his had g own in o he es ablishmen o a coope a-
i e whose esponsibili ies encompassed e e y aspec o he main enance and de elopmen o he
local indus y—including collec i e anspo , wa e managemen , necessa y in as uc u e cons uc-
ion and main enance, policy liaising, sales, and membe loans (Bulga ian Minis y o Finances, 1936;
Skumo , 2022). The coope a i e also inanced communi y p ojec s, o example dona ing 250,000
le o comple ing he cons uc ion o a new communi y cen e building in 1932 (Skumo , 2022:
167). No ably, he sal la s’ p ope y emained in he hands o indi idual coope a i e membe s: “The
sal coope a i e,” w i es local his o ian Skumo , “did no own sal la s” (2022: 168, my ansla ion).
Ins ead, land emained p i a e p ope y p edominan ly owned by indi iduals.
S a e policy a he ime suppo ed he coope a i es’ p io i iza ion o communi y o e inancial
needs. Economic his o ian Rumen A amo , o example, demons a es he ex en o which he domi-
nan pe cep ion in he ea ly 1900s was “ he con ic ion ha he s a e is obliga ed o compensa e losses
and ac as a c edi o [. . .] I was accep ed as en i ely na u al o he s a e o co e en ep eneu ial isk,
ha is, losses om poo ly made calcula ions o unsuccess ul ac i i ies” (A amo , 2007: 165, my
ansla ion, emphasis his own). One o his key poin s pe ains o he na ional c edi policy (la gely
execu ed h ough he Bulga ian Ag icul u al and Coope a i e Bank), which no only sough o encou -
age small-scale en ep eneu s by unde w i ing c edi s and o e ing a ious ax b eaks, bu also o e ed
help in cases o na u al ca as ophes and o he unexpec ed losses (A amo , 2007; Mad ow, 1938).
Despi e his sca hingly c i ical one o hese p ac ices, which he e e s o as “ ouching a gumen s o
capi alizing mo ali y” (2007, 162, my ansla ion, his emphasis), A amo b ings o h ex ensi e
e idence o suppo his obse a ions ha he Bulga ian s a e a he ime consis en ly encou aged local
en ep eneu ship and ca e o communi ies o e p o i , e en a he expense o he na ional budge
(A amo , 2007).
Wi h he onse o socialism, howe e , bo h he coope a i es and na ional policy we e undamen-
ally ans o med by he land collec i iza ion p ocess. I la gely o e hauled he ounda ional s uc-
u es on which his model es ed: om mos ly p i a ely held land managed h ough collec i e
decision-making, he “new” coope a i es we e con olled h ough s a e s uc u es and land wi hin
hem g adually became collec i ized as s a e p ope y (Mige , 1995; Thees eld and Boe sky, 2005).
This was supposed o be a olun a y p ocess, and indeed in some con ex s was posi i ely ecei ed;
bu mos equen ly i was ac ually execu ed o ce ully—including in he egion o Bu gas (Mige ,
1995; Thees eld and Boe sky, 2005; Yanche a, 2015). The socialis s a e was o en ex emely coe -
ci e in i s pu sui o na ionalizing land and consolida ing i unde op-down managemen (Mige ,
1995), esul ing in wha Thees eld and Boe sky ha e called “an e a o pseudo coope a i es” (2005:
178). C ucially, e idence o he o iginal p i a e land owne ship was o en delibe a ely e adica ed by
he new local poli ical unc iona ies as a o m o asse ing wha hey saw as he i e e sibili y o col-
lec i iza ion p ocesses (Gio dano and Kos o a, 2002: 78).
Along wi h he o ce ul aspec s o he ini ial land collec i iza ion p ocess, hese e asu es ha e
con ibu ed o he highly dis up i e na u e o he subsequen pos socialis ansi ion a e 1989.
Gio dano and Kos o a ha e desc ibed he land decollec i iza ion p ocess in Bulga ia in he ea ly
1990s as a p ocess o no only compensa ion o injus ices bu also nos algic es o a ion o p e-social-
is economic and land ela ions (2002). By es o ing land based on p e-1946 bounda ies, ea ly 1990s
legisla ion and he poli icians behind i in ended, as Gio dano and Kos o a pu i , “ o inco po a e he
302 EPA: Economy and Space 57(2-3)
alue a e by no means uni o m ha pos socialis schola ship has long been making (Alexande ,
2004; Gio dano and Kos o a, 2002; Ve de y, 2003). Bulga ia’s expe ience wi h pos socialis land
es i u ion, pa icula ly he wish ul a emp s o o icials o es o e a socie al and economic eali y
wi hin an en i ely al e ed landscape, demons a es he necessi y o unde s anding he con inui ies
and g ay spaces, ins ead o jus he up u e poin s, be ween di e en economic s uc u es and he
alues ha come wi h hem. Pe haps mo e impo an ly, he s o y o he sal la s helps illus a e
pos socialis schola s’ conclusions ha he e alua ion p ocesses in he pos socialis con ex p o-
duced mul iple and some imes e en con lic ing meanings o alue e en wi hin he s ic es capi al-
is sense o exchange wo h: a poin made especially s ongly by Pa lo skaya, who connec s he
di e si y o economic p ac ices she obse es in Russia o he e y unce ain y o capi alis alue
heo ized by Ve de y (Pa lo skaya, 2013; Ve de y, 2003). In he con empo a y con ex o he
Bulga ian sal la s, his obse a ion is e lec ed o example in how he Bulga ian Biodi e si y
Founda ion ha e ein es p o i s om he sale o lake-inspi ed p oduc s in o conse a ion and
educa ion, u ilizing he gene a ion o capi alis exchange alue in o de o suppo wide meanings
o alue, especially hose pe aining o en i onmen al o socie al wo h. Simila ly, he ole ha he
sal p oduc ion indus y plays in main aining he A anaso sko Lake’s biodi e si y s a us chal-
lenges he dis inc ion be ween alue in he na owes capi alis e ms and wide en i onmen al o
socie al alues. These examples complica e in e p e a ions o alue wi hin and no simply ou side
he capi alis amewo k.
