OPEN LETTER
Blockchain-enabled business model inno a ion in sec o -
coupled ene gy communi ies
[ e sion 1; pee e iew: 2 app o ed wi h ese a ions, 1 no app o ed]
Zia Lenna d
R2M Solu ion SAS, Roque o -les-Pins, F ance
Fi s published: 19 Jun 2025, 5:168
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20632.1
La es published: 10 Oc 2025, 5:168
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20632.2
1
Abs ac
This pape analyses business model inno a ion and digi al pla o m
alignmen —including blockchain-enabled emune a ion and
au oma ed se lemen —in sec o -coupled ene gy communi ies.
D awing on six di e se pilo deploymen s, we explo e how modula
digi al pla o ms and blockchain echnologies can suppo pee - o-
pee ading, lexibili y se ices, and in eg a ion ac oss elec ici y,
hea ing, and mobili y sec o s. The me hodology combines sys ema ic
alue p oposi ion mapping wi h echnical and ma ke analysis o
assess eal-wo ld use needs, ope a ional challenges, and egula o y
ba ie s. Findings show ha blockchain and digi alisa ion can imp o e
anspa ency and us in communi y ene gy ma ke s, bu e ec i e
scaling equi es egula o y adap a ion, lexible business models, and
sus ained use engagemen . The esul s p o ide ac ionable insigh s
o bo h p ac i ione s and policymake s aiming o ad ance digi al
inno a ion and business model alignmen in he e ol ing landscape o
ene gy communi ies.
Keywo ds
ene gy communi ies, business model inno a ion, digi al pla o ms,
blockchain, au oma ed emune a ion, pee - o-pee ading, sec o
coupling, lexibili y se ices, alue p oposi ion, decen alisa ion
This a icle is included in he Ho izon Eu ope
ga eway.
Open Pee Re iew
App o al S a us
123
e sion 2
( e ision)
10 Oc 2025
iew iew
e sion 1
19 Jun 2025 iew iew iew
Tiago Soa es , Cen e o Powe and
Ene gy Sys ems, INESC TEC, Po o, Po ugal
1.
Ángel Pa edes , Uni e sidad de Málaga,
Málaga, Spain
Uni e sidad de Se illa Escuela Tecnica
Supe io de Ingenie ia de Se illa, Se ille,
Spain
2.
Assun a Di Vaio , Uni e si y o Naples
“Pa henope”, Naples, I aly
3.
Any epo s and esponses o commen s on he
a icle can be ound a he end o he a icle.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
Page 1 o 20
Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168 Las upda ed: 16 NOV 2025
Co esponding au ho : Zia Lenna d ([email p o ec ed])
Au ho oles: Lenna d Z: W i ing – O iginal D a P epa a ion
Compe ing in e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
G an in o ma ion: This p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch and inno a ion p og amme
unde g an ag eemen 101075660 (FEDECOM) FEDE a ed -sys em o sys ems- app oach o lexible and in e ope able ene gy
COMmuni ies.
The unde s had no ole in s udy design, da a collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
Copy igh : © 2025 Lenna d Z. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License,
which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
How o ci e his a icle: Lenna d Z. Blockchain-enabled business model inno a ion in sec o -coupled ene gy communi ies
[ e sion 1; pee e iew: 2 app o ed wi h ese a ions, 1 no app o ed] Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20632.1
Fi s published: 19 Jun 2025, 5:168 h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20632.1
Open Resea ch Eu ope
Page 2 o 20
Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168 Las upda ed: 16 NOV 2025
In oduc ion
The apid ans o ma ion o Eu ope’s ene gy landscape is plac-
ing ene gy communi ies a he o e on o e o s o achie e
deca bonisa ion, ci izen pa icipa ion, and local alue c ea ion.
These communi ies, b inging oge he households, municipali ies,
and businesses, a e uniquely posi ioned o ha ness dis ibu ed
esou ces and suppo he in eg a ion o elec ici y, hea ing,
mobili y, and eme ging echnologies. Howe e , he ealisa ion
o his po en ial depends no only on inno a i e business mod-
els, bu also on he deploymen o digi al pla o ms ha ena-
ble e icien , anspa en , and au oma ed coo dina ion among
di e se ac o s.
Recen de elopmen s in blockchain and digi al pla o m ech-
nologies ha e opened new pa hways o communi y-d i en
ene gy inno a ion. By enabling pee - o-pee ading, au o-
ma ed se lemen , and secu e alue lows, hese ools can help
o e come long-s anding ba ie s ela ed o us , da a man-
agemen , and mul i-ac o coo dina ion. A he same ime, he
p ocess o aligning business models wi h new digi al capa-
bili ies is inhe en ly i e a i e, shaped by local needs, echnical
cons ain s, and e ol ing egula o y amewo ks.
This pape add esses hese challenges by examining how busi-
ness model inno a ion and blockchain-enabled digi al pla o ms
in e ac o suppo obus , sec o -coupled ene gy communi ies.
D awing on lessons om six FEDECOM pilo deploymen s,
we analyse he echnical, o ganisa ional, and egula o y ac o s
shaping he e olu ion o anspa en , scalable communi y busi-
ness models in p ac ice. In doing so, we aim o p o ide a oun-
da ion o u he esea ch and p ac ical ac ion o ad ance he
nex gene a ion o digi al, sec o -coupled ene gy communi ies.
