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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 10, 627-633
Human Righ s Viola ions in A med Con lic s and he Role o In e na ional Law
Pa isa Ahmadzadeh 1*, Ani a Youse i2
1PhD s uden in Public In e na ional Law, Islamic Azad Uni e si y, Ka aj B anch, Albo z, I an
2PhD s uden in Public In e na ional Law, Islamic Azad Uni e si y, No h Teh an B anch, Teh an, I an
A icle in o
Recei ed: 02.09.2025
Accep ed: 05.10.2025
A ailable Online: 07.10.2025
Checked o Plagia ism: Yes
Keywo ds:
A med con lic , Human igh s
iola ions, In e na ional law,
Gene a Con en ions,
Accoun abili y
A B S T R A C T
A med con lic s, bo h in e na ional and non-in e na ional, ha e his o ically
been associa ed wi h ex ensi e human igh s iola ions, including ex ajudicial
killings, o u e, sexual iolence, o ced displacemen , and a acks on ci ilian
in as uc u e. Such iola ions no only in lic immedia e physical and
psychological su e ing on a ec ed popula ions bu also unde mine long- e m
socio-economic de elopmen and poli ical s abili y. In e na ional law p o ides
a c i ical amewo k o he p o ec ion o human igh s du ing a med con lic s,
p ima ily h ough In e na ional Humani a ian Law (IHL), human igh s
ea ies, and he manda es o in e na ional bodies such as he Uni ed Na ions.
Ins umen s such as he Gene a Con en ions, hei Addi ional P o ocols, and
he Rome S a u e o he In e na ional C iminal Cou de ine obliga ions o
s a e and non-s a e ac o s, es ablish s anda ds o he ea men o ci ilians
and comba an s, and p esc ibe mechanisms o accoun abili y. Despi e hese
amewo ks, en o cemen challenges emain signi ican due o issues such as
s a e so e eign y, lack o poli ical will, insu icien moni o ing, and di icul ies
in p osecu ing non-s a e ac o s. This a icle examines he na u e and scope o
human igh s iola ions in con empo a y a med con lic s, highligh ing case
s udies o demons a e pa e ns o abuse and sys emic challenges in p o ec ion.
I also explo es he ole o in e na ional law in bo h p e en ing iola ions and
ensu ing accoun abili y, emphasizing he impo ance o uni e sal ju isdic ion,
in e na ional ibunals, and he complemen a i y p inciple o he In e na ional
C iminal Cou . The pape concludes by a guing ha s eng hening
in e na ional legal mechanisms, enhancing compliance h ough domes ic
inco po a ion o ea ies, and p omo ing obus ci il socie y pa icipa ion a e
essen ial o mi iga ing human igh s iola ions du ing a med con lic s. The
indings unde sco e ha while in e na ional law p o ides i al p o ec ions, i s
e ec i eness elies on a combina ion o legal, poli ical, and humani a ian
e o s.
In oduc ion
A med con lic s, whe he in e na ional o non-
in e na ional, ha e emained a pe sis en ea u e o
global poli ics h oughou human his o y [1]. F om
ancien ba les o con empo a y ci il wa s, con lic s
ha e in a iably esul ed in signi ican human
su e ing and widesp ead iola ions o undamen al
human igh s. Human igh s, b oadly de ined as
inhe en igh s o li e, libe y, secu i y, and digni y,
a e ecognized uni e sally as essen ial o human
exis ence and socie al s abili y [2].
Howe e , in he con ex o a med con lic s, hese
igh s a e equen ly dis ega ded, wi h ci ilians
o en bea ing he b un o iolence [3].
The escala ion o mode n wa a e, pa icula ly wi h
he p oli e a ion o non-s a e ac o s, asymme ic
wa a e, and echnological ad ancemen s in
weapon y, has compounded he ulne abili y o
ci ilian popula ions, aising u gen ques ions abou
he adequacy and e ec i eness o in e na ional legal
amewo ks designed o p o ec human igh s.
His o ical expe iences demons a e ha human
Ad anced Jou nal o Managemen , Humani y and Social Science
Jou nal homepage: h ps://www.ajmhss.com/
*Co esponding Au ho : Pa isa Ahmadzadeh (pa [email protected])
1 Email: m syouse [email protected])
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igh s iola ions du ing a med con lic s a e nei he
inciden al no occasional bu o en sys emic [4].
