Indian Jou nal o Ene gy and Ene gy Resou ces (IJEER)
ISSN: 2583-1186 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-1, No embe 2025
1
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee .A105205011125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee .A1052.05011125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee .la icescipub.com
Abs ac : The a ailabili y o clean and a o dable household
ene gy has been long-s anding in u al Nepal, wi h household
biomass sou ces aking o e he household consump ion. This
pape examines he ole o communi y o es y in p o iding
households wi h ene gy secu i y, p omo ing social inclusion, and
sus aining he en i onmen . The e iew uses a sys ema ic
app oach guided by he PRISMA 2020 s anda ds and syn hesises
he e idence om 92 empi ical s udies on he issue published
since 2004. Web o Science, Scopus, and NepJOL we e used o
ga he da a based on inclusion c i e ia o communi y o es y,
household access o ene gy, and pa icipa o y go e nance. The
concep ual amewo k used o e alua e he in e ac ion be ween
human, na u al, social, inancial, and physical capi als and
go e nance sys ems o de e mine household ene gy ou comes was
he Sus ainable Li elihoods App oach (SLA). Resul s indica e ha
communi y o es s a e he p ima y sou ce o uelwood and o he
o es p oduc s o 6090 pe cen o u al households, cu
household ene gy cos s by up o 18 pe cen , and enhance o es
es o a ion in 85 pe cen o he s udies examined. This imp o es
anspa ency and meaning ul ep esen a ion, as well as o es
condi ions and biodi e si y. Ne e heless, inequi ies include eli e
cap u e, he unde ep esen a ion o women and ma ginalised
g oups, and poo up ake o cleane echnologies, which hinde
equal gains. The indings highligh ha communi y o es y
con ibu es subs an ially o he wel a e o u al communi ies. S ill,
sus ainable ene gy ansi ions equi e e o ming policies o se
ene gy a ge s in o es y s a egies, ad ance al e na i e ene gy
echnologies, and enhance in e go e nmen al coo dina ion unde
ede al go e nance. The s udy inds ha inco po a ing household
ene gy objec i es in o communi y o es y policies is essen ial o
achie ing he Nepal Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs 7, 13,
and 15). I sugges s an adap i e go e nance sys em, pa icipa o y
go e nance, and echnology-based in e en ions o as - ack he
Manusc ip ecei ed on 07 Oc obe 2025 | Fi s Re ised
Manusc ip ecei ed on 31 Oc obe 2025 | Second Re ised
Manusc ip ecei ed on 09 No embe 2025 | Manusc ip
Accep ed on 15 No embe 2025 | Manusc ip published on 30
No embe 2025.
*Co espondence Au ho (s)
P em Bahadu Gi i*, Facul y o En i onmen al Managemen , P ince o
Songkla Uni e si y, Ha Yai, Songkla, 90112 Thailand. and Wisdom
Academy and Resea ch Cen e, Ka hmandu, 44600 Nepal. Email ID:
p emgi [email protected], ORCID ID: 0000-0003-0970-5149
E . Ha i P asad Ghimi e, Schola , Facul y o En i onmen al
Managemen , P ince o Songkla Uni e si y, Ha Yai, Songkla, 90112
Thailand. and E e es Cen e o Resea ch and De elopmen Pa ne s,
Ka hmandu, 44600 Nepal. Email ID: ha ighimi [email protected], ORCID ID:
0000-0002-5206-9021
Bijay Raj Gi i, Resea che , Wisdom Academy and Resea ch Cen e,
Ka hmandu, 44600 Nepal. Email ID: gi [email protected], ORCID ID:
0009-0009-7403-9091
T ilochana Pokh el, Resea che , Wisdom Academy and Resea ch
Cen e, Ka hmandu, 44600 Nepal. Email ID: pokh el [email protected],
ORCID ID: 0009-0001-8794-6653
© The Au ho s. Published by La ice Science Publica ion (LSP). This is
an open-access a icle unde he CC-BY-NC-ND license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
ansi ion o he u al ene gy sys em owa d cleane , mo e
equi able sys ems.
Keywo ds: Communi y Fo es y, Household Ene gy, Ru al
Li elihoods, Pa icipa o y Go e nance, Nepal.
Nomencla u e:
CFUG: Communi y Fo es Use G oup
SLA: Sus ainable Li elihoods App oach
SDG: Sus ainable De elopmen Goal
PRISMA: P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and
Me a-Analyses
CASP: C i ical App aisal Skills P og am
JBI: Joanna B iggs Ins i u e
FAO: Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion
I. INTRODUCTION
In de eloping coun ies, access o eliable and a o dable
household ene gy is signi ican o he well-being o u al
a eas and de e mines heal h ou comes, li elihood p ospec s,
and social jus ice. In Nepal, he u al ene gy mix is s ill
hea ily based on adi ional biomass, wi h abou 77 pe cen
o o al ene gy needs ul illed by uelwood and ano he 9
pe cen by ag icul u al esidues and animal dung [7],[8]. The
ex ensi e use o o es -based esou ces in cooking and
hea ing p ocesses no only makes daily li e possible bu also
poses nume ous challenges. Poo bu ning o biomass leads o
indoo ai pollu ion and espi a o y disease, especially among
emales and child en who spend much ime nea household
i eplaces [3]. Gende ed labou in uelwood collec ion
educes educa ional a ainmen and income, and
unsus ainable ha es ing comp omises he exis ence o o es
ecosys ems and wo sens clima e change [6].
