In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews, Vol 6, Issue 10, pp 3671-3681, Oc obe , 2025
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews
Jou nal homepage: www.ij p .com ISSN 2582-7421
Clima e Mig a ion and Global Policy Responses in India: An
Analy ical Re iew
D . Md. Shahzad Manza
Assis an P o esso , Depa men o Educa ion, Ram K ishna College, Madhubani, Email- Shahzadmanza [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Clima e-induced mig a ion has eme ged as a c i ical humani a ian and de elopmen al challenge globally, wi h India s anding a he o e on due o i s p o ound
geog aphical ulne abili y and socioeconomic condi ions. This Pape p o ides a comp ehensi e analysis o clima e mig a ion in India, examining i s mul i ace ed
d i e s, he scale o displacemen , and he se e e socioeconomic and human igh s impac s on a ec ed popula ions. I c i ically assesses India's exis ing na ional
policy amewo ks and legisla i e ini ia i es, highligh ing signi ican gaps and implemen a ion challenges. Concu en ly, he Pape explo es he e ol ing
landscape o global policy esponses, de ailing he oles o in e na ional o ganiza ions and he limi a ions o cu en in e na ional legal ins umen s. The analysis
e eals an u gen need o a holis ic, igh s-based, and in eg a ed app oach a bo h na ional and in e na ional le els, ad oca ing o p oac i e policy o mula ion,
obus implemen a ion o adap a ion s a egies, and s eng hened in e na ional coope a ion o p o ec and ehabili a e clima e-displaced communi ies and ensu e
long- e m esilience and sus ainable de elopmen .
Keywo ds: Clima e, mig a ion, globally, analysis, holis ic, s a egies
1. In oduc ion
Con ex ualizing Clima e Change and Human Mobili y
Clima e change ep esen s one o he mos o midable challenges con on ing he global communi y, exe ing se e e nega i e impac s on ecosys ems
and human socie ies.1P ojec ions indica e ha by he end o he cen u y, clima e change could compel he mig a ion o nea ly 200 million people due
o na u al disas e s.1Mo e immedia e es ima es sugges ha o e 200 million indi iduals may be displaced by clima e change by 2050, wi h an a e age
o 21.5 million people o cibly displaced annually since 2008 by wea he - ela ed e en s.2The Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o Re ugees
(UNHCR) cha ac e izes clima e change as he de ining c isis o ou e a, wi h disas e displacemen being one o i s mos de as a ing consequences.3
The consis en p ojec ion o hund eds o millions displaced globally by mid-cen u y and he aming o clima e change as a "de ining c isis" unde sco e
he immense scale and u gency o his issue. This is no me ely a u u e conce n bu an ongoing humani a ian challenge, whe e cu en eac i e
measu es a e p o ing insu icien . The accele a ing a e o displacemen necessi a es p oac i e, sys emic solu ions o a e a la ge humani a ian
ca as ophe and sa egua d human secu i y and de elopmen .
De ining Clima e Mig a ion: Te minology and Nuances
The e minology su ounding indi iduals compelled o mo e due o en i onmen al changes emains con es ed, lacking a uni e sally accep ed legal
de ini ion. Te ms such as 'Clima e Mig an s' o 'En i onmen al Re ugees' a e commonly used o desc ibe people who eloca e because o clima e
change-induced al e a ions, including loods, d ough s, o ising sea le els.1Howe e , he use o ' e ugee' in his con ex is widely deba ed, wi h many
commen a o s p e e ing 'clima e-displaced pe sons' o 'clima e mig an s'.2The In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion (IOM) b oadly uses he e m
"clima e mobili y" 4, while UNHCR explici ly does no endo se 'clima e e ugee,' ins ead a o ing he ph ase 'pe sons displaced in he con ex o
disas e s and clima e change'.3
This e minological deba e highligh s a c i ical legal and concep ual oid. The co e issue is ha exis ing in e na ional e ugee law, such as he 1951
Re ugee Con en ion, de ines a e ugee based on a well- ounded ea o pe secu ion due o ac o s like ace, eligion, o poli ical opinion, and no ably
excludes indi iduals displaced by clima e de as a ion o na u al disas e s.2Fu he mo e, he e m 'mig an ' can be p oblema ic as i implies a choice ha
o en does no exis o hose o ced o lea e hei homes due o en i onmen al deg ada ion.2The inadequacy o cu en labels lea es millions wi hou
o mal p o ec ion o igh s, complica ing policy esponses and esou ce alloca ion. The g owing calls o a sepa a e legal s a us o clima e-induced
displacemen e lec a undamen al need o new legal ins umen s ailo ed o his unique and complex o m o human mobili y.2
Scope and S uc u e o he Pape
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews, Vol 6, Issue 10, pp 3671-3681 Oc obe , 2025 3672
This Pape del es in o he in ica e dynamics o clima e mig a ion wi hin India, examining i s speci ic egional ulne abili ies, he di e se clima ic and
non-clima ic d i e s, and he p o ound socioeconomic and human igh s implica ions o a ec ed communi ies. I p oceeds o analyze India's cu en
na ional policy esponses and legisla i e e o s, iden i ying c i ical gaps and challenges. Subsequen ly, he Pape explo es he b oade landscape o
global policy esponses, highligh ing he oles o in e na ional o ganiza ions and he limi a ions o exis ing in e na ional amewo ks. Finally, i
concludes wi h a syn hesis o key indings and p oposes ac ionable ecommenda ions o os e ing a mo e comp ehensi e, igh s-based, and in eg a ed
app oach o clima e mig a ion in India and globally.