Classical examples include he a oci ies commi ed
du ing Wo ld Wa II, which p omp ed he adop ion
o he Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s in
1948, ma king he o mal codi ica ion o
in e na ional human igh s s anda ds. Subsequen
con lic s, including hose in Rwanda, Bosnia, I aq,
Sy ia, and Yemen, ha e u he unde sco ed he
pe sis en gap be ween no ma i e legal amewo ks
and on-g ound eali ies. Viola ions in hese con lic s
encompass a spec um o abuses, including
ex ajudicial killings, o u e, sexual iolence,
o ced displacemen , des uc ion o ci ilian
in as uc u e, and a ge ing o humani a ian
wo ke s. Such iola ions no only cause immedia e
human su e ing bu also ha e long- e m
consequences, des abilizing socie ies, unde mining
ule o law, and impeding pos -con lic
econs uc ion [5].
In e na ional law se es as he p ima y mechanism
o add essing hese iola ions, p o iding no ma i e
s anda ds, p e en i e measu es, and accoun abili y
amewo ks. In e na ional Humani a ian Law (IHL),
pa icula ly he Gene a Con en ions and hei
Addi ional P o ocols, cons i u es he co ne s one o
legal p o ec ion o ci ilians and comba an s du ing
a med con lic s. IHL es ablishes clea p ohibi ions
agains ac s such as a ge ing ci ilians, o u e, and
use o p ohibi ed weapons, while also se ing
s anda ds o he ea men o p isone s o wa .
Complemen ing IHL, in e na ional human igh s law
a icula ed in ins umen s such as he In e na ional
Co enan on Ci il and Poli ical Righ s (ICCPR) and
he In e na ional Co enan on Economic, Social and
Cul u al Righ s (ICESCR) ex ends p o ec ion du ing
peace ime and con lic , emphasizing he
uni e sali y, inalienabili y, and indi isibili y o
human igh s. Toge he , hese bodies o law o m a
complex bu essen ial amewo k o sa egua ding
human digni y in he con ex o a med hos ili ies [6].
The en o cemen o hese legal no ms, howe e ,
aces signi ican challenges. S a e so e eign y,
poli ical conside a ions, lack o access o con lic
zones, and he ac i i ies o non-s a e a med g oups
o en unde mine e ec i e compliance. In e na ional
c iminal ibunals, including he In e na ional
C iminal Cou (ICC) and ad hoc ibunals such as
he In e na ional C iminal T ibunal o he Fo me
Yugosla ia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR), ha e been
es ablished o p osecu e indi iduals esponsible o
wa c imes, c imes agains humani y, and genocide.
These ins i u ions ha e con ibu ed o he
de elopmen o legal ju isp udence and he
p omo ion o accoun abili y; ye , hei limi ed
ju isdic ion, eliance on s a e coope a ion, and
occasional poli ical in e e ence highligh he
ongoing gaps in he p o ec ion o human igh s
du ing con lic s [7].
Resea ch in he ield has inc easingly ocused on
unde s anding he pa e ns and de e minan s o
human igh s iola ions in a med con lic s. Schola s
a gue ha iola ions a e o en in luenced by ac o s
such as he na u e o he con lic (in e s a e e sus
in as a e), he p esence o non-s a e ac o s, he
in ensi y and du a ion o hos ili ies, and he capaci y
o domes ic ins i u ions o p o ec ci ilians.
Empi ical s udies also sugges ha in e na ional
legal amewo ks can de e iola ions when coupled
wi h obus moni o ing mechanisms, sanc ions, and
ad ocacy by ci il socie y o ganiza ions.
None heless, he gap be ween legal no ms and
en o cemen eali ies emains a pe sis en challenge,
necessi a ing con inued schola ly inqui y and
p ac ical in e en ions o enhance compliance and
accoun abili y [8].
Fu he mo e, con empo a y con lic s a e
cha ac e ized by complex dynamics ha exace ba e
human igh s isks. Asymme ic wa a e, in ol ing
s a e o ces con on ing insu gen o e o is g oups,
o en blu s he dis inc ion be ween comba an s and
ci ilians, complica ing he applica ion o
in e na ional legal no ms. Technological
inno a ions, such as d ones and cybe wa a e, ha e
in oduced new modali ies o iolence, aising legal
and e hical ques ions ega ding p opo ionali y,
dis inc ion, and esponsibili y. Addi ionally, he
in ol emen o mul ina ional coali ions, p i a e
mili a y con ac o s, and ansna ional ac o s
in oduces ju isdic ional and egula o y challenges,
complica ing e o s o hold pe pe a o s
accoun able unde exis ing in e na ional legal
amewo ks [9].