One o he mos inno a i e policy esponses o hem in
Nepal has been communi y o es y [4], which cu en ly
con ols a signi ican amoun o he coun y's o es co e and
p o ides egula ed access o uelwood, imbe , and o he
non- imbe o es p oduc s since i was i s in oduced in he
la e 1970s [18]. The p e ious e iews [2] and he cu en
esea ch [18] indica e ha CFUGs ha e been associa ed wi h
be e o es condi ions, biodi e si y, and pa icipa o y
go e nance. Ne e heless, un esol ed p oblems iden i ied as
eli e cap u e, an un ai dis ibu ion o bene i s, and excessi e
exploi a ion o o es p oduc s make equi y and long- e m
sus ainabili y una ainable [1].
Al hough he e is es ablished li e a u e on he con ibu ions
o communi y o es y o conse a ion and u al
de elopmen , ew s udies ha e sys ema ically examined i s
ole in household ene gy p o ision. Ene gy is o en
conside ed a byp oduc o communi y
o es y a he han a p ima y
ou come, c ea ing gaps in
knowledge abou how o es
Mee ing Household Ene gy Needs h ough
Communi y Fo es y: A Sys ema ic Re iew o
E idence om Nepal
P em Bahadu Gi i, Ha i P asad Ghimi e, Bijay Raj Gi i, T ilochana Pokh el
Mee ing Household Ene gy Needs h ough Communi y Fo es y: A Sys ema ic Re iew o E idence om Nepal
2
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee .A105205011125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee .A1052.05011125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee .la icescipub.com
access shapes household ene gy secu i y, heal h, and gende
ela ionships. The cu en li e a u e is also no di e se ac oss
he Te ai and high-moun ain egions, as ene gy equi emen s
and o es condi ions a y conside ably [12].
The Nepalese inciden is no an isola ed case linked o
pa icipa o y o es y e o s elsewhe e. Communi y-based
Fo es managemen has helped o es s egene a e mo e
e ec i ely, ensu e household ene gy secu i y, and p o ide
li elihoods o local communi ies in India, Tanzania, and
Mexico [3]. Howe e , he same issues—inequali y in access,
he lack o policy in eg a ion, and poo implemen a ion o
al e na i e ene gy echnologies — a e common wo ldwide,
which is why he case o Nepal is ele an globally [3],[6].
I is agains his backg ound ha his sys ema ic e iew
compiles 20 yea s o e idence (2004-2024) o de e mine he
impo ance o communi y o es s in Nepal o household
ene gy p o ision. The e iew is based on he PRISMA 2020
amewo k [13], and he esea ch ques ion is: How do local
people mee hei household ene gy demands h ough
communi y o es esou ces? This analysis b ings oge he
insigh s om household ene gy, sus ainable li elihoods, and
pa icipa o y go e nance o show how communi y o es y
can help p omo e ene gy secu i y, u al well-being, and
clima e esilience in Nepal and simila con ex s.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Sys ema ic Re iew App oach
This pape was based on a sys ema ic e iew design in
acco dance wi h he PRISMA 2020 (P e e ed Repo ing
I ems o sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-analyses) [13]. The
PRISMA amewo k has p o ided a anspa en ,
ep oducible, and comple e li e a u e e iew, documen ing
each s ep o s udy iden i ica ion, sc eening, eligibili y, and
ul ima e inclusion.
B. Da a Sou ces and Sea ch S a egy
A b oad ange o academic da abases and ins i u ional
eposi o ies was sea ched o e ie e all a ailable li e a u e,
he eby co e ing all a ailable e idence on communi y
o es y and household ene gy. The p ima y sou ces o
da abases we e Web o Science, Scopus, and ScienceDi ec ,
as well as sea ches o specialised eposi o ies (FAO and
CIFOR) and o icial Go e nmen o Nepal o es y epo s.
The e iew was limi ed o a icles published since Janua y
2004 and June 2024, ha is, wo decades o scien i ic
esea ch and policy de elopmen in he ield. To ex ac he
app op ia e s udies, sea ch s ings we e designed using
keywo ds and Boolean ope a o s, such as: (communi y
o es y OR o es use g oups) AND (household ene gy OR
uelwood OR biomass OR ene gy access) AND (Nepal OR
Sou h Asia). This plan ensu ed ha bo h pee - e iewed and
g ey li e a u e on he con e gence o communi y o es y,
household ene gy, and u al li elihoods we e included.
C. Inclusion and Exclusion C i e ia
This e iew included s udies ha analysed communi y
o es y in Nepal o o he simila Sou h Asian se ings [2], bu
no household ene gy consump ion, access, o managemen
[12]. The only eligible esea ch included was ha which
p o ided empi ical e idence, ei he quan i a i e o
quali a i e, in i s s udy o ene gy sou ces, equi y,
sus ainabili y, o he e ec s o policies [5],[11]. On he o he
hand, he s udies we e excluded due o insu icien empi ical
e idence, including hose ha we e heo e ical o
opinion-o ien ed (wi hou any empi ical da a) and hose
published a e 2024 [9] o be o e 2004. These c i e ia helped
ensu e ha he esul ing lis o s udies was igo ous in i s
me hods, ele an o he con ex , and di ec ly connec ed o
he pu pose o his sys ema ic e iew [13].