S a e o he a and concep ual ounda ions
Business models o ene gy communi ies
The business model landscape o ene gy communi ies is apidly
e ol ing, wi h ecen li e a u e highligh ing bo h he p omise
and agmen a ion o cu en app oaches. Ene gy communi ies
a e eme ging as key playe s in he e ol ing ene gy landscape,
os e ing ci izen pa icipa ion and d i ing he ansi ion owa ds
sus ainable ene gy sys ems. Business models a e c ucial o he
success and sus ainabili y o hese communi ies, ensu ing ha
bene i s and cos s a e dis ibu ed equi ably and ha local knowl-
edge is le e aged. The ise o pee - o-pee (P2P), communi y
sel -consump ion, and ansac i e ene gy models e lec s new
business model con igu a ions o local ene gy ading among
a ious s akeholde s.
Blockchain echnology in sec o -coupled ene gy
communi ies
Blockchain echnology is inc easingly ecognized o i s po en-
ial o e olu ionize he ene gy sec o by enabling new business
models, os e ing anspa ency, and suppo ing inno a ion1–3.
I s co e a ibu es—decen aliza ion, immu abili y, and au oma-
ion h ough sma con ac s—make i pa icula ly well sui ed o
P2P ene gy ading, aceable ansac ions, and he in eg a ion
o sec o -coupled se ices such as elec ici y, hea ing, cooling,
and mobili y4–7. Blockchain suppo s local ene gy ma ke s, ena-
bles di ec ading among p osume s, and unde pins new business
models o ene gy communi ies4,6.
Se e al sys ema ic e iews p o ide o e iews o blockchain’s
applica ion in ene gy, emphasizing bo h he echnology’s
p omise and i s cu en limi s1,5,8. Case s udies and concep ual
amewo ks u he highligh he ways blockchain can econ-
igu e ansac ion s uc u es, go e nance, and alue lows4,9,10.
Blockchain app oaches a e iewed as highly ele an o P2P
ene gy ading and ansac i e ene gy models, whe e us , decen-
alised e i ica ion, and au oma ed emune a ion a e cen al
o scalable, inclusi e pa icipa ion11,12.
Howe e , he e a e also conce ns ha , wi hou ca e ul design,
such models may isk pe pe ua ing exis ing inequali ies. Reis
e al. (2021) o e a comp ehensi e e iew o ene gy commu-
ni y business models, iden i ying a di e si y o a angemen s
bu no ing a lack o sys ema isa ion and ma u i y ac oss he
sec o 13. Se e al ecen sys ema ic e iews ha e mapped he
complexi ies and di e si y o ene gy communi y business mod-
els, ocusing on P2P ading, sec o -coupling, and he mic o-
economic dynamics among ac o s14–19. These s udies highligh
ha while mac oeconomic and policy amewo ks a e well
explo ed, he e is a need o mo e esea ch on mic o-le el incen-
i es, e enue s eams, and mechanisms o sus ained ci izen
engagemen .
Ma u e al. (2024) simila ly s ess ha while sec o -coupled
and enewable-based ene gy communi ies can deli e subs an-
ial en i onmen al and economic bene i s, p ac ical deploymen
is hinde ed by echnology in eg a ion, egula o y unce ain y, and
limi ed business case de elopmen 20. Recen compa a i e e iews
u he unde sco e he di e si y o ene gy communi y busi-
ness models and he e olu ion o a angemen s ac oss he EU,
highligh ing bo h he p oli e a ion o collec i e sel -consump ion,
pee - o-pee ading, and agg ega ion schemes, and he a ie y
o local adap a ions21–23.
Regula o y and ope a ional challenges a e well documen ed.
Lowi zsch e al. (2020) and Inês e al. (2020) poin o he
he e ogenei y o go e nance models and he slow pace o
legal ha monisa ion unde EU amewo ks such as RED II24,25.
Ramsebne e al. (2021) and ETIP SNET (2021) highligh he
complexi y o sec o coupling—in eg a ing elec ici y, hea -
ing, mobili y, and hyd ogen sys ems—while s essing he need
o holis ic “sys em-o -sys ems” app oaches ha go beyond
single- echnology pilo s26,27. E ka pidis e al. (2022) and he
EN-TRACK p ojec (2019) iden i y gaps in KPI de ini ion and
alida ion28,29, while Mohammadi (2023) and Košnjek e al.
(2025) highligh he b oad ange o ex e nali ies, ac o di e -
si y, and business model isk ac o s ha mus be conside ed
o success ul eplica ion o ene gy communi y ini ia i es30,31.
Communi y-owne ship and go e nance inno a ions we e co -
e ed by Uni e sal Sma Ene gy F amewo k (USEF) in 2019
and In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency (IRENA) in 2020,
who emphasised he impo ance o local pa icipa ion, isk
sha ing, and lexibili y as cen al o obus alue p oposi ion
de elopmen 32,33.
Digi alisa ion and pla o misa ion a e inc easingly seen as neces-
sa y o ene gy communi y scale-up, pa icula ly h ough enabling
alue co-c ea ion, au oma ed ope a ions, and pe o mance-based
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emune a ion. Howe e , ecen p ojec e idence no es pe -
sis en pain poin s, including agmen ed asse managemen ,
slow digi al up ake, lack o us ed da a-sha ing amewo ks,
and limi ed op ions o anspa en e enue dis ibu ion34.
The FEDECOM alue p oposi ion analysis e eals ha use
a che ypes— anging om dis ic sys em coo dina o s o
e-mobili y manage s— ace unique jobs, pains, and gains ha a e
no ully add essed by legacy business models o gene ic dig-
i al solu ions. The FLEXCoop p ojec in 2020 demons a ed
how digi al pla o ms and ma ke places can acili a e local
lexibili y ading, in oduce new con ac ual and isk-sha ing
mechanisms, and deli e addi ional alue o bo h p osume s and
agg ega o s35.