2. The Landscape o Clima e Mig a ion in India
2.1. Vulne abili y and Ho spo s: Geog aphical and Socioeconomic Fac o s
India, wi h i s as and di e se geog aphy, s ands as one o he coun ies mos ulne able o he impac s o clima e change. Acco ding o he Wo ld
Risk Index 2024, India anks hi d globally wi h a isk index sco e o 40.96%.1Mo e han 80% o India's popula ion esides in dis ic s suscep ible o
clima e-induced disas e s.7The coun y's ex ensi e 7,500 km coas line is pa icula ly a high isk om sea-le el ise, e osion, and na u al disas e s such
as opical s o ms and cyclones, a ec ing app oxima ely 170 million people.8
Clima e impac s a e no uni o m bu concen a e in speci ic, o en al eady socio-economically ma ginalized, a eas, c ea ing dis inc clima e mig a ion
ho spo s. Coas al egions like he Sunda bans in Wes Bengal and he Ganges-B ahmapu a Del a ace elen less h ea s om ising sea le els, cyclones,
and loods.1Be ween 1990 and 2016, India los 235 squa e kilome e s o land o coas al e osion, jeopa dizing li elihoods and homes.8Wes Bengal,
Ke ala, Guja a , and Odisha ha e expe ienced signi ican coas al e osion, wi h Wes Bengal seeing changes along 70% o i s coas .8Mega-ci ies such as
Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolka a, wi h millions li ing in u ban coas al a eas, a e also a high isk o looding and sea-le el ise, likely necessi a ing
u u e eloca ion.8
Beyond coas al a eas, o he egions a e se e ely impac ed. In coas al Odisha, a me s a e o ced o mig a e as hei ag icul u al land is los o sea-le el
ise, and ishe men lose hei equipmen o cyclones.9In he Sunda bans, people a e leeing po e y and he collapse o adi ional li elihoods due o
clima e change.9The hilly dis ic s o U a akhand expe ience e a ic ain all and eceding wa e ables, compelling esiden s o abandon hei homes
and a ms o he plains.9In Maha ash a's Beed dis ic , ecu en d ough s d i e mig a ion, while in Biha 's Saha sa, widesp ead looding and
wa e logging ende land un i o cul i a ion.9
This concen a ion o impac s in ulne able a eas highligh s ha clima e mig a ion in India is no solely an en i onmen al issue bu a p o ound
de elopmen and equi y challenge. O e hal o he Indian popula ion is engaged in clima e-sensi i e sec o s like ag icul u e, making hei li elihoods
highly suscep ible o clima e a ia ions.10 App oxima ely 30% o he Indian popula ion g apples wi h des i u ion.10 The in e connec edness o
geog aphy, economy, and po e y ampli ies clima e isks, c ea ing complex, in e sec ing c ises ha demand in eg a ed and equi able solu ions.
2.2. Key D i e s o Mig a ion: Sudden-Onse and Slow-Onse E en s
The d i e s o clima e mig a ion in India can be b oadly ca ego ized in o sudden-onse and slow-onse clima ic e en s. Sudden-onse d i e s include
immedia e haza ds such as loods, glacial lake ou bu s s, s o ms, and cyclones.1Fo ins ance, Cyclone Amphan, he s onges s o m eco ded in decades
in he Bay o Bengal in May 2020, o ced se e al million people o e acua e.8Annually, abou 3.6 million Indians we e displaced be ween 2008 and
2018, p ima ily due o looding om monsoon ains.8The 2018 loods in Ke ala displaced app oxima ely 1.4 million people, se ing as a s a k
eminde o likely u u e consequences.8In Biha , majo loods, such as he Kosi Floods in 2008, ha e se e ely a ec ed millions.9
In con as , slow-onse clima ic d i e s a e mo e insidious, including sea-le el ise, saliniza ion o land, dese i ica ion, inc eased wa e sca ci y, and
coas al and i e ine e osion.1While displacemen om sudden-onse disas e s is eadily appa en , mig a ion pa e ns esul ing om slow-onse e en s
a e o en ha de o quan i y.8These g adual changes e ode li elihoods and habi abili y o e ime, equen ly leading o wha appea s o be " olun a y"
mig a ion bu is, in essence, compelled by wo sening condi ions.12 Fo example, he Sunda bans del a expe iences an a e age yea ly sea-le el ise o 8
millime e s, signi ican ly highe han he global a e age, leading o accele a ed land e osion and saliniza ion.9In Maha ash a's Beed dis ic , ecu en
d ough s and dec easing ain all ha e made ag icul u e unsus ainable, o cing households o mig a e o wo k.9Simila ly, in U a akhand, e a ic
ain all and eceding wa e ables ha e led o he abandonmen o homes and a ms.9
The insidious na u e o slow-onse disas e s means ha policy esponses mus ex end beyond immedia e disas e elie o add ess he cumula i e and
o en i e e sible impac s o hese changes. These impac s equen ly esul in pe manen displacemen and he loss o adi ional li elihoods,
necessi a ing long- e m planning and ecogni ion o hese mig an s. The di icul y in iden i ying and quan i ying hese slow-onse impac s also poin s o
a signi ican da a gap ha hinde s e ec i e long- e m policy design and suppo o a ec ed popula ions.