D. S udy Selec ion P ocess
A o al o 1,042 eco ds we e i s e ie ed. A e
elimina ing duplica es (n=186), 856 we e sc eened based on
i les and abs ac s. Ou o hese, 214 ull- ex a icles we e
e alua ed in ela ion o being eligible. Las ly, 92 s udies we e
included in his e iew and we e syn hesized.
[Fig.1: PRISMA Flow Diag am (2020)]
E. Quali y App aisal and Bias Managemen
All included s udies we e subjec ed o sys ema ic quali y
app aisal o make he e idence as obus and eliable as
possible. In quali a i e esea ch, C i ical App aisal Skills
P og am (CASP) checklis s we e used o assess c edibili y,
ele ance, and me hodological igou [5]. In c oss-sec ional
and o he quan i a i e designs, alidi y, bias, and
applicabili y we e e alua ed using he Joanna B iggs Ins i u e
(JBI) c i ical app aisal ools [11]. The wo e iewe s
conduc ed he quali y assessmen independen ly, and any
a eas o disag eemen we e esol ed h ough discussion and
consensus o minimise subjec i i y [5]. Mo eo e , po en ial
bias ac o s, such as publica ion bias, geog aphical clus e ing
o esea ch, and me hodological dispa i ies, we e clea ly
add essed in he da a syn hesis p ocess o make he e iew
indings mo e anspa en and eliable.
F. Da a Ex ac ion and Syn hesis
In o ma ion in e e y s udy inco po a ed was daun ingly
ga he ed using a s anda dised empla e ha con ained
pe inen da a, including he s udy si e and se ing, esea ch
design and me hodology, he na u e o he ene gy esou ces
s udied, go e nance s uc u e and
pa icipa ion models, and
implica ions o equi y,
Indian Jou nal o Ene gy and Ene gy Resou ces (IJEER)
ISSN: 2583-1186 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-1, No embe 2025
3
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee .A105205011125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee .A1052.05011125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee .la icescipub.com
sus ainabili y, and policy [4]. Ex ac ed da a we e compiled
in o s uc u ed ca ego ies o ensu e consis ency and
compa abili y, and hey had o mee he aims o his e iew
[5]. Thema ic coding and syn hesis we e hen implemen ed,
which enabled in eg a ing indings in ou b oad hemes,
which included: (1) ene gy sou ces and household p ac ices,
(2) access and equi y, (3) go e nance and ins i u ional
a angemen s, and (4) sus ainabili y and en i onmen al
ou comes [16]. The me hod enabled consis en syn hesis o
di e se empi ical e idence and ensu ed anspa ency and
igou in he e iew p ocess.
III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This s udy adop s a concep ual amewo k in eg a ing he
Sus ainable Li elihoods App oach (SLA) wi h p inciples o
communi y o es y go e nance o examine how local
households use communi y o es esou ces o mee hei
ene gy needs. The amewo k ecognizes ha household
ene gy secu i y and sus ainabili y ou comes a e shaped by
bo h he asse s a ailable o u al households and he
ins i u ional a angemen s go e ning o es access and use.
A. Sus ainable Li elihoods App oach (SLA)
The SLA p o ides a holis ic pe spec i e o unde s anding
he mul iple dimensions o u al li elihoods [2]. I iden i ies
i e co e o ms o li elihood capi al:
i. Human Capi al: Skills, knowledge, labou , and heal h
ha enable households o collec , p ocess, and u ilise
o es -based ene gy esou ces [6].
ii. Social Capi al: Ne wo ks, us , and collec i e ac ion
ha suppo equi able access and bene i -sha ing
h ough communi y-le el ins i u ions such as
Communi y Fo es Use G oups (CFUGs) [16].
iii. Na u al Capi al: The a ailabili y, quali y, and
egene a ion o o es esou ces, uelwood, imbe ,
and non- imbe p oduc s ha di ec ly unde pin
household ene gy needs [7].
i . Financial Capi al: Income, sa ings, and c edi ha
in luence he abili y o households o in es in
imp o ed cooks o es, al e na i e uels, o o es
managemen ac i i ies [12].
. Physical Capi al: In as uc u e such as oads,
anspo acili ies, and ene gy de ices ha shape he
e iciency o uelwood collec ion, s o age, and
u iliza ion [3], [6].
These capi als in e ac dynamically, in luencing no only
how households mee hei ene gy demands bu also how
sus ainably o es esou ces a e managed.
B. Communi y Fo es y Go e nance
Communi y o es y go e nance e e s o he ins i u ional
a angemen s, decision-making mechanisms, and policy
amewo ks ha egula e access o and use o o es esou ces
[9]. Key dimensions include:
i. Ins i u ional A angemen s: CFUG cons i u ions,
ope a ional plans, and ules go e ning ex ac ion and
bene i -sha ing [8].
ii. Use Pa icipa ion: The in ol emen o women,
ma ginalized g oups, and poo e households in
collec i e decision-making, moni o ing, and con lic
esolu ion [14].
iii. Policy Con ex : Na ional o es laws, local
go e nmen egula ions, and dono -suppo ed
p og ams ha in luence igh s, esponsibili ies, and
incen i es o sus ainable ene gy use and conse a ion
[14].