Agains his backd op, blockchain and au oma ed emune a-
ion mechanisms ha e gained signi ican esea ch a en ion as
po en ial enable s o us , anspa ency, and scalable alue lows
wi hin local ene gy ma ke s36,37. In he con ex o ene gy com-
muni ies, blockchain can au oma e P2P ansac ions, en o ce
se lemen logic based on KPIs, and acili a e mul i-ac o
coo dina ion. Ye , mos academic and applied p ojec s emain
a p oo -o -concep s age, wi h ew documen ed cases o ope a-
ional in eg a ion and business model impac a scale. None he-
less, ba ie s o scale—including in e ope abili y, egula o y
agmen a ion, and cla i y o alue s eam alloca ion— emain,
as consis en ly highligh ed in ecen academic and indus y
s udies3,22,35.
Challenges, ba ie s, and esea ch di ec ions
Despi e i s p omise, blockchain adop ion in sec o -coupled ene gy
communi ies aces subs an ial challenges. Regula o y unce -
ain y, echnological imma u i y, scalabili y conce ns, and da a
p i acy a e well documen ed as p ima y ba ie s38–40. Ins i u ional
ine ia and limi ed awa eness can slow adop ion, while he need
o in e ope abili y and s anda diza ion emains acu e4,10.
S ill, he li e a u e highligh s signi ican bene i s: inc eased e i-
ciency h ough au oma ion41, sus ainabili y ia local enewables42,
imp o ed esilience43, and g ea e consume empowe men 4.
Fu u e esea ch should ocus on scalable and secu e pla o m
design, business model inno a ion, socio-economic assessmen ,
and p og ess owa d echnical in e ope abili y6,44.
The p esen s udy builds on hese insigh s, combining a sys-
ema ic alue p oposi ion mapping ac oss six ene gy commu-
ni y use cases wi h echnical and ma ke analysis om public
FEDECOM deli e ables. The goal is o demons a e how
digi al business model inno a ion—in eg a ing blockchain-based
pla o ms and au oma ed emune a ion—can add ess eal-wo ld
use needs, o e come egula o y and ope a ional ba ie s, and
c ea e eplicable alue p oposi ions o sec o -coupled ene gy
communi ies.
Me hodology and analy ical app oach
This esea ch applies a mul i-s age, mixed-me hods app oach o
syn hesise cu en business model inno a ion and alue p opo-
si ion de elopmen o ene gy communi ies, d awing on bo h
pee - e iewed li e a u e and ecen Eu opean p ojec expe ience.
The analysis ocuses on six ep esen a i e ene gy communi y use
cases om he FEDECOM p ojec , selec ed o cap u e a di e -
si y o ma ke ac o s, echnological con ex s, and sec o -coupling
oppo uni ies.
Fi s , a quali a i e e iew o academic and g ey li e a u e was
pe o med o iden i y business model a che ypes, alue c ea-
ion mechanisms, and ecu ing challenges in he e olu ion o
ene gy communi ies11,12,14,21–23,45. Special a en ion was gi en o
sys ema ic e iews and EU p ojec epo s ha examine bo h
mac o- and mic o-economic ac o s, wi h a pa icula ocus
on P2P, collec i e sel -consump ion, and digi ally enabled
business models15–19.
Pe sonas and alue p oposi ion maps o he FEDECOM use
cases we e de eloped h ough p ojec wo kshops, and analysis
o deli e ables. The Value P oposi ion Can as amewo k46 was
used o s uc u e and isualise he ela ionships be ween use
jobs, pains, and gains, and he p oposed p oduc s, se ices, pain
elie e s, and gain c ea o s. The same s uc u ed app oach was
applied ac oss all six use cases, acili a ing a consis en basis
o compa ison and enabling i e a i e e inemen as s akeholde
eedback was inco po a ed.
Fo each pe sona, business model equi emen s we e mapped
o FEDECOM’s echnical ea u es—such as blockchain-enabled
ading, au oma ed emune a ion, anspa en ansac ion logs,
and secu e da a exchange—by c oss- e e encing p ojec deli -
e ables and pla o m documen a ion wi h use needs iden i ied
in he alue mapping. I e a i e co-c ea ion sessions wi h echni-
cal and ma ke expe s ensu ed alignmen be ween he business
model logic and he digi al pla o m design. These sessions
included egula eedback cycles du ing pilo deploymen , ena-
bling apid iden i ica ion and implemen a ion o necessa y
adjus men s in bo h business model logic and echnical pla o m
ea u es.
Finally, FEDECOM pilo deploymen and implemen a ion
epo s we e e iewed o e alua e he po en ial ope a ionalisa-
ion o business models and he abili y o digi al ea u es (e.g.,
sma con ac s, KPI-based se lemen ) o add ess p ac ical ba -
ie s and s akeholde expec a ions. This app oach ensu es ha
he me hodology is anspa en and ep oducible, p o iding a
empla e o compa able s udies in u u e ene gy communi y
p ojec s. Whe e a ailable, use eedback and obse ed ma ke
ou comes we e syn hesised o d aw lessons on business model
obus ness, scalabili y, and ans e abili y. This me hodologi-
cal in eg a ion enables a holis ic assessmen o how cu en he-
o y and FEDECOM echnical inno a ions in e ac o shape
he nex gene a ion o ene gy communi y business models.
FEDECOM business model inno a ion and pla o m
alignmen
The FEDECOM pilo s p o ide an e ol ing pe spec i e on how
lexible, in e ope able, and use -d i en ene gy communi ies can
be implemen ed in di e se eal-wo ld con ex s. Ra he han a
inished p oduc , FEDECOM’s app oach o business model inno-
a ion and digi al pla o m alignmen is an ongoing, i e a i e
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p ocess shaped by eedback om demons a ion si es, echnical
de elopmen cycles, and con inued s akeholde engagemen .