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews, Vol 6, Issue 10, pp 3671-3681 Oc obe , 2025 3673
Table 1: Key Clima e Haza ds and Thei Impac s on Mig a ion in India
Haza d Type
Speci ic Examples/Regions
Impac on Mig a ion
Sudden-Onse
Cyclones, S o ms
Cyclone Amphan (Bay o Bengal), Cyclone
Fani (Odisha), Cyclone Aila (Sunda bans)
Fo ced e acua ion, des uc ion o homes,
loss o li elihoods, immedia e displacemen
Floods
Monsoon Flooding (all India, especially
Ganges-B ahmapu a basin), Ke ala Floods
(2018), Kosi Floods (Biha )
Annual displacemen (3.6 million Indians
annually 2008-2018), loss o
land/li elihoods, empo a y o pe manen
displacemen
Glacial Lake Ou bu s s
Himalayan egions (gene al)
Fo ced displacemen , des uc ion o
in as uc u e
Slow-Onse
Sea-le el Rise
Sunda bans (Wes Bengal), Indian coas line,
Mumbai, Chennai, Kolka a
Loss o land, saliniza ion o ag icul u al
land, compelled mig a ion, need o
managed e ea , pe manen eloca ion
Saliniza ion o Land
Sunda bans, Coas al Odisha
Rende ag icul u al land useless, collapse o
adi ional li elihoods, o ced mig a ion
Dese i ica ion,
Inc eased A idi y
Beed (Maha ash a), o he semi-a id egions
Recu en d ough s, c op ailu es, inc eased
p essu e o mig a e, long- e m displacemen
Wa e Sca ci y, E a ic
Rain all
U a akhand, Beed (Maha ash a)
Receding wa e ables, di icul y in c op
cul i a ion, abandonmen o homes and
a ms, inc eased bu den on women o wa e
collec ion
Coas al/Ri e ine
E osion
Wes Bengal, Ke ala, Guja a , Odisha,
Majuli Island (Assam)
Loss o land (235 sq km be ween 1990-
2016), des uc ion o illages, o ced
eloca ion, sh inking habi able a eas
2.3. Scale and P ojec ions o Displacemen : Quan i a i e Es ima es and Fu u e T ends
The scale o clima e-induced displacemen in India is subs an ial and is p ojec ed o accele a e signi ican ly. Be ween 2008 and 2018, app oxima ely
3.6 million Indians we e displaced annually, p ima ily due o monsoon looding.8A 2021 Pape by Ac ionAid and Clima e Ac ion Ne wo k Sou h Asia
es ima es ha India alone will see 45 million people o ced o mig a e om hei homes by 2050 due o clima e disas e s, a igu e h ee imes highe
han p esen numbe s.9
The Wo ld Bank's G oundswell Pape (2018) p ojec s ha by 2050, wi hou conc e e clima e and de elopmen ac ion, o e 143 million people ac oss
Sub-Saha an A ica, La in Ame ica, and Sou h Asia could be o ced o mo e wi hin hei ...sou ce In Sou h Asia, in e nal clima e mig an s could
numbe o e 40 million, ep esen ing up o 1.8% o he egion's o al popula ion.13 Clima e mig an s a e p ojec ed o inc ease by a ac o o six be ween
2020 and 2050 in he pessimis ic e e ence scena io.13
These quan i a i e es ima es unde sco e ha clima e mig a ion is no me ely a po en ial u u e p oblem bu an accele a ing, ine i able eali y. The
p ojec ed six- old inc ease in clima e mig an s by 2050 highligh s he u gency o p oac i e planning. This implies ha policies ocused solely on
p e en ion o "s aying in place" will be insu icien ; a signi ican po ion o he popula ion will be compelled o mo e, necessi a ing obus amewo ks
o managed e ea and digni ied eloca ion. The emphasis on in e nal mig a ion also means ha na ional go e nmen s bea he p ima y esponsibili y
o hese popula ions, unlike c oss-bo de e ugees who all unde in e na ional p o ec ion mechanisms.
The Wo ld Bank Pape u he ou lines h ee plausible scena ios o in e nal clima e mig a ion, demons a ing ha u u e ajec o ies a e no ixed and
can be signi ican ly in luenced by policy choices:
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews, Vol 6, Issue 10, pp 3671-3681 Oc obe , 2025 3674
Table 2: P ojec ions o In e nal Clima e Mig a ion in Sou h Asia/India (by 2050)
Sou ce/Pape
Region
Scena io
P ojec ed Numbe
o In e nal Clima e
Mig an s (Millions)
Pe cen age o
Regional
Popula ion
Key D i e s
Ac ionAid / Clima e
Ac ion Ne wo k
Sou h Asia (2021)
India
-
45
-
Clima e disas e s
Wo ld Bank
G oundswell Pape
(2018)
Sou h Asia
Pessimis ic
Re e ence (high
emissions, unequal
de elopmen )
40.5 ( ange: 30.9 -
40.5)
1.8% ( ange: 1.35%
- 1.77%)
Lowe wa e
a ailabili y, c op
p oduc i i y, ising
sea le el, s o m
su ges
Wo ld Bank
G oundswell Pape
(2018)
Sou h Asia
Mo e Inclusi e
De elopmen (high
emissions, imp o ed
de elopmen )
21.1 ( ange: 18.1 -
24.1)
0.89% ( ange:
0.76% - 1.02%)
Lowe wa e
a ailabili y, c op
p oduc i i y, ising
sea le el, s o m
su ges
Wo ld Bank
G oundswell Pape
(2018)
Sou h Asia
Mo e Clima e-
F iendly (lowe
global emissions,
unequal
de elopmen )
16.9 ( ange: 11.4 -
22.4)
0.74% ( ange:
0.48% - 0.98%)
Lowe wa e
a ailabili y, c op
p oduc i i y, ising
sea le el, s o m
su ges
The signi ican educ ion in p ojec ed mig an s unde mo e inclusi e de elopmen and clima e- iendly scena ios unde sco es he c i ical impo ance o
conce ed ac ion on clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion, coupled wi h inclusi e de elopmen policies. This p o ides a clea incen i e o u gen
clima e ac ion and comp ehensi e planning.