E ec i e go e nance ensu es ha communi y o es y
con ibu es no only o o es conse a ion bu also o ene gy
secu i y, li elihood imp o emen , and social inclusion.
C. In eg a ed Pe spec i e
By combining SLA and communi y o es y go e nance,
he amewo k illus a es how li elihood capi als in e ac
wi h go e nance s uc u es o shape household ene gy
ou comes, including ene gy access, equi y, heal h, and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y [18]. Impo an ly, i also
ecognises eedback loops in which household ene gy
p ac ices a ec o es condi ion, which, in u n, in luences
u u e na u al capi al and go e nance esponses (Ojha,
Pe sha, & Chha e, 2019).
A concep ual amewo k (Figu e 2) is p esen ed o depic
hese ela ionships isually. The i e li elihood capi als o m
he ounda ion o household s a egies, which a e media ed
by go e nance mechanisms and policy amewo ks.
Toge he , hey shape household ene gy ou comes and
b oade sus ainabili y ajec o ies in u al Nepal, as shown by
bo h ea ly [18].
[Fig.2: Concep ual F amewo k Linking Sus ainable
Li elihoods Capi als and Communi y Fo es y
Go e nance o Household Ene gy Ou comes]
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This sys ema ic e iew syn hesized e idence om 92
s udies add essing he ole o
communi y o es y in mee ing
household ene gy needs in Nepal
and compa able con ex s.
Mee ing Household Ene gy Needs h ough Communi y Fo es y: A Sys ema ic Re iew o E idence om Nepal
4
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee .A105205011125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee .A1052.05011125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee .la icescipub.com
Findings a e o ganized ac oss i e hema ic a eas: ene gy
esou ces, collec ion p ac ices, socio-economic impac s,
go e nance and ins i u ions, and sus ainabili y ou comes.
A. Pa e ns o Household Ene gy Resou ces
Fuelwood emains he p edominan ene gy sou ce,
especially in u al Nepal, whe e 77% o household ene gy
demand is me h ough biomass [8]. Communi y o es s
p o ide no only uelwood bu also imbe , lea li e , and
ag icul u al esidues o ene gy and subsis ence. Ac oss
ecological egions, dependence a ies:
Table I: Regional Compa ison o Household Dependence
on Communi y Fo es s o Ene gy
Region
% Households
P ima ily Dependen
on CF Fuelwood
Al e na i e
Sou ces No ed
Key Obse a ions
Middle
Hills
80–95%
Limi ed
on- a m ees,
dung cakes
Nea ly uni e sal
eliance; seasonal
sho ages no ed
Te ai
45–60%
Pu chased
uelwood, c op
esidues
Weal hie
households
supplemen wi h
ma ke pu chases
Moun ain
60–75%
Animal dung,
sh ubs, alpine
biomass
Accessibili y
challenges; highe
labou bu den
No e. Adap ed om [12], [18].
B. Collec ion and U iliza ion P ac ices
The collec ion o uelwoods is highly gende ed, wi h
women and gi ls doing mos o he wo k, especially in
ma ginalised households. In 19 s udies e iewed, women
we e iden i ied as he o emos uelwood collec o s, spending
2-4 hou s daily du ing peak demand seasons [16]. Gende ed
wo k ela ionships a e he sou ce o heal h cos s (smoke
in oduc ion, musculoskele al o e load) and oppo uni y
cos s (gi ls wi h diminished schooling). The household
labou equi emen s a e u he ele a ed du ing win e b eaks
and ag icul u al o -seasons.
[Fig.3: Women Collec Mos Fuelwood (O e
Two-Thi ds), wi h Win e Peaks Causing Los Labou ,
Schooling, and Childca e Time]
C. Socio-Economic Impac s
Communi y o es s con ibu e subs an ially o u al
li elihoods by educing household uel expendi u es,
imp o ing ood secu i y, and gene a ing income h ough
su plus p oduc sales. O he 92 s udies e iewed, 27
explici ly quan i ied economic sa ings, wi h a e age
household sa ings anging om NPR 4,500 o 8,000
annually h ough educed ma ke dependence [15].
Equi y ou comes we e mixed. While 41 s udies epo ed
posi i e e ec s on ma ginalized g oups, 12 s udies
highligh ed eli e cap u e as a pe sis en ba ie o equi able
dis ibu ion o bene i s. Lowe -cas e households in pa icula
we e epo ed o ha e less access o high-quali y o es
pa ches [17].
[Fig.4: Communi y Fo es y Cu s Household Cos s (up o
18% Sa ings), Bu Equi y Gaps Pe sis o Lowe Cas e
and Mino i y G oups]
D. Go e nance and Ins i u ions
CFUGs emain a key ac o in esou ce alloca ion. O he
li e a u e e iewed, 34 a icles highligh ed pa icipa o y
decision-making as a s eng h o he CFUG model.