Each pilo use case illus a es he challenges and oppo uni-
ies inhe en in adap ing digi al pla o m ea u es and busi-
ness model logic o local equi emen s, legacy cons ain s, and
eme ging alue oppo uni ies. The di e si y o hese app oaches
is isualised in Figu e 1, which summa ises he main busi-
ness model con igu a ions and alue p oposi ions ac oss all six
demons a ion si es. Fo ins ance, in he U Be oa esiden ial
communi y in Spain (Figu e 1A), he in eg a ion o 37 kWp
o new pho o ol aics and 60 kWh o ba e y s o age, oge he
wi h imp o ed cascading con ols and he es ing o phase
change he mal s o age, has enabled U Be oa’s ope a o o
op imise a 50-dwelling dis ic hea ing ne wo k ha was p e-
iously elian on a 1.2 MW CHP engine and 6.8 MW o
na u al gas boile s. This ongoing p ocess has deli e ed highe
sel -consump ion, imp o ed cos sa ings, and p epa ed he com-
muni y o local ading and sec o coupling. The Bilbao Ci y
Hall case (Figu e 1B) shows how municipal po olio manage-
men and enewable in eg a ion a e being dynamically coo -
dina ed ac oss six public buildings and wo PV si es ( o aling
1044 kWp o gene a ion and 127 kWh o s o age). FEDECOM
enabled au oma ed moni o ing, eal- ime da a in eg a ion, and
imp o ed epo ing, acili a ing bo h in e nal op imisa ion and
eadiness o u u e local ene gy ading.
Simila ly, he Pue ollano G een Hyd ogen plan (Figu e 1C)
demons a es he in eg a ion o a 100 MW g een hyd ogen
plan , 100 MW o PV, and a 20 MWh ba e y, wi h FEDECOM
enabling op imal dispa ch be ween elec ici y and hyd ogen
p oduc ion. The pla o m suppo s g een c eden ial acking
and pa es he way o mul i-ma ke pa icipa ion, hough u -
he wo k on egula o y adap a ion and comme cial in eg a ion
is ongoing. The TMB hyd ogen s a ion pilo (Figu e 1D) high-
ligh s he accele a ion o ene gy ading o public anspo
hyd ogen in as uc u e, wi h he pla o m suppo ing ou
new dispense s, expanded high-p essu e s o age, and secu e
Figu e 1. FEDECOM pilo business models and alue p oposi ions, including asse upg ades and main bene i s, adap ed om
p ojec ac shee s (2024). (A) UC1: Spain – U Be oa Residen ial Communi y. (B) UC2: Spain – Bilbao Ci y Hall. (C) UC3: Spain – Pue ollano
G een Hyd ogen Plan . (D) UC4: Spain – TMB Hyd ogen S a ion. (E) UC5: Swi ze land – Hyd opowe Fede a ion. (F) UC6: Benelux –
C oss-coun y E-mobili y.
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links o a g een hyd ogen plan and PV. While FEDECOM has
p epa ed TMB o b oade ma ke in eg a ion, u he expan-
sion and egula o y adap a ion a e s ill being add essed. In
Swi ze land, he hyd opowe ede a ion pilo (Figu e 1E) coo di-
na ed h ee communi ies wi h o e 250 kWp o PV, new dis ic
ba e ies, and legacy hyd o asse s. FEDECOM enabled op i-
misa ion o sel -consump ion, ancilla y se ice p o ision, and
anspa ency in asse coo dina ion, bu also e ealed he need o
ongoing use aining and i e a i e business model adap a ion.
The Benelux c oss-coun y e-mobili y pilo (Figu e 1F)
linked PV-powe ed EV cha ging si es ac oss Belgium and he
Ne he lands, wi h in eg a ion o ba e y s o age, sma cha g-
ing, and dynamic con ol o enable local and c oss-bo de
elec ici y, lexibili y, and s o age ading. FEDECOM’s modu-
la pla o m p o ided echnical easibili y, while highligh ing
he need o new special pu pose ehicles and egula o y alignmen
o ull comme cial ollou .
Ac oss all use cases, alue p oposi ion mapping and business
model adap a ion emain i e a i e, shaped by eal- ime eed-
back and local use p io i ies. The pla o m’s abili y o suppo
anspa en accoun ing, sma con ac -based se lemen , and
lexible use oles has been ins umen al in enabling hese adap-
a ions, e en as egula o y i and ull in eg a ion wi h legacy
sys ems con inue o p esen challenges.
The di e si y o FEDECOM’s pilo si es is e lec ed no only in
hei business models bu also in he speci ic pla o m unc-
ionali ies and ma ke oles add essed by he p ojec . Table 1
summa ises he key FEDECOM ma ke o e s, he main s ake-
holde g oups a ge ed, and he use cases whe e each o e was
implemen ed o es ed.
As shown in Table 1, he pla o m enables local elec ici y and
lexibili y ma ke s, suppo s in e -communi y ene gy ading,
elec ici y s o age ading, and P2X (powe - o-x, e.g., hyd ogen)
ading. Each o e co esponds o di e en use g oups— anging
om eal es a e owne s, dis ic hea ing (DHC) ope a o s, and
la ge indus ial consume s o clus e s o enewable ene gy com-
muni ies and EV lee ope a o s. This mapping highligh s
he lexibili y o he pla o m o accommoda e a a ie y o
ading and alue c ea ion logics, ailo ed o he ope a ional
and ma ke eali ies o each pilo . Fo example, in Bilbao, eal-
ime moni o ing, au oma ed con ol, and enhanced anspa -
ency p o ided clea bene i s o municipal manage s, while in
U Be oa, cos sa ings and inc eased esilience we e obse ed
as key ou comes o esiden s. Ac oss all pilo s, anspa en
accoun ing, au oma ed se lemen , and lexibili y managemen
we e highly alued by bo h echnical ope a o s and end use s,
hough ull in eg a ion emains a wo k in p og ess in se e al
si es.