2.4. Socioeconomic and Human Righ s Impac s: Li elihoods, Heal h, Educa ion, Gende ed Vulne abili ies
The human igh s implica ions o clima e mig a ion a e p o ound, ex ending beyond me e displacemen o encompass a wide a ay o socioeconomic
consequences. Fo indi iduals o ced o lee hei homes, undamen al ques ions o human digni y and igh s o sa e y, shel e , and adequa e s anda ds
o li ing a ise.14 Access o essen ial se ices like educa ion, heal hca e, and s able employmen o en p o es elusi e, and cul u al and social igh s can
be se e ely jeopa dized.14 The e y p ocess o mig a ion can expose indi iduals o exploi a ion, human a icking, and o he human igh s abuses.14
Speci ically, he igh o li e, libe y, and pe sonal secu i y is h ea ened as clima e mig an s unde ake isky jou neys, acing exposu e o he , assaul ,
sexual iolence, and disc imina ion a hei des ina ions.14 The igh o ood, wa e , and housing is equen ly comp omised, as mig an s s uggle o
access heal hy ood, sa e d inking wa e , and p ope housing, o en leading o compe i ion o sca ce esou ces wi h exis ing popula ions o
con inemen o ma ginalized a eas.9Child en om clima e mig an amilies o en lose ou on educa ional oppo uni ies due o language ba ie s,
inancial cons ain s, o dis up ed schooling, while adul s ace unemploymen o p eca ious employmen , hinde ing hei abili y o p o ide o hei
amilies and ein eg a e in o socie y.9Exposu e o ad e se li ing condi ions, poo nu i ion, and s ess ul ci cums ances can esul in se ious, long- e m
illnesses, men al heal h diso de s, and educed li e expec ancy, u he exace ba ed by minimal access o heal h se ices.9
Clima e change-induced displacemen disp opo iona ely a ec s ulne able g oups, pa icula ly women and you h. The phenomenon o ' eminiza ion o
ag icul u e' is obse ed in many clima e-impac ed egions, whe e women inc easingly bea he dual esponsibili y o ag icul u al wo k and unpaid ca e
o amily membe s as male membe s mig a e.9This adds up o 12-14 hou s pe day o wo k bu den o women, impac ing hei heal h and well-being.9
You h ace speci ic ulne abili ies ha dis up hei educa ion, limi access o oppo uni ies, and exace ba e economic ins abili y.10 Fo ins ance, in he
Sunda bans, you h displacemen is signi ican due o looding and cyclones.10 The absence o legal p o ec ions lea es clima e mig an s in a p eca ious
posi ion, wi h li le ecou se o asse hei igh s o access essen ial se ices, making human igh s abuses, including mode n sla e y and inadequa e
access o basic ameni ies, common occu ences.15
This de ailed enume a ion o human igh s impac s demons a es ha clima e mig a ion is no me ely a logis ical challenge bu a p o ound human igh s
c isis. The ulne abili y o exploi a ion, a icking, and disc imina ion unde sco es se e e p o ec ion gaps. The disp opo iona e bu den on women and
he dis up ion o you h's educa ion and oppo uni ies highligh how clima e impac s exace ba e exis ing gende and in e gene a ional inequali ies. This
necessi a es ha policy esponses mus be igh s-based, gende -sensi i e, and inclusi e, explici ly add essing he p o ec ion needs o he mos
ulne able and in eg a ing human igh s p inciples in o all s ages o mig a ion managemen , om p e en ion o pos -displacemen ehabili a ion.
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch Publica ion and Re iews, Vol 6, Issue 10, pp 3671-3681 Oc obe , 2025 3675
3. Na ional Policy Responses and Adap a ion S a egies in India
3.1. Exis ing Policy F amewo ks and Gaps
India's exis ing legal and ins i u ional amewo ks a e la gely ill-equipped o handle he complex and mul i ace ed issue o clima e mig a ion. The
coun y cu en ly lacks a speci ic legal ca ego y o clima e mig an s, and i s app oach o mig a ion and displacemen is p ima ily go e ned by ou da ed
laws such as he 1946 Fo eigne s Ac and he 1955 Ci izenship Ac .17 This absence o a clea legal amewo k means ha clima e mig an s a e o en
ea ed as illegal immig an s, subjec ing hem o de en ion, depo a ion, and denial o basic igh s.17
While s a e-le el disas e managemen policies add ess sudden-onse displacemen , India signi ican ly lacks comp ehensi e policies o slow-onse
e en s like sea-le el ise and coas al e osion.8The In e -S a e Mig an Wo kmen Ac o 1979 also lacks p o isions speci ically o clima e mig an s.8
Fu he mo e, India's Na ional Ac ion Plan on Clima e Change (NAPCC), while se ing as a b oad amewo k, does no place su icien emphasis on
aspec s ela ed o clima e-d i en mig a ion.11 Simila ly, S a e Ac ion Plans on Clima e Change (SAPCCs), despi e being p ima y policy documen s,
gi e li le ocus o clima e- ela ed displacemen , o en p io i izing in as uc u e o e human impac s in coas al zone managemen policies.8
This agmen ed and eac i e app oach o clima e mig a ion ep esen s a signi ican policy lag. Despi e he escala ing c isis, he e is no cohesi e
na ional s a egy o p oac i ely manage clima e mig a ion, lea ing millions o mig an s in a ulne able and p eca ious si ua ion.17 The limi ed emphasis
on mig a ion in he NAPCC sugges s a disconnec be ween b oade clima e ac ion and human mobili y conside a ions, highligh ing a need o
in eg a ion and a mo e holis ic iew ha explici ly accoun s o human displacemen .
3.2. Legisla i e Ini ia i es: The Clima e Mig an s (P o ec ion and Rehabili a ion) Bill, 2022
In an a emp o add ess his policy acuum, legisla i e ini ia i es ha e been in oduced in he Indian Pa liamen . No ably, he Clima e Mig an s
(P o ec ion and Rehabili a ion) Bill, 2022, was in oduced as a p i a e membe 's bill.11 This bill aims o es ablish a comp ehensi e policy amewo k
o he p o ec ion and ehabili a ion o in e nally displaced clima e mig an s in India.12
The Bill p oposes a b oad de ini ion o "clima e mig an s," encompassing indi iduals o communi ies o cibly displaced, go e nmen -e acua ed, o
olun a ily mig a ed due o wo sened li ing condi ions caused by bo h slow-onse (e.g., d ough s, sea-le el ise, e osion) and sudden-onse (e.g., loods,
cyclones) clima e e en s.12 I ou lines he es ablishmen o a Na ional Clima e Mig a ion Au ho i y and in e -depa men al S a e Clima e Mig a ion
Au ho i ies, along wi h sub-dis ic Mig a ion Facili a ion Cen es, o iden i y, documen , and moni o clima e mig a ion.12
The p oposed unc ions o hese au ho i ies a e comp ehensi e, co e ing:
●Moni o ing and Assessing Risk: Con inuous isk assessmen , s eng hening o ecas ing mechanisms, and moni o ing slow-onse e en s.12
●P e en ion and Mi iga ion: U ilizing public wo ks p og ams like MGNREGS o in as uc u e de elopmen , inco po a ing adap i e measu es
in ag icul u e, p omo ing o ganic a ming, p o iding c op and ca le insu ance, in es ing in sus ainable u ban in as uc u e, and es ablishing
empo a y shel e s.12
●Relie and Compensa ion: Ensu ing basic li ing s anda ds in empo a y shel e s `````````````````````````````````````````````o e ing loss and damage
compensa ion (cash ans e s, land g an s, housing suppo ).12
●Rese lemen , Rehabili a ion, and Re-in eg a ion: Regis e ing mig an s, acili a ing e u n o sa e a eas, de eloping ese lemen plans wi h
communi y in ol emen , p o iding al e na i es o hose dependen on na u al esou ces, o e ing e-skilling oppo uni ies, linking wi h
MGNREGS o employmen , acili a ing school en ollmen , and ensu ing elec o al egis a ion.12
●Clima e Mig a ion Fund: The Bill p oposes a Clima e Mig a ion Fund wi h an ini ial co pus o 1,000 c o e INR, wi h ongoing con ibu ions
om cen al and s a e go e nmen s and employe s.12
Despi e i s comp ehensi e na u e and clea ecogni ion o he p oblem, he Clima e Mig an s (P o ec ion and Rehabili a ion) Bill, 2022, along wi h
ano he simila bill, "ha e gone nowhe e in pa liamen ".11 This e eals a signi ican gap be ween legisla i e in en and implemen a ion eali y. The
ailu e o pass such a obus bill p olongs he "legal oid" 17 and lea es millions o clima e-displaced indi iduals wi hou a clea amewo k o igh s
and suppo , unde sco ing he u gen need o poli ical a en ion and commi mean o ins i u ionalize hese i al p o ec ions.