Ne e heless, in 12 o 28 s udies ocused on go e nance, eli e
cap u e was ound o be a signi ican obs acle, commonly
occu ing h ough p e e en ial access o imbe and
decision-making powe [9].
Gende in ol emen has also imp o ed: 22 s udies epo
ha mo e women ha e joined CFUG execu i e commi ees
in he pas ew yea s (since 2010). Howe e , i is s ill limi ed
o meaning ul in ol emen wi hin pa ia chal s anda ds and
wo k imbalances [16].
[Fig.5: CFUGs Use Assemblies/Commi ees; Women
Hold One-Thi d o Sea s bu Ha e Limi ed In luence,
Wi h Eli e Cap u e A ec ing Equi y]
E. Sus ainabili y and En i onmen al Ou comes
Communi y o es y has u ned he ide o deg ada ion:
o es co e and egene a ion ha e been epo ed o imp o e
in 29 o 35 ecological s udies, and biomass densi y and
seedling su i al ha e inc eased [18]. I is no well in eg a ed
wi h sus ainable ene gy echnologies. The adop ion o
imp o ed cooks o es o biogas was epo ed in only 11
s udies, sugges ing eluc ance o
abandon uelwood.
The CFUGs, howe e , p o ide
esilience bene i s. In 15 s udies,
Indian Jou nal o Ene gy and Ene gy Resou ces (IJEER)
ISSN: 2583-1186 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-1, No embe 2025
5
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee .A105205011125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee .A1052.05011125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee .la icescipub.com
pa icipa o y moni o ing and adap i e go e nance we e
iden i ied as necessa y o educing o e ha es ing and
adap ing o clima ic luc ua ions [14].
[Fig.6: Communi y Fo es y Imp o es Fo es
Regene a ion, Boos s Cooks o e/Biogas Use, and
S eng hens Local Clima e Resilience]
F. Discussion
i. Linking Findings o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs)
This e iew es ablishes ha communi y o es y in Nepal
has la gely helped ensu e households a e sa e in hei ene gy
supply, suppo o es egene a ion, and imp o e li elihoods.
These ha e been he di ec esul o se e al in e na ional
commi men s unde he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs). To begin wi h, he supply o low-cos , high-quali y
biomass ene gy om communi y o es s is a di ec
con ibu o o SDG 7 (A o dable and Clean Ene gy), as i
would lowe household uel cos s and allow mo e
ma ginalised popula ions o access ene gy [7]. Ne e heless,
he con inued use o adi ional uelwood makes i
challenging o achie e cleane ene gy ansi ions, which is
why new policies a e needed o accele a e he adop ion o
be e cooks o es, biogas, and sola op ions [12].
Second, communi y o es y also enhances Nepal's ole in
SDG 13 (Clima e Ac ion) by inc easing ca bon seques a ion
in o es s, educing de o es a ion, and suppo ing adap a ion
h ough ecosys ems [4]. The e idence emphasises he
managemen 's ole in enhancing he adap i e go e nance o
local ins i u ions, making hem mo e esilien o changes in
he en i onmen and socio-economic condi ions [1].
Thi d, o es egene a ion has ecological bene i s ha
di ec ly suppo SDG 15 (Li e on Land), as
communi y-managed o es s in Nepal ha e shown no able
imp o emen s in ee co e , biodi e si y, and soil
s abilisa ion [18]. Howe e , s uc u al injus ice, pa icula ly
eli e cap u e and de ici -based bene i dis ibu ion among
ma ginal amilies, sugges s ha policy changes g ounded in
equi y a e equi ed o enhance social jus ice and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y h ough communi y o es y
[16].
ii. Policy Re o ms in Nepal’s Fede al Sys em
Communi y o es y go e nance has aced oppo uni ies
and challenges a ising om Nepal's ede al es uc u ing [9].
Local go e nmen s unde he ede al sys em ha e g ea e
powe o moni o and suppo Communi y Fo es Use
G oups (CFUGs), bu coo dina ion among he egional,
p o incial, and ede al le els is poo . Resea ch indica es
sho comings in speci ying esponsibili ies o
bene i -sha ing, inconsis en e enue alloca ion, and
o e lapping esponsibili ies ac oss ins i u ions [8].
This disin eg a ion unde mines he e ec i eness o
communi y o es y in p o iding ene gy secu i y and ai
ou comes. Fo example, whe eas local go e nmen s a e
becoming mo e engaged in ope a ional planning, p o incial
leade s a e unclea abou hei supe iso y ole, leading o
con lic s o e axes and e enue dis ibu ion [10]. Enhancing
in e go e nmen al coo dina ion, cla i ying legal obliga ions,
and ins i u ionalising mechanisms o inclusion and
pa icipa ion a e he e o e necessa y o implemen ing
communi y o es y wi hin Nepal's o e a ching ene gy and
clima e policy ins umen s [17].
iii. Compa a i e Lessons om O he Coun ies
The Nepalese expe ience in communi y o es y is simila
o ha o he es o he wo ld. I o e s lessons o o he a eas
whe e u al ene gy secu i y and o es sus ainabili y a e also
a s ake. In India, unde Join Fo es Managemen (JFM),
pa icipa o y o es managemen has imp o ed o es
condi ions bu con inues o su e om eli e cap u e and
unequal alloca ion o bene i s [6]. In Tanzania, Pa icipa o y
Fo es Managemen (PFM) has enhanced local con ol and
o es egene a ion, bu sus ainabili y has been unde mined
by weak ins i u ional suppo and he unce ain y o inancial
incen i es [3]. In Mexico, local o es en e p ises ha e shown
ha e ec i e legal en i lemen s and egional economic
in eg a ion can deli e signi ican li elihood bene i s and
conse a ion ou comes [7].