The mapping p ocess also highligh ed whe e blockchain-speci ic
ea u es—such as sma con ac se lemen and audi abili y—we e
c i ical o alue p oposi ion deli e y, pa icula ly in mul i-ac o ,
c oss-communi y, o sec o -coupled use cases.
FEDECOM’s echnical backbone, he G id Singula i y (GSY)
Dis ibu ed Ene gy Exchange (DEX) pla o m, is isualised in
Figu e 2. This modula blockchain-based a chi ec u e unde pins
secu e ading, pe o mance e i ica ion, and au oma ed emu-
ne a ion o all pilo s. The a chi ec u e enables o de ma ch-
ing, ade execu ion, KPI-d i en se lemen , and in eg a ion wi h
ex e nal analy ics o paymen p o ide s. Impo an ly, he pla -
o m’s lexibili y has allowed p ojec pa ne s o apidly es
new incen i e s uc u es, use pe mission schemes, and ma ke
logic con igu a ions in esponse o pilo eedback.
As pilo s p og ess, con inuous imp o emen is guided by lessons
lea ned om each demons a ion si e, echnical use eed-
back, and e ol ing egula o y en i onmen s. Fo example, he
BeNeLux C oss-coun y e-mobili y pilo (Use Case 6) unde wen
Table 1. Mapping o FEDECOM pla o m ma ke o e s o s akeholde g oups and use cases,
based on pilo ac shee s (2024).
FEDECOM o e s To Use cases
Local Elec ici y Ma ke Ene gy communi ies
Real es a e owne s
UC2, UC5, UC6
Local Flexibili y Ma ke Ene gy communi ies
Real es a e owne s
UC2, UC5, UC6
In e -ene gy communi y ene gy
ading
Clus e o ene gy communi ies
La ge indus ial ene gy consume s
UC1, UC2, UC3, UC4, UC5, UC6
Elec ici y s o age ading Ene gy communi ies
DHC ne wo k ope a o s
Real es a e owne s
Elec ic ehicle lee owne s
UC1, UC3, UC5, UC6
P2X ading Ene gy communi ies
Hyd ogen manu ac u e s
DHC ne wo k ope a o s
Hyd opowe companies
UC1, UC3, UC4, UC6
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Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168 Las upda ed: 16 NOV 2025
subs an ial adap a ion du ing he p ojec , and he esul s
desc ibed e lec bo h implemen ed ea u es and ongoing wo k.
The ac shee s highligh ongoing challenges: o example, use
aining and legacy in eg a ion in he Swiss ede a ion, egu-
la o y nego ia ion o c oss-bo de ading in BeNeLux, and
i e a i e echnical adap a ion in he hyd ogen and munici-
pal pilo s. The FEDECOM expe ience demons a es ha while
obus , modula digi al pla o ms and business model inno a ion
a e essen ial enable s, ue alignmen is achie ed h ough ongo-
ing co-design, lexible adap a ion, and sus ained s akeholde
pa ne ship.
Discussion and implica ions
The FEDECOM pilo expe iences ein o ce ha business
model inno a ion and digi al pla o m alignmen o ene gy
communi ies mus be unde s ood as adap i e, i e a i e, and
con ex -dependen p ocesses. The di e si y o ou comes ac oss
pilo s— om Spanish dis ic hea ing o Swiss hyd opowe o
c oss-bo de e-mobili y—demons a es ha bo h echnical and
o ganisa ional pa hways a e shaped by legacy in as uc u e,
egula o y en i onmen s, and e ol ing use needs.
One cen al lesson is ha co-design be ween pla o m de el-
ope s, echnical pa ne s, and local ac o s is essen ial. In se -
e al pilo s, such as U Be oa and Bilbao Ci y Hall, anspa en
eal- ime moni o ing and au oma ed se lemen c ea ed imme-
dia e alue, bu also su aced new equi emen s o use suppo
and in eg a ion wi h exis ing sys ems. Whe e echnical upg ades
enabled new lexibili y, s o age, o ading capabili ies, busi-
ness models we e adjus ed in pa allel—a p ocess o en equi ing
mul iple i e a ions o use aining and eedback.
The pilo ac shee s highligh ha echnological enablemen
alone does no gua an ee ope a ional o inancial success.
Fo ins ance, while he FEDECOM pla o m allowed he
Pue ollano G een Hyd ogen Plan and TMB Hyd ogen S a ion
o ial ad anced ene gy managemen and ma ke pa icipa ion,
he ac ual comme cial impac is s ill dependen on egula o y
app o al and business model ma u i y. Simila ly, in he
BeNeLux e-mobili y ede a ion, echnical easibili y o c oss-
bo de ene gy ading was demons a ed, bu ull implemen a ion
emains subjec o legal, ma ke , and o ganisa ional challenges.
Replica ion and scalabili y eme ged as bo h oppo uni y and
challenge. The Swiss ede a ion’s posi i e expe ience wi h lex-
ibili y sha ing and anspa en da a analy ics poin s o pa h-
ways o eplica ion elsewhe e bu also unde sco es he ongoing
need o s akeholde engagemen and adap a ion o local con-
ex . Ac oss all pilo s, eedback epea edly emphasised ha
he pla o m’s alue was maximised when cus omisa ion—o
business logic, use in e ace, and epo ing—was p io i ised.