The his o ical e olu ion o in e na ional legal no ms
e eals a g adual bu signi ican de elopmen in he
p o ec ion o human igh s du ing a med con lic s.
The 1949 Gene a Con en ions, oge he wi h he
1977 Addi ional P o ocols, codi ied undamen al
p inciples o humani a ian law, including he
p o ec ion o ci ilians, he ea men o p isone s o
wa , and es ic ions on ce ain weapons. The
es ablishmen o he ICC in 2002 u he signaled a
commi men o in e na ional accoun abili y,
emphasizing he p inciple o complemen a i y
whe eby he ICC ac s when na ional ju isdic ions a e
unwilling o unable o p osecu e se ious c imes.
These ins umen s e lec an endu ing ecogni ion
ha human digni y mus be p ese ed e en amids
he chaos o a med con lic , ep esen ing he
no ma i e aspi a ions o he in e na ional
communi y [10].
Despi e hese ad ances, signi ican gaps pe sis
be ween law and p ac ice. En o cemen is equen ly
selec i e and in luenced by geopoli ical
conside a ions, esul ing in une en p o ec ion o
a ec ed popula ions. Many non-s a e a med g oups
ope a e ou side he bounds o o mal legal
cons ain s, while s a es hemsel es may engage in
iola ions unde he guise o na ional secu i y o
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coun e e o ism ope a ions. Humani a ian
in e en ions, sanc ions, and in e na ional
moni o ing mechanisms, while c i ical, a e o en
cons ained by esou ce limi a ions, poli ical
nego ia ions, and logis ical challenges in con lic
zones. These eali ies unde sco e he necessi y o
s eng hening in e na ional coope a ion, enhancing
he capaci y o domes ic legal sys ems, and os e ing
global no ma i e consensus o mi iga e human igh s
abuses du ing a med con lic s [11].
In conclusion, a med con lic s con inue o pose
p o ound h ea s o human igh s, highligh ing he
c i ical ole o in e na ional law in p o iding bo h
no ma i e guidance and mechanisms o
accoun abili y. While signi ican p og ess has been
made in codi ying and ins i u ionalizing p o ec ions
h ough IHL, human igh s ea ies, and in e na ional
ibunals, challenges in en o cemen , compliance,
and adap a ion o con empo a y con lic dynamics
emain. Unde s anding he in e play be ween legal
no ms, poli ical eali ies, and con lic dynamics is
essen ial o schola s, policymake s, and
p ac i ione s seeking o mi iga e human su e ing
and p omo e accoun abili y. This s udy con ibu es
o his unde s anding by examining he na u e and
ex en o human igh s iola ions in a med con lic s
and assessing he ole and e ec i eness o
in e na ional law in p e en ing and esponding o
such iola ions. The indings unde sco e he
impo ance o a mul i ace ed app oach ha
in eg a es legal, poli ical, and humani a ian
s a egies o sa egua d human igh s in he mos
challenging o ci cums ances.
Li e a u e Re iew
The li e a u e on human igh s iola ions in a med
con lic s has expanded signi ican ly o e he pas
se e al decades, e lec ing bo h empi ical
in es iga ions and no ma i e legal analysis.
Schola s ha e consis en ly highligh ed ha a med
con lic s a e among he mos dange ous con ex s o
human igh s, wi h ci ilians disp opo iona ely
a ec ed. Resea ch dis inguishes be ween
in e na ional a med con lic s (IACs), in ol ing
s a es, and non-in e na ional a med con lic s
(NIACs), in ol ing non-s a e ac o s o ci il wa s,
no ing ha pa e ns and scale o iola ions di e
be ween hese ca ego ies [12].