One o he mos de eloped sys ems o pa icipa o y o es y
in he wo ld, Nepal is cha ac e ised by a legally ecognised
model o communi y o es y, wi h use g oups, high le els
o decen alisa ion, b oad geog aphical co e age, and so on
[2]. Howe e , ch onic inequi y, eli e cap u e, and
coo dina ion p oblems unde ede alism e lec b oade
p oblems.
Table II: Compa a i e Box: Lessons Lea ned
Coun y
S eng hs
Challenges
Rele ance o Nepal
Nepal
S ong legal ecogni ion o CFUGs; imp o ed
o es egene a ion; b oad co e age na ionwide
Eli e cap u e, inequi able bene i -sha ing, and
coo dina ion gaps unde ede alism
Consolida e gains h ough inclusi e
go e nance and policy ha moniza ion.
India
Join Fo es Managemen imp o ed egene a ion
Limi ed equi y, bu eauc a ic con ol pe sis s
Highligh s he isks o pa ial
decen aliza ion
Tanzania
Local au onomy h ough PFM, o es eco e y
Weak ins i u ional/ inancial suppo
Unde sco es he need o sus ained capaci y
building
Mexico
Communi y o es en e p ises linking ma ke s &
li elihoods
Requi es s ong legal amewo ks, ma ke
dependence isks
Illus a es po en ial o li elihood-o ien ed
o es y models
i . Syn hesis
Al oge he , i can be no ed ha communi y o es y in
Nepal is a i al opic o ene gy secu i y, po e y alle ia ion,
and en i onmen al sus ainabili y,
bu is accompanied by ongoing
equi y and go e nance p oblems.
Mee ing Household Ene gy Needs h ough Communi y Fo es y: A Sys ema ic Re iew o E idence om Nepal
6
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The connec ion be ween he indings and global amewo ks
(SDGs), na ional policy changes ( ede alism), and
compa a i e expe iences (India, Tanzania, Mexico) can be
used o highligh he s eng hs and weaknesses o he
app oach employed in Nepal. In he u u e, implemen ing
adap i e policies ha combine inclusi e go e nance, he
adop ion o al e na i e ene gy sou ces, and high-quali y
in e go e nmen al coo dina ion will be essen ial o sus ain
and expand he bene i s o communi y o es y in Nepal and
o he a eas.
. Limi a ions
Al hough his sys ema ic e iew o e s aluable insigh s
in o he pu pose o communi y o es y in he con ex o
household ene gy secu i y and u al li elihoods, se e al
limi a ions should be no ed.
i. Geog aphic Scope: Mos exis ing empi ical esea ch
has been conduc ed in he Nepal Middle Hills, whe e
communi y o es y has adi ionally been s onges , as
documen ed in ea ly s udies [2] and iden i ied in ecen
esea ch [18]. Howe e , he speci ic a eas o he Te ai
lowlands and high moun ain egions, wi h hei dis inc
socio-ecological in e ac ions and ene gy demands, a e
unde ep esen ed in he li e a u e. This geog aphic bias
limi s he gene alizabili y o he esul s ac oss Nepal's
a ied landscapes.
ii. Me hodological Design: Mos o he e iewed a icles
a e based on c oss-sec ional case s udies o household
su eys, which p o ide snapsho s bu do no allow o
measu ing long- e m e ec s o causal ela ionships
be ween communi y o es y in e en ions and
household ene gy ou comes [13]. The e a e limi ed
longi udinal s udies and mixed-me hods s udies ha
would allow one o assess policy changes, equi y
impac s, and he sus ainabili y o o es s in a long- e m
pe spec i e.
iii. Equi y and Disagg ega ion: Ano he weakness is he
lack o su icien ly disagg ega ed da a on ma ginalised
households, pa icula ly by cas e, e hnici y, gende , o
landlessness. Despi e a ying access and
bene i -sha ing in some s udies [17], he e is li le
o e all e idence on how hese g oups a e ecei ing he
ene gy and li elihood bene i s o communi y o es y.
This limi s knowledge o he inclusi i y o he Nepal
communi y o es y model and i s alignmen wi h
b oade social equi y and jus ice objec i es.
Combined, hese cons ain s unde sco e he impo ance o
u u e s udies ha a e geog aphically inclusi e,
me hodologically sound, and equi y-based, so ha
communi y o es y con inues o p omo e sus ainable ene gy
and li elihood ou comes ac oss Nepal's socio-ecological
con ex s.