A pe sis en ba ie is egula o y and ma ke alignmen . E en
wi h a lexible, modula pla o m, pilo s encoun e ed shi ing
equi emen s, unce ain emune a ion pa hways, and some imes
leng hy app o al p ocesses. These indings con i m ha digi al
Figu e 2. Sys em a chi ec u e o he FEDECOM GSY DEX pla o m, showing blockchain-based ma ke , emune a ion, analy ics,
and paymen in eg a ion. Adap ed om FEDECOM D6.1.
Page 7 o 20
Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168 Las upda ed: 16 NOV 2025
pla o m inno a ion mus p oceed in locks ep wi h policy ad o-
cacy and egula o y dialogue, no as an isola ed echnical
exe cise.
The FEDECOM expe ience also poin s o se e al o wa d-
looking implica ions. Fi s , open, modula pla o ms a e c u-
cial o enabling communi ies o expe imen wi h new oles and
business models as ma ke ules e ol e. Second, meaning ul
and ongoing s akeholde co-c ea ion—including eedback loops,
capaci y building, and anspa en communica ion—a e p e-
equisi es o sus ainable deploymen . Thi d, as communi y
ene gy g ows in scale and complexi y, con inuous imp o e-
men in bo h pla o m echnology and business models is neces-
sa y, in o med by eal-wo ld da a and eme ging bes p ac ices.
Fu u e wo k should also benchma k he scalabili y, ene gy
use, and use accep ance o blockchain-based pla o ms e sus
cen alised al e na i es in ope a ional se ings.
In summa y, FEDECOM’s pilo phase demons a es ha digi al
pla o m and business model inno a ion o ene gy communi-
ies is an ongoing, collabo a i e p ocess. The pla o m’s modu-
la i y and lexibili y allowed di e se communi ies o es , adap ,
and ad ance new solu ions, while also e ealing he cen al
impo ance o local engagemen and egula o y i . These
insigh s should in o m no only he nex phase o FEDECOM
bu also he wide communi y ene gy sec o as i mo es
owa d a mo e decen alised, digi al, and pa icipa o y u u e.
Conclusions and u u e di ec ions
This s udy demons a es ha inno a ion in ene gy commu-
ni y business models and digi al pla o m design—pa icula ly
hose le e aging blockchain-enabled a chi ec u es—is bo h
essen ial and inhe en ly i e a i e. The FEDECOM pilo s ac oss
Spain, Swi ze land, and Benelux show ha a modula , block-
chain-based pla o m can suppo anspa ency, au oma ion,
and secu e mul i-ac o alue lows o a wide ange o sec o -
coupled communi y models. Real-wo ld deploymen s con i med
ha echnical upg ades such as sma con ac -based se le-
men , audi abili y, and au oma ed emune a ion, when aligned
wi h clea business models and local needs, enable new o ms
o us , pa icipa ion, and ope a ional e iciency.
Howe e , he expe ience also unde sco es ha digi al pla -
o ms and blockchain a e no one-size- i s-all solu ions. Success
depends on ca e ul co-design wi h use s, obus echnical
in eg a ion, and ongoing adap a ion o egula o y and ma ke
changes. Achie ing obus and eplicable ene gy communi y
solu ions equi es a combina ion o digi al inno a ion, lex-
ible business model design, and con inuous engagemen wi h
s akeholde s a all le els.
Looking ahead, u u e wo k should u he benchma k he scal-
abili y, ene gy e iciency, and use accep ance o blockchain-
based e sus cen alised solu ions in ope a ional communi y
se ings. Con inued esea ch is also needed o ad ance in e op-
e abili y, suppo sec o -coupling, and enable in eg a ion wi h
hi d-pa y and ex e nal ma ke pla o ms. Mos c i ically, policy
and egula o y amewo ks mus keep pace wi h digi al inno-
a ion, ensu ing ha communi ies can bene i ully om he
anspa ency, au oma ion, and esilience ha hese pla o ms
o e .
In summa y, he FEDECOM pilo s con i m ha digi ally
enabled, blockchain-based pla o ms—when ma ched o
con ex -speci ic business models and implemen ed h ough
close collabo a ion—o e a iable pa h o wa d o sec o -
coupled, communi y-d i en ene gy ansi ions ac oss Eu ope.
E hics and consen
No e hics and consen we e equi ed.
Disclaime
The iews exp essed in his a icle a e hose o he au ho . Pub-
lica ion in Open Resea ch Eu ope does no imply endo semen
o he Eu opean Commission.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
No da a a e associa ed wi h his a icle.
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho g a e ully acknowledges he con ibu ions o Ana
T bo ich, Spy idon Tza ikas, and Ewald Hesse (G id Singu-
la i y, Vienna, Aus ia); Fede ico Giani, Da ide S eppa a a,
and Vasco Medici (SUPSI, Swi ze land); and Igo Jo ano ic
and Ma ko Jelic (IMP, Se bia) o hei wo k on FEDE-
COM WP6 and he de elopmen o he GSY DEX pla o m
a chi ec u e, as well as all FEDECOM pa ne s (especially
Sande Smi om R2M Solu ion) o p o iding pilo ac shee s,
images, echnical desc ip ions, and o iginal analyses ha
we e adap ed o igu es, ables, and desc ip ions o busi-
ness model e olu ion and alue p oposi ion mapping in his
pape . Any e o s o omissions emain he esponsibili y o he
au ho alone.
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eade s wi h a clea analy ical amewo k be o e di ing in o he case de ails, making he business
model inno a ions a mo e comp ehensible.
5. The discussions on egula o y ba ie s a e no pai ed wi h su icien ly conc e e o ac ionable
ecommenda ions. The le e mus go beyond s a ing ha "policy mus keep pace" and p o ide
speci ic, ac ionable and s anda dized p oposals o egula o s ha would di ec ly acili a e he
adop ion o hese echnologies.