These insigh s a e ele an beyond he speci ic expe ience o he Bulga ian Black Sea coas ,
and indeed beyond he pos socialis con ex . Indeed, he case I ha e explo ed abo e helps eluci-
da e he wide ele ance o he pos socialis analysis o FPE schola ship. Along wi h o he di e se
economy heo is s wo king in his con ex (Cima and So o á, 2022; Johaniso a e al., 2020;
Pa lo skaya, 2004, 2013; Smi h and S enning, 2006), I a gue ha he pos socialis expe ience
opens up pa icula ly ui ul oppo uni ies o pe cei e di e se economic p ac ices on he g ound
and how hey unc ion as pa o socie al and en i onmen al ans o ma ions. Like hese schola s,
and also like many FPE schola s mo e widely (Colla d and Dempsey, 2017; Gibson-G aham and
Mille , 2015; Kay and Kenney-Laza , 2017), I a gue ha eclaiming he i al ole o non-capi al-
ocen ic alues also equi es shi ing a en ion o ecological li elihoods and en i onmen al pe -
spec i es. On he Bulga ian Black Sea coas , cen e ing he sal la s and hei non-mone a y alue
o human and nonhuman communi ies has p o ided inspi a ion o he di e se economic p ac ices
desc ibed abo e. The ocus on he sal y landscape eshapes a s o y ha could be simply abou
pos socialis economic p essu es in o one abou he wide alues ha can be eins a ed bo h wi hin
and possibly e en beyond he exis ing neolibe al economic con ex . As plans o “g een” and
“blue” economies become mo e p e alen ac oss he in e na ional poli ical landscape— o exam-
ple in he Eu opean Union (Eu opean Commission, 2020)— hese conclusions also gain a poli ical
ele ance. Di e se economic ac i i ies like symBio ic o he Nes would likely all ou side o he
cu en scope o hese agendas, ye hey help ancho co e desi ed alues like sus ainabili y and
communi y wellbeing in o he communi y. Thus, any “g een” o “blue economy” would be mos
powe ul i eimagined as a ela ional economy a en i e o he mul iplici ies o socio-ecological
ela ions and li elihoods. Doing so, howe e , equi es egimes o alue ha a end no simply o
p o i bu ins ead also o socie al and en i onmen al well-being.
Acknowledgemen s
I wish o hank he Bu gas eam o he Bulga ian Biodi e si y Founda ion – Rados ina Tzeno a, Diyana
Kos o ska, Glo iya Ma ino a, Spas Uzuno , and Diana Pa lo a – o he wonde ul collabo a ion we sha e, o
hei immense suppo in he ield, and o hei pe mission o epo on hei wo k o popula ize he biodi e si y
bene i s o sal p oduc ion in his a icle. I am also g a e ul o Ma iana Sa bo a o he help unde s anding he
Nes and i s inspi a ion be e .
An ono a 303
Likewise, I would like o hank I anka Pe o a o he gene ous in i a ion o specialize a he Bulga ian Academy
o Sciences in 2023 and o he ad ice and help he ea e ; as well as Ch is o Mauch o his con inuing suppo
o my esea ch a he Rachel Ca son Cen e .
Finally, I am g a e ul o he h ee anonymous e iewe s and he edi o ial eam o En i onmen and Planning A,
especially T e o Ba nes, o hei cons uc i e eedback on his manusc ip ; as well as o K is en Ounanian, who
was he i s o in oduce me o eminis poli ical economy schola ship.
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
The au ho decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion
o his a icle.
Funding
The au ho disclosed eceip o he ollowing inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o
his a icle: The esea ch conduc ed in his a icle has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union unde he
Ho izon 2020 Resea ch and Inno a ion P og am, Ma ie Sklodowska-Cu ie G an № 642935 (ENHANCE ITN)
and unde he Ho izon Eu ope P og am, G an № 101059957 (Empowe Us). Resea ch in he a icle has also
ecei ed unding om he Bulga ian Minis y o Educa ion’s Na ional Scien i ic P og amme “De elopmen and
Recogni ion o Bulga ian S udies Ab oad” h ough a pos doc o al specializa ion a he Ins i u e o E hnog aphy
and Folklo e wi h an E hnog aphic Museum (IEFEM) a he Bulga ian Academy o Sciences in Sep embe 2023.
ORCID iD
Anna S. An ono a h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6091-6182
No es
1. This and o he names gi en o pa icipan s h oughou he ex a e all pseudonyms.
2. Anchialo was he p e-1934 name o Pomo ie.
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