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusion
This sys ema ic e iew shows ha communi y o es y in
Nepal has signi ican ly con ibu ed o he household ene gy
secu i y, u al li elihoods and o es sus ainabili y. Fuelwood
and non- imbe o es p oduc accessibili y h ough
Communi y Fo es Use G oups (CFUGs) has also led o
egula ed access o o es p oduc s, educed household
ene gy spending, inc eased ood secu i y, and educed
po e y [14],[15]. Unde communi y managemen , he s a e
o o es s has signi ican ly imp o ed, wi h inc eased
egene a ion, he eby enhancing biodi e si y conse a ion
[2].
Ne e heless, long- e m obs acles s ill exis . Eli e-g abbing
and he un ai eplacemen o bene i s s ill es ic he
accessibili y o ma ginalised g oups, and he use o uelwood
highligh s he g adual shi owa d cleane , mo e e icien
sou ces o powe [7]. Nepal has unde gone ede al
es uc u ing, which has bo h opened up and posed
challenges o communi y o es y, ye gaps in coo dina ion
among he local, p o incial, and ede al le els p e en an
in eg a ed policy esponse [7]. These esul s highligh he
need o adap i e go e nance, inclusi e s akeholde
engagemen , and be e alignmen be ween communi y
o es y and Nepal's o e all de elopmen and clima e
objec i es.
B. Recommenda ions
i. Policy Recommenda ions
The de elopmen o o es managemen plans and
communi y o es y policies ha include household ene gy
secu i y a ge s is a p io i y o Nepal's o es y sec o .
Al hough conse a ion and biodi e si y s a egies ha e been
he d i ing o ce behind communi y o es y, he ole o
uelwood and o he biomass esou ces in u al li elihoods
consolida es he need o clea ly iden i y ene gy p o ision as a
policy objec i e o communi y o es y. By in eg a ing
ene gy secu i y in o i s wo king p inciples, Nepal will be able
o ensu e ha o es managemen p ac ices a e aimed a
main aining ecological s abili y and mee ing daily household
ene gy consump ion [17]. This kind o in eg a ion would no
only imp o e household wel a e bu also be pa o he
na ional commi men o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals,
especially SDG 7 on a o dable and clean ene gy and SDG 15
on li e on land.
Also, s eng hening in e go e nmen al coo dina ion wi hin
Nepal's ede al sys em is o g ea impo ance. The oles o he
p o incial and ede al go e nmen s emain unclea , e en as
local go e nmen s and Communi y Fo es Use G oups
(CFUGs) a e inc easingly aking cha ge o ope a ional
planning and he managemen and u ilisa ion o he esou ce.
These loopholes usually gi e ise o disag eemen s o e
bene i -sha ing, moni o ing oles, and e enue-sha ing, and
he eby educe he e iciency o communi y o es y
go e nance [9]. O e coming hese challenges equi es mo e
speci ic legal equi emen s, open sys ems o esou ce
alloca ion, and ins i u ionalised channels o communica ion
be ween he a ious le els o go e nance. Th ough ole
speci ica ion and esponsibili y clea ance, he e can be
g ea e accoun abili y, less o e lap, and a mo e sensible
policy s uc u e ha acili a es no only sus ainable o es
managemen bu also an equi able dis ibu ion o household
ene gy access.
ii. P ac ice Recommenda ions
A he g ound le el, enhancing he
ole o communi y o es y in
household ene gy needs equi es a
Indian Jou nal o Ene gy and Ene gy Resou ces (IJEER)
ISSN: 2583-1186 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-1, No embe 2025
7
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mo e comp ehensi e applica ion o imp o ed cooks o es,
biogas, and sola echnologies in CFUGs. These
in e en ions would go a long way owa d educing
dependence on adi ional biomass, imp o ing household
heal h ou comes, and educing p essu e on o es s.
Ne e heless, e ec i e di usion equi es inancial
incen i es, echnical aining, and communi y-le el
awa eness campaigns, leading o local capaci y de elopmen
and o e coming adop ion limi a ions [3]. Simul aneously,
CFUG go e nance sys ems should be cha ac e ised by
inclusi e decision-making p ocesses ha go beyond oken
ep esen a ion. To ensu e o e coming es ablished inequi ies
in he sha ing o bene i s and go e nance, i is necessa y o
ensu e ha women, low-cas e, and landless households a e
ac i e and empowe hemsel es o change he si ua ion
[14],[16]. When echnology p omo ion is coupled wi h
inclusi e go e nance, CFUGs can simul aneously p omo e
sus ainabili y, social jus ice, and u al wel a e.
iii. Resea ch Recommenda ions
Fu u e esea ch should place g ea e emphasis on
p oducing longi udinal, geog aphically dispe sed, and
equi y- ocused e idence. Long- e m esea ch is equi ed o
ace household ene gy ansi ions, o es s a us, and
li elihood e ec s o e ime, p o iding g ea e insigh in o
causali y and sus ainabili y impac s [11]. Cu en ly, mos
esea ch is s ill ocused on he Middle Hills o Nepal, wi h he
Te ai lowlands and high moun ain a eas ela i ely
unde ep esen ed; ex ending he esea ch o hose egions
would allow he esea che o encompass he en i e
socio-ecological ange o he coun y [18]. Mo e
gende -sensi i e and equi y-o ien ed esea ch is also needed
o unde s and he impac o in e en ions in communi y
o es y on women, low-cas e popula ions, and landless
amilies, who end o ace sys ema ic disad an ages in
equi able pa icipa ion and bene i dis ibu ion [10]. Las ly,
he communi y o es y model ha Nepal is globally known
o mus be placed in compa a i e analy ic s udies in
Sou heas Asia and elsewhe e, o enable c oss-lea ning on
pa icipa o y o es managemen and o e ine he app oach o
household ene gy secu i y, equi y, and sus ainabili y [7].