Empi ical s udies emphasize ha iola ions o en
ollow p edic able pa e ns. Fo ins ance, sexual
iolence is equen ly employed as a weapon o wa
o e o ize ci ilian popula ions and des abilize
communi ies. Fo ced displacemen and a ge ing o
ci ilian in as uc u e a e also common, wi h
schola s linking hese iola ions o s a egic
objec i es o a med ac o s. In addi ion, he li e a u e
highligh s he complica ing ole o non-s a e a med
g oups, whose adhe ence o in e na ional no ms is
o en inconsis en , exace ba ing isks o ci ilians
[13].
F om a legal pe spec i e, esea che s ha e examined
he e olu ion and e icacy o In e na ional
Humani a ian Law (IHL) and human igh s law. The
Gene a Con en ions and Addi ional P o ocols
p o ide clea obliga ions ega ding he ea men o
ci ilians and comba an s, ye en o cemen gaps
pe sis , pa icula ly in in as a e con lic s [14].
In e na ional ibunals and he In e na ional
C iminal Cou ha e been analyzed as mechanisms
o accoun abili y, hough schola s no e challenges
including poli ical in e e ence, selec i e
p osecu ion, and lack o uni e sal ju isdic ion [15].
Recen s udies also explo e he in e play be ween
in e na ional law and s a e beha io , highligh ing
ha legal amewo ks can de e iola ions when
combined wi h moni o ing, sanc ions, and ci il
socie y engagemen [16]. Despi e hese insigh s, he
li e a u e con inues o unde sco e a signi ican gap
be ween no ma i e legal s anda ds and he eali ies
on he g ound, pa icula ly in p o ac ed con lic s
wi h weak ins i u ional o e sigh . This s udy builds
upon hese schola ly ounda ions by in eg a ing
legal analysis wi h empi ical obse a ions om
con empo a y con lic s o assess he ole o
in e na ional law in p o ec ing human igh s.
Me hodology
This esea ch adop s a quali a i e, doc inal, and
case-based app oach o analyze human igh s
iola ions in a med con lic s and he ole o
in e na ional law in add essing hem. The
me hodology combines h ee complemen a y
componen s:
Documen a y and Doc inal Analysis:
P ima y sou ces, including he Gene a
Con en ions, hei Addi ional P o ocols, he
ICC Rome S a u e, and majo human igh s
ea ies, a e examined o ou line he legal
amewo k go e ning a med con lic s.
Seconda y sou ces, including schola ly books,
jou nal a icles, and epo s om in e na ional
o ganiza ions (e.g., UN, Human Righ s Wa ch,
Amnes y In e na ional), a e e iewed o p o ide
heo e ical and empi ical con ex .
Case S udy Analysis:
Two con empo a y con lic s he Sy ian Ci il
Wa (2011–p esen ) and he Yemen con lic
(2014-p esen ) a e selec ed as illus a i e case
s udies.
These con lic s a e chosen o hei
complexi y, scale o human igh s iola ions,
and in ol emen o bo h s a e and non-s a e
ac o s, allowing o a comp ehensi e
assessmen o legal en o cemen challenges.
Compa a i e Analysis:
Pa e ns o human igh s iola ions ac oss he
selec ed con lic s a e iden i ied and compa ed.
The s udy assesses he ex en o which
in e na ional legal amewo ks (IHL and human
igh s law) we e in oked, he e ec i eness o
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accoun abili y mechanisms, and he ole o
in e na ional ins i u ions in mi iga ing abuses.
The quali a i e app oach enables a nuanced
unde s anding o bo h he no ma i e legal
amewo ks and he p ac ical eali ies o human
igh s p o ec ion du ing a med con lic s, b idging
he gap be ween heo y and p ac ice.
Case S udies
Sy ian Ci il Wa
The Sy ian Ci il Wa , which began in 2011,
ep esen s one o he mos de as a ing con empo a y
con lic s in e ms o human igh s iola ions.
Ci ilians ha e been subjec ed o ex ajudicial
killings, o u e, en o ced disappea ances, chemical
a acks, and o ced displacemen (UN Human Righ s
Council, 2020). The con lic in ol es mul iple s a e
and non-s a e ac o s, including he Sy ian
go e nmen , opposi ion o ces, and o eign
coali ions, complica ing he applica ion o
in e na ional law.
In e na ional legal esponses ha e included UN
in es iga ions, sanc ions, and e e als o he
In e na ional C iminal Cou ; howe e , en o cemen
has been limi ed by poli ical e oes in he UN
Secu i y Council and challenges in accessing
con lic zones. Despi e clea iola ions o IHL and
human igh s law, pe pe a o s ha e la gely e aded
accoun abili y, highligh ing he limi a ions o
in e na ional legal mechanisms in complex, mul i-
pa y con lic s [16].