6. The design o sma con ac s is he ope a ional hea o he p oposed blockchain-based
business models, ye i is ea ed as a black box. The le e misses a c i ical oppo uni y o p o ide
ac ionable insigh s o p ac i ione s by discussing he essen ial clauses, logic, and dependencies
equi ed in hese con ac s o au oma e emune a ion, manage lexibili y, and en o ce KPI-based
se lemen s e ec i ely.
7. A signi ican omission is a discussion o he ade-o s in ol ed in using blockchain. The le e
s a es he bene i s o anspa ency and au oma ion bu neglec s he inhe en disad an ages, such
as he ene gy consump ion o he consensus mechanism, ansac ion cos s (gas ees), and
compu a ional complexi y.
Is he a ionale o he Open Le e p o ided in su icien de ail? (Please conside whe he
exis ing challenges in he ield a e ou lined clea ly and whe he he pu pose o he le e is
explained)
Yes
Does he a icle adequa ely e e ence di e ing iews and opinions?
Pa ly
A e all ac ual s a emen s co ec , and a e s a emen s and a gumen s made adequa ely
suppo ed by ci a ions?
Pa ly
Is he Open Le e w i en in accessible language? (Please conside whe he all subjec -
speci ic e ms, concep s and abb e ia ions a e explained)
Pa ly
Whe e applicable, a e ecommenda ions and nex s eps explained clea ly o o he s o
ollow? (Please conside whe he o he s in he esea ch communi y would be able o
implemen guidelines o ecommenda ions and/o cons uc i ely engage in he deba e)
Pa ly
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: Business models analysis, ma ke pa icipa ion s a egies, a i icial
in elligence, DER managemen .
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o s a e ha I do no conside i o be o an accep able scien i ic s anda d, o
easons ou lined abo e.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:168 Las upda ed: 16 NOV 2025
Au ho Response 06 Oc 2025
Zia Lenna d
I since ely hank you o you de ailed and cons uc i e eedback. The commen s ha e been
in aluable in s eng hening he analy ical dep h and me hodological cla i y o his e ised
e sion. All se en poin s ha e been add essed as ollows:
1. Me hodology cla i ica ion and alignmen wi h s anda disa ion e o s
I ha e subs an ially e ised he me hodology sec ion o cla i y he s uc u e and no el y o
he “mul i-s age, mixed-me hods” app oach. The ex now explici ly dis inguishes be ween
he quali a i e (s akeholde wo kshops, alue p oposi ion mapping) and quan i a i e (KPI
alida ion and compa a i e analysis) componen s. I also added a sho pa ag aph linking
he FEDECOM me hodology o es ablished Eu opean p ac ices, e e encing he alignmen
wi h ongoing wo k unde he BRIDGE Business Models Wo king G oup and o he EU- unded
ini ia i es. This demons a es how he applied app oach con ibu es o ha monising
business model e alua ion amewo ks.
2. Demo-wide syn hesis o eplicable alue p oposi ions
To add ess his commen , I added a new pa ag aph ollowing he desc ip ion o he
i e a i e co-design p ocess, syn hesising c oss-pilo indings in o a gene alised alue
p oposi ion amewo k. The ex highligh s sha ed inno a ion pa e ns, ecu ing alue
c ea ion mechanisms, and ans e able design elemen s. While a Lean Model Can as o ma
was conside ed, he syn hesis was p esen ed in na a i e o m o emain consis en wi h
ORE’s Open Le e o ma .
3. Re ision o Table 1 o analy ical dep h
I e ised Table 1 (p e iously Figu e 1) and i s accompanying ex o mo e beyond a
desc ip i e lis ing o pilo s. I now in eg a es analy ical in o ma ion ega ding inno a ion
ocus, s akeholde ele ance, and measu able impac s ac oss pilo s. The cap ion and
su ounding pa ag aphs we e ew i en o explain how hese pa e ns illus a e he
pla o m’s c oss-sec o scalabili y and in e ope abili y.
4. Reo ganisa ion o “FEDECOM business model inno a ion and pla o m alignmen ”
This sec ion has been es uc u ed o ollow a “gene al- o-speci ic” logic. I now begins wi h
a desc ip ion o he o e a ching business model a chi ec u e, ollowed by pilo -le el
adap a ions. A ansi ion sen ence was inse ed o signal his change o eade s, imp o ing
cohe ence and analy ical low.
5. Regula o y ecommenda ions
I expanded he discussion o egula o y ba ie s o include speci ic ecommenda ions.
These include he need o ha monised ene gy-sha ing amewo ks, ecogni ion o
communi y agg ega o s as ma ke pa icipan s, and simpli ied mechanisms o c oss-
bo de lexibili y ading. This p o ides a mo e ac ionable basis o policymake s.
6. Sma con ac design
In Sec ion 4, I added a new pa ag aph desc ibing he essen ial logic unde pinning sma
con ac s used o se lemen and KPI-based emune a ion. This includes clauses ela ed o
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alida ion, colla e al managemen , and lexibili y ac i a ion, o e ing p ac ical insigh s in o
how blockchain enables au oma ed e i ica ion wi hin decen alised ene gy ma ke s.
7. Discussion o blockchain ade-o s
I in oduced a c i ical discussion o blockchain’s limi a ions in Sec ion 5, add essing
compu a ional complexi y, ansac ion cos s, and ene gy consump ion. The e ised ex
explains how FEDECOM mi iga es hese ade-o s h ough a pe missioned ledge and
delega ed alida ion, educing he ene gy oo p in while p ese ing anspa ency. O e all,
hese e isions make he pape mo e analy ical, mo e anspa en in i s me hods, and
be e aligned wi h Eu opean bes p ac ices o business model inno a ion and
digi alisa ion in ene gy communi ies.