3.3. Go e nmen and Join P og ams: FAO-IOM Join P og amme, MGNREGS
While a comp ehensi e na ional policy o clima e mig an s emains elusi e, a ious go e nmen p og ams and join ini ia i es a e ac i e in add essing
clima e change impac s and mig a ion in India.
The FAO-In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion (IOM) Join P og amme aims o enhance he esilience o u al households o clima e change,
he eby alle ia ing he p essu e o mig a e and imp o ing mig a ion ou comes.18 Launched in Janua y 2024, his p og am ocuses on h ee main
componen s:
1. S eng hening clima e esilience: Imp o ing capaci y o adop clima e-adap i e ag icul u al p ac ices and es ablishing g een ag ibusinesses.18
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2. Empowe ing in o med decisions: Imp o ing access o in o ma ion on mig a ion and clima e-sma ag icul u e h ough mobile esou ce cen e s
and communi y-led knowledge sha ing.18
3. Fos e ing policy cohe ence: Enhancing he capaci y o s a e and local s akeholde s o add ess he nexus o clima e change, u al li elihoods,
and human mobili y.18 This p og am speci ically a ge s ma ginalized g oups, including women, you h, lowe cas es, and smallholde a me s,
who a e disp opo iona ely a ec ed.18
The Maha ma Gandhi Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Scheme (MGNREGS) is also ecognized o i s po en ial ole in add essing clima e
mig a ion. The p oposed Clima e Mig an s Bill, o ins ance, sugges s using MGNREGS o in as uc u e de elopmen in clima e ho spo s o p e en
o educe he speed o clima e e en s, and o p o iding empo a y shel e s and acili a ing employmen du ing ehabili a ion.12 Howe e , MGNREGS
has aced no able obs acles, including low wage a es, delayed paymen s, sys em leakages, and adminis a i e delays in decla ing d ough .15
The Wo ld Bank ac i ely suppo s India's e o s o build clima e esilience ac oss a ious sec o s. This includes suppo ing he shi o g eene
anspo a ion, conse ing biodi e si y and seques e ing ca bon, helping smallholde a me s adap o clima e change, and suppo ing he A al Bhujal
Yojana o communi y-led g oundwa e managemen .7The Wo ld Bank also assis s in es o ing coas al ecosys ems by plan ing mang o es and
suppo s he de elopmen o low-ca bon ene gy, including g een hyd ogen, and accele a ing clima e inance mobiliza ion.7
These ini ia i es, while aluable, o en ocus on alle ia ing he p essu e o mig a e o imp o ing mig a ion ou comes, a he han p o iding
comp ehensi e p o ec ion and ehabili a ion o al eady displaced popula ions. The acknowledged obs acles in p og ams like MGNREGS sugges ha
e en well-in en ioned p og ams can be ine ec i e in p ac ice, pa icula ly o ulne able popula ions who equi e immedia e and eliable suppo . This
indica es ha e ec i e policy equi es no jus he exis ence o p og ams bu also hei obus , equi able, and e icien implemen a ion, and a mo e
in eg a ed design ha conside s he ull spec um o clima e mobili y, om p e en ion o pos -displacemen ehabili a ion and e-in eg a ion.