Table (1) illus a es he summa izing human igh s
iola ions in he Sy ian Ci il Wa based on
documen ed s udies and epo s. The able will
ca ego ize he ypes o iola ions, pe pe a o s,
a ec ed popula ions, legal amewo ks iola ed, and
sou ces.
Table 1. Academic-s yle able
Type o Viola ion
Pe pe a o s
A ec ed Popula ion
Legal F amewo k
Viola ed
Ex ajudicial killings
Sy ian go e nmen o ces,
opposi ion g oups
Ci ilians, poli ical
ac i is s
In e na ional
Humani a ian Law
(IHL), ICCPR
To u e & inhumane
de en ion
Sy ian go e nmen o ces,
ISIS
De ainees, p isone s
o wa
Gene a Con en ions,
CAT
Chemical weapons
a acks
Sy ian go e nmen o ces
Ci ilians, opposi ion-
held a eas
Chemical Weapons
Con en ion, IHL
Sexual iolence & ape
All a med g oups
(go e nmen , opposi ion,
ISIS)
Women, child en
IHL, CEDAW, Rome
S a u e
Fo ced displacemen /
popula ion ans e s
Sy ian go e nmen o ces,
opposi ion
In e nally displaced
pe sons (IDPs),
e ugees
IHL, In e na ional
Re ugee Law
Ta ge ing o hospi als,
schools & humani a ian
wo ke s
Sy ian go e nmen o ces,
o eign coali ions
Ci ilians,
humani a ian
pe sonnel
IHL, Gene a
Con en ions
Rec ui men o child
soldie s
Non-s a e a med g oups
(ISIS, opposi ion ac ions)
Child en
Op ional P o ocol o
CRC, IHL
En o ced disappea ances
Sy ian go e nmen o ces
Ci ilians, poli ical
dissiden s
ICCPR, IHL
The able highligh s sys ema ic iola ions
widely documen ed in he li e a u e.
I links speci ic pe pe a o s o iola ions
and ci es ele an in e na ional legal
amewo ks.
Sou ces combine UN epo s, human igh s
NGOs, and academic s udies o
c edibili y.
Yemen Con lic
The con lic in Yemen, ongoing since 2014, has
simila ly demons a ed widesp ead human igh s
abuses. Bo h s a e and non-s a e ac o s ha e
conduc ed indisc imina e a acks on ci ilian
popula ions, including bombings o hospi als,
schools, and ma ke places. Repo s documen
a bi a y de en ion, o u e, and ec ui men o child
soldie s [17].
In e na ional law has been in oked h ough UN
esolu ions and humani a ian moni o ing; howe e ,
en o cemen emains cons ained by poli ical
alignmen s, limi ed access, and he p esence o
ansna ional ac o s. The Yemeni con lic
exempli ies how p o ac ed, asymme ic wa a e
complica es he applica ion o in e na ional law,
pa icula ly in p o ec ing ci ilians om iola ions.
Table (2) shows he academic-s yle able
summa izing human igh s iola ions in he Yemen
Con lic (2014 p esen ) based on documen ed
s udies and epo s [18].
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Table 2. Academic-s yle able summa izing human igh s iola ions in he Yemen Con lic (2014-p esen )
based on documen ed s udies and epo s.
Type o Viola ion
Pe pe a o s
A ec ed Popula ion
Legal F amewo k
Viola ed
Indisc imina e
ai s ikes / bombings
Saudi-led coali ion,
Hou hi o ces
Ci ilians, schools,
hospi als
In e na ional
Humani a ian Law
(IHL), Gene a
Con en ions
Ex ajudicial killings
Hou hi o ces, p o-
go e nmen mili ias
Ci ilians, suspec ed
opposi ion membe s
IHL, ICCPR
To u e & a bi a y
de en ion
Hou hi o ces, p o-
go e nmen o ces
P isone s, de ainees
CAT, Gene a
Con en ions
Child ec ui men
Hou hi o ces, p o-
go e nmen o ces
Child en unde 18
Op ional P o ocol o
CRC, IHL
Blockade & denial o
humani a ian aid
Saudi-led coali ion,
Hou hi o ces
Ci ilians, pa icula ly in
con lic zones
IHL, Righ o Food,
Righ o Heal h
Fo ced displacemen /
e ugee c isis
All a med ac o s
In e nally displaced
pe sons (IDPs), e ugees
IHL, In e na ional
Re ugee Law
A acks on ci ilian
in as uc u e
Saudi-led coali ion,
Hou hi o ces
Ci ilians, ma ke places,
hospi als
IHL, Gene a
Con en ions
Sexual iolence &
gende -based iolence
Hou hi o ces, p o-
go e nmen o ces
Women, gi ls
IHL, CEDAW, Rome
S a u e
Shows he ange o iola ions by bo h s a e
and non-s a e ac o s in Yemen.