DECLARATION STATEMENT
Re iew- ype a icles also equi e au ho s o p o ide a
decla a ion o accoun abili y in he a icle, including each
au ho 's in ol emen . The deg ee o de ail a ies; Some
subjec s p oduce a icles ha a e isola ed e o s ha can be
spoken in de ail, and o he ields a e g oup e o s a e e y
le el. I mus ollow he w ap-up and p ecede he e e ences.
A e agg ega ing inpu om all au ho s, I mus e i y he
accu acy o he ollowing in o ma ion as he a icle's au ho .
▪ Con lic s o In e es / Compe ing In e es s: Based on
my unde s anding, his a icle has no con lic s o
in e es .
▪ Funding Suppo : This a icle has no been unded by
any o ganiza ions o agencies. This independence
ensu es ha he esea ch is conduc ed wi h objec i i y
and wi hou any ex e nal in luence.
▪ E hical App o al and Consen o Pa icipa e: The
con en o his a icle does no necessi a e e hical
app o al o consen o pa icipa e wi h suppo ing
documen a ion.
▪ Da a Access S a emen and Ma e ial
A ailabili y: The adequa e esou ces o his a icle a e
publicly accessible.
▪ Au ho ’s Con ibu ions: All au ho s (P em Bahadu
Gi i, Ha i P asad Ghimi e, Bijay Raj Gi i, and
T ilochana Pokh el) con ibu ed equally o he
concep ion, design, li e a u e e iew, da a analysis,
manusc ip p epa a ion, and inal app o al o his pape .
All au ho s ake equal esponsibili y and accoun abili y
o he con en o his a icle.
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AUTHOR’S PROFILE
P em Bahadu Gi i is a Senio In e nal Audi O ice
a Naga jun Municipali y, Ka hmandu, Nepal, wi h o e
25 yea s o expe ience in go e nance and inancial
accoun abili y. He is pu suing a PhD in Sus ainable
Ene gy Managemen a P ince o Songkla Uni e si y,
Thailand. His esea ch ocuses on he ole o communi y
o es y in sus ainable ene gy de elopmen , ca bon seques a ion, and u al
li elihoods. He has published in in e na ional jou nals such as Applied
Ecology, En i onmen al Resea ch, and En i onmen Asia. His in e es s
include sus ainable ene gy, communi y o es y, e-go e nance, and public
sec o accoun abili y, and he b idges academic esea ch wi h policy and
p ac ice.
E . Ha i P asad Ghimi e is a PhD schola in
Sus ainable Ene gy Managemen a P ince o Songkla
Uni e si y, Thailand, and Founde and CEO o E e es
Cen e o Resea ch and De elopmen Pa ne s in Nepal.
His esea ch ocuses on ene gy sys em modelling, sola
PV wa e pumping o u al communi ies, clean cooking
ansi ions, and he links be ween communi y o es y, li elihoods, and
clima e esilience. He applies da a science, GIS, and sys em dynamics o
in o m policy and p ojec design. He has au ho ed and e iewed a icles o
in e na ional jou nals and has con ibu ed o e alua ion and
capaci y-building ini ia i es in Nepal.
Bijay Raj Gi i is a esea che ocused on communi y
o es y, sus ainable li elihoods, and na u al esou ce
go e nance in Nepal. His wo k examines he
socio-economic and ecological aspec s o o es
managemen , including ca bon s ock assessmen ,
household pa icipa ion, and u al ene gy access. He has
con ibu ed o collabo a i e p ojec s in ol ing da a collec ion, analysis, and
mapping o suppo e idence-based policy de elopmen . His esea ch also
explo es links be ween decen alised go e nance and he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs), pa icula ly hose ela ed o en i onmen al
conse a ion and po e y educ ion. He aims o ad ance expe ise in o es y
and de elopmen s udies o sus ainable and inclusi e esou ce managemen .
T ilochana Pokh el is a esea che specializing in
en i onmen al managemen , communi y de elopmen ,
and na u al esou ce go e nance. He wo k explo es he
in e sec ions o communi y o es y, u al li elihoods,
and sus ainable ene gy, emphasizing how pa icipa o y
go e nance enhances conse a ion ou comes. She has
con ibu ed o s udies on ca bon seques a ion, household ene gy access, and
decen alized o es managemen policies. In addi ion o esea ch, she
ac i ely e iews and edi s academic manusc ip s o ensu e me hodological
igou and adhe ence o in e na ional s anda ds. He educa ional and
p o essional e o s ocus on linking g ass oo s p ac ices wi h policy e o ms
o ad ance sus ainabili y and achie e Nepal’s Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals (SDGs).
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and
da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he
indi idual au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o he La ice
Science Publica ion (LSP)/ jou nal and/ o he edi o (s). The
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