3.4. G ass oo s Adap a ion and Communi y-Led Ini ia i es
Amids he challenges a he na ional policy le el, g ass oo s adap a ion s a egies and communi y-led ini ia i es a e eme ging as c i ical componen s in
building clima e esilience and educing mig a ion in u al India. Panchaya i Raj Ins i u ions (PRIs), as decen alized bodies o local sel -go e nance,
a e empowe ed o design and implemen illage-le el de elopmen plans.20 The G am Panchaya De elopmen Plan (GPDP) o e s a powe ul
oppo uni y o build clima e esilience by inco po a ing ac i i ies such as wa e shed managemen , sus ainable ag icul u e, and enewable ene gy
in eg a ion.20
These communi y-d i en p ojec s le e age local knowledge o iden i y clima e isks and design con ex -speci ic solu ions. Fo example, he Kumha a
panchaya has s a egically included wa e conse a ion and soil managemen ac i i ies like con ou enching and a m ponds, leading o signi ican
wa e able echa ge and educed mig a ion.20 In Mandla, in eg a ing clima e isk assessmen s in o GPDPs wi h echnical suppo om NGOs has
gene a ed new employmen oppo uni ies unde cen al schemes, he eby signi ican ly educing mig a ion and ulne abili y.20
Women play a pa icula ly impo an ole in hese g ass oo s mo emen s, o en aking leade ship oles in local sel -go e nmen sys ems and eco-
iendly en u es.16 Ini ia i es like he "S a Village Awa ds" ecognize illages whe e communi ies collabo a e o enhance hei en i onmen ,
p omo ing p ac ices such as plan ing ees o e e y gi l child bo n and implemen ing wa e conse a ion sys ems.16 The "Women Fa me s o Ea h"
ini ia i e aims o equip i s -gene a ion women a me s wi h manage ial skills o enhance a m p o i abili y and b eak cycles o po e y, di ec ly
add essing he " eminiza ion o ag icul u e" whe e women inc easingly manage a ms due o male mig a ion.16 Examples include women-led eco-
ou ism en u es in coas al Maha ash a, con e sion o lake eeds in o saleable baske s in Manipu , and women leading wa e conse a ion ini ia i es in
U a akhand.16 Campaigns p omo ing heal hy enewable ene gy sou ces also empowe u al women o imp o e hei well-being while educing
en i onmen al ha m.16
The de ailed examples o hese g ass oo s ini ia i es demons a e ha local communi ies possess signi ican agency and adi ional knowledge o
clima e adap a ion. The success o GPDPs in educing mig a ion highligh s ha localized, pa icipa o y app oaches can be highly e ec i e in building
esilience in place. The s ong emphasis on women's pi o al ole and leade ship in a ious eco- iendly en u es e eals a c i ical, o en o e looked,
esou ce o clima e ac ion. This sugges s ha na ional policies should no be exclusi ely op-down bu should ac i ely empowe and in eg a e hese
g ass oo s e o s, p o iding echnical and inancial suppo . In es ing in women's leade ship and capaci y building a he local le el is no jus an
equi y issue bu a s a egic impe a i e o e ec i e clima e adap a ion and sus ainable de elopmen , di ec ly coun e ing he inc eased bu den on women
and s eng hening o e all communi y esilience.
4. Global Policy Responses and In e na ional F amewo ks
4.1. The In e na ional Legal Vacuum: Absence o a Comp ehensi e F amewo k
A signi ican challenge in add essing clima e mig a ion globally is he absence o a comp ehensi e in e na ional legal amewo k. No cu en
in e na ional law p o ides a uni e sally accep ed de ini ion o clima e mig an s o a dedica ed legal s a us o indi iduals displaced by clima e change.2
The 1951 Re ugee Con en ion, he co ne s one o in e na ional e ugee law, does no ecognize clima e-induced displacemen , as i s de ini ion o a
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e ugee is limi ed o hose leeing pe secu ion.3This means ha indi iduals compelled o mo e due o en i onmen al ac o s all ou side he scope o
adi ional e ugee p o ec ion.2
This legal acuum has p o ound human cos s. Clima e mig an s a e le in a p eca ious posi ion, o en wi hou ecognized ci izenship o se lemen
igh s, na iga ing bu eauc a ic unce ain ies ha lead o hei cha ac e iza ion as " o go en ic ims".15 This implies ha he in e na ional communi y is
ailing o uphold undamen al human igh s o a apidly g owing popula ion, as hese indi iduals lack o mal p o ec ion mechanisms and access o
essen ial se ices.15 Many schola s and ad oca es a gue o he c ea ion o a sepa a e legal s a us ou side he exis ing e ugee de ini ion o add ess he
unique challenges aced by clima e-induced mig an s, emphasizing he need o in e na ional coope a ion o es ablish such a comp ehensi e
amewo k.2
4.2. Role o In e na ional O ganiza ions: IOM and UNHCR
Despi e he in e na ional legal acuum, key in e na ional o ganiza ions like he In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion (IOM) and he Uni ed Na ions
High Commissione o Re ugees (UNHCR) a e ac i ely engaged in add essing clima e mobili y. Thei e o s, while c ucial, ope a e wi hin he
cons ain s o he exis ing in e na ional legal amewo k.
IOM has been a leading con ening ac o on clima e mobili y o yea s, implemen ing ex ensi e ope a ional, esea ch, policy, and ad ocacy e o s
ac oss six con inen s.4In 2015, IOM became he i s UN agency o es ablish a global eam dedica ed o his issue, o malizing i s commi men o
de eloping solu ions o people on he mo e due o clima e change.4In 2021, IOM launched a 10-yea Ins i u ional S a egy on Mig a ion, En i onmen
and Clima e Change 2021–2030, suppo ed by he Clima e Mobili y Road Map, which aims o ampli y he oices o a ec ed popula ions, p o ec hei
igh s, and espec hei eedom o choose whe he o s ay o mig a e.4
IOM's objec i es in managing clima e mig a ion a e holis ic:
●Finding solu ions o people o s ay: Wo king o p e en o ced mig a ion om en i onmen al ac o s.4
●Finding solu ions o people on he mo e: P o iding assis ance and p o ec ion o a ec ed popula ions when o ced mig a ion occu s.4
●Finding solu ions o people o mo e: Facili a ing mig a ion as a clima e change adap a ion s a egy and enhancing communi y esilience.4
IOM's p io i y a eas include mig a ion policy de elopmen , da a and knowledge gene a ion, ope a ional esponses (disas e esponse, isk educ ion,
egula mig a ion pa hways), and con ening s akeholde s o in eg a e mig a ion in o clima e agendas.4IOM ac i ely ad oca es o he inclusion o
human mobili y conside a ions in clima e change policies and inancing, p omo ing amewo ks like he Kampala Decla a ion on Mig a ion,
En i onmen and Clima e Change.21 In India, IOM has a join ini ia i e wi h FAO o ackle clima e change-induced mig a ion and hos s sessions on
you h-led clima e adap a ion h ough mig a ion.19
UNHCR iews clima e change as a de ining c isis, wi h disas e displacemen as one o i s mos de as a ing consequences.3UNHCR p o ides
p o ec ion and assis ance o e ugees, in e nally displaced people (IDPs), and s a eless indi iduals who a e o en on he on lines o he clima e
eme gency, esiding in clima e "ho spo s" wi h limi ed adap i e esou ces.3UNHCR's ole includes legal ad ice, guidance, and suppo o de eloping
enhanced p o ec ion o hose displaced by disas e s and clima e change.3They aim o imp o e he p edic abili y o hei engagemen o an icipa e and
p epa e o clima e- ela ed eme gencies, educe en i onmen al deg ada ion in displacemen se ings, and enhance he esilience o displaced people and
hos communi ies.3
UNHCR ac i ely pa icipa es in global policy p ocesses, aising awa eness abou clima e change as a d i e o displacemen and he need o p o ec ion.