Links each iola ion o he legal amewo k
b eached, demons a ing in e na ional law
ele ance.
Sou ces include UN, NGOs, and academic
s udies o eliabili y.
Analysis
Bo h cases e eal sys emic challenges in ensu ing
compliance wi h in e na ional legal no ms.
Viola ions a e o en delibe a e and s a egic, while
accoun abili y mechanisms a e hinde ed by
so e eign y, poli ical in e e ence, and ope a ional
cons ain s. These case s udies illus a e he c i ical
need o s eng hened in e na ional coope a ion,
enhanced moni o ing, and he adap a ion o legal
amewo ks o con empo a y con lic eali ies [18].
Discussion and Analysis
Human igh s iola ions in a med con lic s a e
among he mos p essing challenges acing he
in e na ional communi y. The esul s om case
s udies o he Sy ian Ci il Wa and he Yemen
Con lic , combined wi h p io esea ch, e eal
se e al key pa e ns and implica ions ega ding he
e ec i eness o in e na ional law.
Pa e ns o Viola ions: Bo h con lic s demons a e
ha ci ilians bea he o e whelming bu den o
a med con lic s, expe iencing ex ajudicial killings,
o u e, sexual iolence, o ced displacemen , and
a acks on ci ilian in as uc u e. The Sy ian case
shows ha chemical weapons and delibe a e
a ge ing o hospi als and schools ha e become
sys ema ic ools o wa a e, e lec ing bo h s a egic
objec i es and a bla an dis ega d o in e na ional
no ms. Simila ly, he Yemen con lic illus a es he
consequences o p olonged wa a e, whe e
blockades, indisc imina e ai s ikes, and denial o
humani a ian aid exace ba e ci ilian su e ing [19].
These pa e ns align wi h p e ious s udies
highligh ing ha human igh s iola ions o en occu
p edic ably in con ex s o weak go e nance,
asymme ical wa a e, and p olonged con lic s
(Kaldo ,2013; Bassiouni,2011). Non-s a e ac o s,
including opposi ion g oups and insu gen s, o en
pose signi ican challenges o en o cemen , as hei
adhe ence o in e na ional law is inconsis en , and
accoun abili y mechanisms a e limi ed (Hampson &
Malik,2020).
Role o In e na ional Law: In e na ional law,
p ima ily h ough In e na ional Humani a ian Law
(IHL) and human igh s ea ies, es ablishes clea
obliga ions o p o ec ci ilians and egula e conduc
du ing a med con lic s. The Gene a Con en ions,
Addi ional P o ocols, and he Rome S a u e o he
ICC p o ide legal amewo ks ha p ohibi
ex ajudicial killings, o u e, sexual iolence, and
he a ge ing o ci ilians. Case s udies demons a e,
howe e , ha while hese no ms a e well-de ined,
en o cemen is o en weak o selec i e. Fo example,
UN Secu i y Council e oes and poli ical cons ain s
ha e hinde ed accoun abili y o Sy ian go e nmen
o ces despi e e idence o iola ions, while in
Yemen, en o cemen is challenged by he
mul iplici y o ac o s and ongoing hos ili ies [21].
E ec i eness and Limi a ions: The e ec i eness
o in e na ional law is signi ican ly in luenced by
poli ical will, ins i u ional capaci y, and access o
con lic zones. Empi ical e idence sugges s ha
632
Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 10, 627-633
legal amewo ks alone canno p e en iola ions;
moni o ing, sanc ions, and ac i e in e na ional
engagemen a e essen ial o compliance.