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Repo 09 July 2025
h ps://doi.o g/10.21956/open eseu ope.22322. 55877
© 2025 Soa es T. This is an open access pee e iew epo dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he
o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Tiago Soa es
Cen e o Powe and Ene gy Sys ems, INESC TEC, Po o, Po ugal
This pape p esen s indings om he FEDECOM p ojec , explo ing how blockchain-enabled digi al
pla o ms can suppo business model inno a ion in sec o -coupled ene gy communi ies. I is
based on six pilo deploymen s ac oss Eu ope and u ilizes a s uc u ed me hodology including
alue p oposi ion mapping, s akeholde engagemen , and analysis o echnical and egula o y
challenges. The pape a gues ha blockchain enhances anspa ency, us , and au oma ion, bu
mus be pai ed wi h lexible, co-designed business models and ongoing egula o y alignmen . The
pape is in e es ing and well w i en; howe e , some poin s can be imp o ed, namely:
The pilo s desc ip ions a e in e es ing, bu he e is a lack o KPIS p o ing he bene i s o
such an app oach. Pe haps, some KPIS can be included in he analysis o unde s and a o
wha ex en he de eloped app oach imp o es cos sa ings.
1.
The bene i s o using blockchain a e emphasized in he pape , bu he main disad an ages
like ene gy use, complexi y and cos s a e no conside ed. Pe haps a c i ical discussion o he
ade-o be ween using he blockchain in de imen o he cen alized app oaches can be
add essed.
2.
The pilo s a e in e es ing and di e en . Howe e , he eplicabili y and scalabili y o he
pla o m o o he le els a is no add essed. Pe haps i can be p o ided a lis ou lining
p e equisi e o eplica ion o he pla o m.
3.
The pape add esses he egula o y unce ain y as a key ba ie bu does no p o ide clea
con ex ual egula o y examples and how speci ic changes could unlock he issue.
4.
I would be good o ha e an idea o how blockchain impac s ene gy consump ion in each o 5.
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he pilo s o add c edibili y o he adop ed solu ion.
Is he a ionale o he Open Le e p o ided in su icien de ail? (Please conside whe he
exis ing challenges in he ield a e ou lined clea ly and whe he he pu pose o he le e is
explained)
Pa ly
Does he a icle adequa ely e e ence di e ing iews and opinions?
Yes
A e all ac ual s a emen s co ec , and a e s a emen s and a gumen s made adequa ely
suppo ed by ci a ions?
Yes
Is he Open Le e w i en in accessible language? (Please conside whe he all subjec -
speci ic e ms, concep s and abb e ia ions a e explained)
Yes
Whe e applicable, a e ecommenda ions and nex s eps explained clea ly o o he s o
ollow? (Please conside whe he o he s in he esea ch communi y would be able o
implemen guidelines o ecommenda ions and/o cons uc i ely engage in he deba e)
Pa ly
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: Ene gy communi ies
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o con i m ha i is o an accep able scien i ic s anda d, howe e I ha e
signi ican ese a ions, as ou lined abo e.
Au ho Response 06 Oc 2025
Zia Lenna d
I since ely hank he e iewe o he ca e ul eading and cons uc i e commen s. I am
g a e ul o he posi i e assessmen o he pape ’s ele ance, s uc u e, and cla i y, and
ha e ca e ully add essed all poin s aised.
1. Inclusion o KPIs o demons a e bene i s
I ag ee ha he ini ial e sion did no su icien ly highligh quan i iable indica o s. Sec ion 4
has been expanded o include ep esen a i e key pe o mance indica o s ela ed o ene gy
sa ings, lexibili y ac i a ion, and emune a ion accu acy. These examples illus a e how
measu able alida ion esul s unde pin he assessmen o business model pe o mance.
2. Discussion o blockchain disad an ages and ade-o s
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I ha e added a new pa ag aph in Sec ion 5 discussing ene gy use, compu a ional
complexi y, and ansac ion cos s. This addi ion compa es blockchain-based a chi ec u es
wi h cen alised app oaches and cla i ies how FEDECOM’s pe missioned ledge design
mi iga es ene gy and la ency challenges while main aining anspa ency and audi abili y.
3. Replicabili y and scalabili y p e equisi es
To add ess his aluable commen , I added a pa ag aph ou lining p econdi ions o
eplica ion, including in e ope abili y, go e nance ecogni ion, egula o y alignmen , and
local inancial capaci y. This sec ion now also e e ences he FEDECOM Replica ion Playbook
and Sel -Assessmen Tool as esou ces suppo ing scalabili y ac oss con ex s.
4. Regula o y examples and ac ionable p oposals
I expanded he discussion on egula o y unce ain y o include conc e e examples o
pe mi ing, pe ime e de ini ions, and lexibili y ma ke access. The new ex explains how
ha monised ecogni ion o ene gy communi ies as ma ke pa icipan s could emo e
ba ie s o pla o m adop ion.
5. Blockchain ene gy consump ion ac oss pilo s
I added a pa ag aph cla i ying ha FEDECOM’s pla o m uses a ligh weigh pe missioned
a chi ec u e wi h delega ed alida ion and o -chain s o age, which minimises ene gy use
and compu a ional demand. This con ex ualises blockchain e iciency wi hin pilo
ope a ions and s eng hens he c edibili y o he app oach. I belie e hese e isions
comp ehensi ely add ess all poin s aised and signi ican ly enhance he analy ical dep h
and anspa ency o he pape .
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
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