Since 2015, UNHCR has been a s anding in i ee o he Pla o m on Disas e Displacemen (PDD) and a membe o i s ad iso y g oup, s eng hening
collabo a ion wi h s a es and pa ne s like IOM, UNDRR, UNFCCC, WMO, and UNDP.3Howe e , UNHCR explici ly does no endo se he e m
"clima e e ugee" due o he legal de ini ion o a e ugee based on pe secu ion.3
The p oac i e bu limi ed ole o hese in e na ional o ganiza ions highligh s a c i ical poin : while hey a e doing hei u mos o p o ide assis ance,
de elop s a egies, and ad oca e o policy change, hey canno unila e ally c ea e he necessa y legal p o ec ions. Thei wo k unde sco es he u gen
need o poli ical will om membe s a es o es ablish new, binding in e na ional ins umen s ha complemen hei ope a ional e o s, ensu ing
comp ehensi e p o ec ion o clima e-displaced popula ions.
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Table 4: Roles and Ini ia i es o Key In e na ional O ganiza ions in Clima e Mobili y
O ganiza ion
Manda e/Focus
Key
S a egies/Objec i es
Policy
Ad ocacy/Engage
men
Te minology
S ance
India-Speci ic
Ini ia i es
IOM
Lead con ening
ac o on clima e
mobili y;
ope a ional and
policy e o s
globally.
10-yea Ins i u ional
S a egy on Mig a ion,
En i onmen and
Clima e Change 2021–
2030; Clima e Mobili y
Road Map. Objec i es:
Solu ions o people o
s ay, Solu ions o
people on he mo e,
Solu ions o people o
mo e.
Ad oca es
in eg a ion o human
mobili y in o clima e
agendas; p omo es
sus ainable
inancing o loss
and damage;
engages in
in e na ional
discussions (e.g.,
Kampala
Decla a ion, GCM).
Uses "clima e
mobili y" b oadly.
Join Ini ia i e wi h
FAO o Tackle
Clima e Change-
induced Mig a ion;
You h-Led Clima e
Adap a ion Th ough
Mig a ion sessions.
UNHCR
P o ec ion and
assis ance o
e ugees, IDPs, and
s a eless people,
especially in clima e
ho spo s.
Imp o e p edic abili y o
engagemen o
eme gencies; educe
en i onmen al
deg ada ion in
displacemen se ings;
enhance esilience o
displaced people and
hos communi ies;
Ope a ional S a egy o
Clima e Resilience and
En i onmen al
Sus ainabili y 2022-
2025.
Raises awa eness
abou clima e
change as a d i e o
displacemen ;
s anding in i ee o
Pla o m on Disas e
Displacemen
(PDD); p o ides
legal ad ice on
e ugee law in
clima e con ex ;
ad oca es o
inclusion o
displaced people in
clima e ac ion
policies (UNFCCC,
Pa is Ag eemen ).
Explici ly does no
endo se "clima e
e ugee"; p e e s
"pe sons displaced
in he con ex o
disas e s and clima e
change."
P o ides p o ec ion
and assis ance o
e ugees and IDPs in
India unde i s
gene al manda e.
4.3. Global Policy Dialogues and Ins umen s: UNFCCC, GCM, PDD
Clima e mobili y is inc easingly on he in e na ional agenda, add essed h ough a ious global policy dialogues and ins umen s, hough o en in a
agmen ed manne .
The Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change (UNFCCC), es ablished in 1994, ecognized he p oblem o clima e change and se
he ul ima e objec i e o s abilizing g eenhouse gas concen a ions.22 I di ec s unds o de eloping coun ies o clima e change ac i i ies and manda es
Pape ing on emissions and adap a ion e o s.22 While he UNFCCC p ima ily ocuses on mi iga ion and adap a ion, i p o ides he o e a ching
amewo k wi hin which discussions on clima e-induced displacemen occu . Displacemen is now ecognized as bo h a people-cen e ed o m o "loss
and damage" esul ing om clima e change and a consequence o loss and damage ha disp opo iona ely a ec s ulne able coun ies and
communi ies.5The Fund o Responding o Loss and Damage is a c ucial mechanism in his ega d.1
The Global Compac o Mig a ion (GCM), a i med in Decembe 2018, di ec ly acknowledges ha "clima e, en i onmen al deg ada ion and
disas e s inc easingly in e ac wi h he d i e s o e ugee mo emen s".3IOM's wo k on clima e mobili y is explici ly linked o se e al GCM objec i es,
pa icula ly hose ela ed o add essing ad e se d i e s o mig a ion, acili a ing egula pa hways, and imp o ing coope a ion in he con ex o disas e s
and clima e change.4
The Pla o m on Disas e Displacemen (PDD) is a s a e-led ini ia i e ha suppo s he implemen a ion o he Nansen Ini ia i e P o ec ion Agenda on
c oss-bo de disas e displacemen , he Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion, and he Pa is Ag eemen .3UNHCR, as a s anding in i ee and
ad iso y g oup membe o he PDD, has s eng hened i s collabo a ion wi h s a es and pa ne s o add ess hese challenges, ocusing on policy
cohe ence, knowledge sha ing, awa eness- aising, and ope a ional suppo .3
The exis ence o hese a ious global policy dialogues and ins umen s indica es g owing in e na ional ecogni ion o clima e mobili y. The UNFCCC
add esses he oo cause h ough GHG s abiliza ion and inance, while he GCM and PDD acknowledge clima e as a d i e and wo k owa ds speci ic
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p o ec ion mechanisms. Howe e , hese a e la gely non-binding amewo ks o pla o ms o discussion, no comp ehensi e legal ins umen s ha
p o ide legally obus p o ec ion o clima e mig an s. This implies ha while he e is g owing concep ual ecogni ion and some inc emen al p og ess,
he global esponse is s ill cha ac e ized by agmen ed e o s a he han a uni ied, legally binding amewo k, lea ing signi ican gaps in
accoun abili y and p o ec ion.