Fu he mo e, en o cemen mechanisms such as he
ICC o ad hoc ibunals ace p ac ical limi a ions,
including selec i e p osecu ion, delayed
p oceedings, and limi ed ju isdic ion o e non-s a e
ac o s.
Compa a i e Insigh s: Compa ing Sy ia and
Yemen highligh s ha while bo h con lic s ea u e
widesp ead iola ions, he na u e o he iola ions
di e s in in ensi y, scope, and me hodology. Sy ia
demons a es sys ema ic s a e-led iola ions,
including chemical a acks and sieges, whe eas
Yemen shows he compounded impac o o eign
in e en ion, blockade, and non-s a e ac o
in ol emen . This compa a i e pe spec i e
unde sco es he impo ance o con ex ualized legal
s a egies and he adap a ion o in e na ional law o
asymme ic and mul i-pa y con lic s.
Policy and Legal Implica ions: The indings
sugges se e al implica ions o s eng hening
human igh s p o ec ion in a med con lic s:
Enhanced moni o ing and documen a ion:
Independen in es iga ions a e c ucial o
build c edible e idence o accoun abili y.
S eng hening in e na ional coope a ion:
Mul ila e al engagemen can enhance
en o cemen o sanc ions and legal
obliga ions.
Focus on non-s a e ac o s: Expanding legal
amewo ks o e ec i ely egula e non-
s a e a med g oups is essen ial.
In eg a ion o humani a ian and legal
s a egies: Coo dina ing legal en o cemen
wi h humani a ian ac ion can mi iga e
ci ilian su e ing.
In conclusion, he discussion e eals a pe sis en gap
be ween no ma i e legal s anda ds and he eali ies
on he g ound. While in e na ional law p o ides a
c i ical no ma i e and mo al amewo k, i s
e ec i eness depends on en o cemen mechanisms,
poli ical suppo , and in e na ional coo dina ion.
The Sy ian and Yemeni case s udies demons a e
ha iola ions a e o en delibe a e, sys ema ic, and
s a egically mo i a ed, which equi es bo h legal
and ope a ional esponses. S eng hening he
syne gy be ween law, diplomacy, and humani a ian
ac ion emains essen ial o educe human su e ing
and p omo e accoun abili y in a med con lic s [22].
Conclusion
Human igh s iola ions in a med con lic s emain a
pe asi e and complex global challenge. Ci ilians
con inue o bea he hea ies bu den, expe iencing
ex ajudicial killings, sexual iolence, o ced
displacemen , and a acks on essen ial in as uc u e.
In e na ional law, h ough IHL, human igh s
ea ies, and in e na ional ibunals, p o ides a
no ma i e amewo k designed o mi iga e hese
iola ions and p omo e accoun abili y. Howe e ,
en o cemen gaps, selec i e compliance, and he ise
o non-s a e ac o s ha e limi ed he e ec i eness o
hese mechanisms.
The Sy ian and Yemeni con lic s illus a e ha while
legal no ms es ablish clea s anda ds o conduc ,
p ac ical en o cemen is o en cons ained by
poli ical, logis ical, and ins i u ional ac o s.
Add essing hese challenges equi es a mul i ace ed
app oach ha includes s onge in e na ional
coope a ion, domes ic inco po a ion o legal no ms,
ac i e ci il socie y engagemen , and inno a i e
s a egies o moni o and de e iola ions.
Fu u e esea ch should ocus on imp o ing
compliance mechanisms, unde s anding he
beha io o non-s a e ac o s in con lic zones, and
de eloping adap i e legal amewo ks ha add ess
echnological and asymme ical wa a e.
Ul ima ely, he p o ec ion o human igh s in a med
con lic s is bo h a mo al impe a i e and a legal
obliga ion, equi ing sus ained commi men om
s a es, in e na ional ins i u ions, and he global
communi y. S eng hening he syne gy be ween law,
policy, and humani a ian ac ion is essen ial o
mi iga ing human su e ing and os e ing pos -
con lic peace and s abili y.
Disclosu e S a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es epo ed by he
au ho s.
Funding
This esea ch did no ecei e any speci ic g an om
unding agencies in he public, comme cial, o no -
o -p o i sec o s.
Au ho s' Con ibu ions
All au ho s con ibu ed o da a analysis, d a ing,
and e ising o he pape and ag eed o be
esponsible o all he aspec s o his wo k.
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