4.4. Pe spec i es om In e na ional Financial Ins i u ions: Wo ld Bank's G oundswell Pape
In e na ional inancial ins i u ions, pa icula ly he Wo ld Bank, ha e also con ibu ed signi ican ly o he unde s anding and policy discou se on
clima e mig a ion. The Wo ld Bank's G oundswell Pape (2018) shi s he pe spec i e om a pu ely humani a ian c isis o an economic impe a i e,
aming clima e mig a ion as a de elopmen challenge ha equi es s a egic in es men .13
The Pape p ojec s ha by 2050, wi hou conc e e clima e and de elopmen ac ion, o e 40 million people in Sou h Asia could be o ced o mo e
wi hin hei own coun ies due o he slow-onse impac s o clima e change, p ima ily lowe wa e a ailabili y, c op p oduc i i y, ising sea le els, and
s o m su ges.13 I emphasizes ha clima e mig an s could inc ease by a ac o o six be ween 2020 and 2050.13 Howe e , he Pape also demons a es
ha conce ed ac ion on clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion, coupled wi h inclusi e de elopmen policies, could subs an ially educe hese
numbe s.13
The G oundswell Pape p oposes ou majo policy ecommenda ions o manage he eali y o clima e mig a ion:
1. Cu g eenhouse gases now: Rapid global emission educ ions a e c ucial o lessen clima e p essu e on li elihoods.13
2. Pu sue inclusi e and clima e- esilien de elopmen policies: An icipa o y de elopmen policies, economic ansi ion o less clima e-
sensi i e sec o s, al e na i e job oppo uni ies, and in es men in human capi al a e needed.13
3. Embed clima e mig a ion in de elopmen planning: In eg a e clima e mig a ion ac oss i s en i e li e cycle (be o e, du ing, and a e
mo ing) h ough s a egies like "adap in place" (clima e-sma in as uc u e, di e si ying income), "enable mobili y" ( acili a ing sa e,
digni ied mig a ion), and "a e mig a ion" (p epa ing sending and ecei ing a eas wi h li elihoods, in as uc u e, and inclusion
sys ems).13
4. In es now o imp o e unde s anding o in e nal clima e mig a ion: Mo e in es men in da a collec ion, moni o ing, and
con ex ualiza ion a egional and local le els is essen ial.13
This pe spec i e om he Wo ld Bank highligh s ha add essing clima e mig a ion is no me ely abou managing a c isis bu abou os e ing
sus ainable economic g ow h and p e en ing u u e economic losses. The nuanced app oach o "adap in place," "enable mobili y," and "a e
mig a ion" indica es a ecogni ion ha mig a ion can be a legi ima e adap a ion s a egy, no jus a ailu e o adap a ion. This implies ha inancial
ins i u ions play a c ucial ole in shaping na ional policies by p o iding no jus unding bu also e idence-based amewo ks ha in eg a e clima e
mobili y in o b oade economic and de elopmen agendas, emphasizing he economic impe a i e o p oac i e clima e- esilien de elopmen .
5. Conclusions and Recommenda ions
The analysis e eals ha clima e mig a ion in India is an escala ing c isis d i en by a complex in e play o sudden-onse and slow-onse clima ic e en s,
exace ba ed by deep-sea ed geog aphical ulne abili ies and socioeconomic inequali ies. Millions a e al eady displaced annually, wi h p ojec ions
indica ing ens o millions mo e by 2050. This phenomenon is no me ely a logis ical challenge bu a p o ound human igh s c isis, disp opo iona ely
a ec ing women, you h, and ma ginalized communi ies, and leading o se e e impac s on li elihoods, heal h, educa ion, and sa e y.
Despi e he g owing scale o his challenge, India's na ional policy amewo k emains agmen ed and inadequa e, lacking a dedica ed legal ca ego y o
comp ehensi e policy o clima e mig an s. While legisla i e e o s like he Clima e Mig an s (P o ec ion and Rehabili a ion) Bill, 2022, demons a e a
ecogni ion o he p oblem and p opose obus solu ions, hei s alled p og ess in pa liamen highligh s a signi ican gap be ween legisla i e in en and
poli ical will. Exis ing go e nmen p og ams and join ini ia i es, while con ibu ing o esilience, o en ocus on p e en ion o imp o ing mig a ion
ou comes a he han comp ehensi e p o ec ion o he al eady displaced. Con e sely, g ass oo s and communi y-led ini ia i es, pa icula ly hose led
by women, show immense po en ial o localized adap a ion and esilience building, unde sco ing he impo ance o empowe ing local ac o s.
Globally, a comp ehensi e in e na ional legal amewo k o clima e mig an s is conspicuously absen , lea ing millions in a legal acuum wi hou
o mal p o ec ion. While in e na ional o ganiza ions like IOM and UNHCR a e p oac i e in p o iding assis ance, de eloping s a egies, and ad oca ing
o policy in eg a ion, hei e o s a e cons ained by he limi a ions o exis ing in e na ional law. Global policy dialogues and ins umen s, such as he
UNFCCC, GCM, and PDD, ha e b ough clima e mobili y on o he in e na ional agenda and os e ed inc emen al p og ess, bu hey la gely emain
non-binding and agmen ed. The Wo ld Bank's pe spec i e unde sco es he economic impe a i e o add essing clima e mig a ion, aming i as a
de elopmen challenge ha equi es s a egic in es men and in eg a ion in o b oade economic planning.
Based on his comp ehensi e e iew, he ollowing ecommenda ions a e pu o h o os e a mo e e ec i e, igh s-based, and in eg a ed esponse o
clima e mig a ion in India and globally:
