Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
pg. 311
Headlines as Ba leg ounds: A C i ical Discou se Analysis o Fake News Denials in Nige ia
Ma hew Damila e Adekunle
Depa men o Languages and Linguis ics
Bamidele Olumilua Uni e si y o Educa ion, Science and Technology, Ike e-Eki i, Nige ia
adekunle.ma hew@boues i.edu.ng | +2347037857567
DOI : h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17690559
Abs ac
The pe sis ence o ake news unde mines public communica ion and ins i u ional legi imacy,
especially in agile democ acies like Nige ia. While p e ious s udies ha e explo ed he
p oduc ion and sp ead o misin o ma ion, ewe ha e examined how news ou le s cons uc
hei denials. This s udy in es iga es how Punch newspape amed i s ake news denials in
Augus 2025, ocusing on headlines and lead pa ag aphs as spaces whe e c edibili y and
au ho i y a e nego ia ed.Using C i ical Discou se Analysis (CDA) in o med by Van Dijk’s
socio-cogni i e model and Van Leeuwen’s legi ima ion s a egies, he s udy analyzes eigh een
pu posi ely selec ed denial i ems ac oss hemes o go e nance, secu i y, and celeb i y news.
Findings show sys ema ic use o lexical in ensi ie s, he o ical appeals (e hos, logos, pa hos),
and legi ima ion s a egies such as au ho iza ion, mo al e alua ion, and a ionaliza ion.
Th ough hese discu si e esou ces, Punch delegi imizes alsehoods and ein o ces
ins i u ional c edibili y. The s udy concludes ha ake news denials unc ion no only as ac ual
co ec ions bu as s a egic discu si e ac s ha es o e media legi imacy and shape socio-
poli ical na a i es. I con ibu es o b oade discussions on misin o ma ion by e ealing how
denials can ope a e as ools o powe , pe suasion, and us -building in democ a ic
communica ion.
Keywo ds: ake news denials; headlines; C i ical Discou se Analysis; legi ima ion s a egies;
Nige ian media; public us
In oduc ion
In he con empo a y in o ma ion age, he ph ase ake news has become a global sho hand o
he s uggle o e u h, c edibili y, and au ho i y. Nowhe e is his s uggle mo e isible han in
Nige ia, whe e digi al echnologies and adi ional media in e sec in complex ways, shaping
public deba es and ins i u ional legi imacy. The apid ci cula ion o alse o misleading s o ies
ac oss social media, blogs, and e en con en ional news ou le s has aised u gen ques ions
abou he ole o jou nalism in sus aining public us and na ional cohesion (Ogbe e e al.,
2019; Onigbinde & Oloyede, 2024; Reu e s Ins i u e o he S udy o Jou nalism, 2024).
Agains his backd op, denials o ake news by es ablished newspape s a e no me ely eac i e
co ec ions; hey a e s a egic ac s o discou se. They unc ion a once as a emp s a
ins i u ional sel -de ence and as in e en ions in o b oade socio-poli ical deba es.
Language, as discou se schola s ha e long a gued, is no neu al. Headlines and lead
pa ag aphs which a e he ex ual h esholds o news epo s a e pa icula ly powe ul. They
ame he na a i e, o ien eade s owa d speci ic in e p e a ions, and o en se e as he mos
isible and memo able pa s o a s o y. In con ex s whe e misin o ma ion h i es, hese ex ual
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
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elemen s a e also whe e denials o ake news a e s aged. Such denials, a he han being simple
ebu als, cons i u e he o ical ba leg ounds: hey claim au ho i y, con es compe ing e sions
o eali y, and nego ia e legi imacy in he public sphe e (Mikkola, 2017; Van Leeuwen, 2007).
The p esen esea ch, Headlines as Ba leg ounds: A C i ical Discou se Analysis o Fake News
Denials in Nige ia, examines how Punch newspape deployed i s headlines and leads in Augus
2025 o coun e ake news epo s.
Nige ia p o ides a compelling case o such inqui y. Schola s ha e documen ed he scale and
impac o misin o ma ion in he coun y, linking i o h ea s agains democ a ic p ocesses,
na ional secu i y, and social cohesion (Adebiyi, 2025; Liadi e al., 2024; Uwalaka e al., 2021).
Omoe a and Uwalaka (2023) desc ibe ake news as a “dis up i e media sub-cul u e,” no ing
i s en enchmen in e e yday poli ical communica ion. O he s ha e in es iga ed how digi al
audiences in e p e and ci cula e alse epo s, o en wi h skep icism bu also wi h une en
capaci ies o e i ica ion (Eke, 2024; Aondo e e al., 2024). Resea ch also shows ha
Nige ian audiences con inue o ely on legacy media as ancho s o au hen ici y, e en as us
is inc easingly es ed (Anyanwu, 2024). These indings unde sco e he dual p essu es
con on ing newspape s: he need o p ese e c edibili y and he impe a i e o espond isibly
o alsehoods.
To place he Nige ian case in compa a i e pe spec i e, in e na ional s udies demons a e bo h
con e gences and impo an di e ences. Expe imen al and cogni i e li e a u e on co ec ion
shows ha co ec i e messages a e necessa y bu no always su icien o emo e
misin o ma ion om public easoning: co ec ions can ail o e ase he con inued in luence o
a alse claim unless hey a e well amed and epea ed (Ecke e al., 2020). This cogni i e
insigh helps explain why many newspape denials aim o empha ic lexical closu e and
p ocedu al signalling a he han en a i e hedging. A he same ime, no ma i e and poli ical
analyses emphasise he ole o emo ional op imisa ion and s a egic aming in con empo a y
disin o ma ion ecosys ems; schola s a gue ha emo ional dynamics and pla o m a o dances
shape bo h he p oduc ion o alsehoods and he success o co ec i e in e en ions (Baki &
McS ay, 2023). Finally, compa a i e wo k on how he label “ ake news” unc ions ac oss
con ex s shows ha he e m i sel is he o ically po en : in some se ings i signals delibe a e
decep ion and delegi imisa ion, while in o he s i can be used as a delegi imizing de ice by
poli ical ac o s o disc edi mains eam epo ing (Tandoc, 2022). These in e na ional
pe spec i es e eal ha hey do no displace he Nige ian empi ical ocus bu en ich i by
showing how cogni i e e ec s, emo ional economies, and he o ical labelling in e ac wi h
local media p ac ice.
Despi e he g owing body o schola ship, gaps emain. Much o he exis ing esea ch has
concen a ed on he p oduc ion, ci cula ion, and ecep ion o ake news (Egielewa, 2023;
Ogbe e e al., 2019; Onigbinde e al., 2024). Some s udies ha e highligh ed he s a egies by
which poli ical ac o s legi ima e alsehoods (Igwebuike & Chimuanya, 2021) o how
jou nalis s g apple wi h c edibili y in an e a o news comme cialisa ion (Fadeyi & Suleiman,
2023). O he s ha e explo ed discu si e cons uc ions o insecu i y and insu gency in Nige ian
media (Chukwu & Okpala, 2023; Ogungbe e al., 2023; Omolabi, 2023). Ye ela i ely li le
a en ion has been de o ed o how es ablished newspape s c a hei denials o ake news
pa icula ly h ough he highly isible spaces o headlines and lead pa ag aphs. This absence
is signi ican , gi en ha hese ex ual si es a e o en he i s , and some imes he only, poin s
o eade engagemen .
A c i ical discou se analysis o ake news denials o e s aluable insigh s in o how media
ins i u ions de end hei au ho i y, ame hei c edibili y, and align wi h o challenge dominan
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
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socio-poli ical na a i es. Following Van Leeuwen’s (2007) accoun o legi ima ion s a egies
and Wa dle and De akhshan’s (2017) amewo k o “in o ma ion diso de ,” his s udy ea s
denial as a discu si e ac , a he han as a neu al co ec i e. The s udy addi ionally d aws on
li e a u e abou co ec ion e icacy and aming (Ecke e al., 2020; Lewandowsky e al., 2020)
o e lec on why pa icula o ms o headline denial such as absolu e nega ion, p ocedu al
de e al, and mo alised labelling may be chosen by edi o s ope a ing unde in ense ci cula ion
p essu es.
By ocusing on Augus 2025, a pe iod ma ked by heigh ened ins ances o ake news allega ions
and ebu als, his s udy is si ua ed wi hin Nige ia’s wide media and poli ical en i onmen .
Punch, as one o he coun y’s mos widely ead newspape s, o e s a c i ical an age poin o
examining how ins i u ional ac o s de end hemsel es agains he delegi ima ing powe o
misin o ma ion. Th ough i s headlines, lead sen ences and s a emen s, he pape no only ebu s
speci ic claims bu also pe o ms he wo k o sus aining c edibili y, shaping public pe cep ion,
and nego ia ing i s posi ion wi hin con es ed in o ma ional e ain.
Re iew o Exis ing S udies
Fake News, Media C edibili y, and Public T us
The challenge o ake news has gained heigh ened a en ion in Nige ian media s udies,
pa icula ly wi h i s implica ions o go e nance, secu i y, and public us . Schola s widely
ag ee ha misin o ma ion unde mines ins i u ional c edibili y and eshapes audience
pe cep ions o legi imacy. Adebiyi (2025) a gues ha ake news poses se ious h ea s o
na ional secu i y, as i magni ies ension and e odes con idence in he s a e’s p o ec i e
capaci y. Simila ly, Ogbe e, Idam, Ka eem, and Ogbe e (2019) loca e he causes and e ec s
o ake news in Nige ia wi hin weak ins i u ional checks and he comme cialisa ion o news
p ac ice, poin ing o he u gen need o discu si e and edi o ial accoun abili y.
While ake news i sel has been a subjec o signi ican schola ly inqui y, he discou se o i s
denial especially in newspape headlines and lead pa ag aphs emains ela i ely unde -
explo ed. S udies on he c edibili y o Nige ian media, such as Aondo e , Igwe, Akin-Odukoya,
and Ridwan (2024), e eal ha audiences emain cau ious o digi al in o ma ion and look o
es ablished ou le s o e i ica ion, hough con adic ions in news aming s ill uel dis us .
Anyanwu (2024) ein o ces his, highligh ing how adi ional media o en se e as co ec i e
agen s when un e i ied s o ies sp ead online. These indings poin o a pa adox: while
newspape s such as Punch a e posi ioned as a bi e s o u h, he linguis ic and he o ical
s uc u es h ough which hey deny ake news equi e deepe sc u iny.
Expe imen al and cogni i e s udies demons a e ha co ec ions a y in e ec i eness
depending on wo ding, placemen and he p esence o al e na i e explana ions. In o he wo ds,
a ba e nega ion may no be enough o emo e a alse belie om memo y ( he “con inued
in luence” e ec ), and co ec ions ha o e an al e na i e causal accoun end o be mo e
e ec i e in educing esidual in luence (Ecke e al., 2020; Lewandowsky e al., 2012). These
insigh s indica e why edi o s migh p e e empha ic o p ocedu al denials in headlines. A he
same ime, c i ical schola ship emphasises ha co ec ions a e embedded wi hin poli ical
economies o emo ion and a en ion: he op imisa ion o a ec on pla o ms can mean ha
emo i e alsehoods ou -compe e sobe co ec ions unless co ec i e ac o s also a end o
ci cula ion dynamics (Baki & McS ay, 2023). These c oss-disciplina y pe spec i es show ha
denial discou se mus be ead bo h as cogni i e in e en ion and as s a egic communica ion
wi hin global digi al ecosys ems.
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
pg. 314
Discou se S a egies, Legi ima ion, and he Role o Headlines
C i ical discou se analyses ha e p o ided use ul en y poin s in o unde s anding how Nige ian
media a icula e au ho i y. Fo ins ance, Chukwu and Okpala (2023) e eal how edi o ials
add essing insecu i y ely on lexical in ensi ica ion, me apho s, and p esupposi ions o
ein o ce s a e legi imacy. Omolabi (2023) and Ogungbe, Suleiman, Idoko, and Oyedeji (2023)
simila ly show ha epo s on insu gencies end o p i ilege o icial oices while ma ginalising
coun e -na a i es. By con as , Egielewa (2023) o eg ounds he he o ical ac ics o ake news
i sel , no ing how i s emo i e appeals and populis one c ea e space o digi al ac i ism. This
dual landscape o sensa ionalism and ins i u ional au ho i y unde sco es he s akes o analysing
how denials a e discu si ely pe o med in mains eam news ou le s.
The heo e ical con ibu ions o Van Leeuwen (2007) and Van Leeuwen and Wodak (1999) on
legi ima ion s a egies a e pa icula ly ins uc i e o examining ake news denials. Thei
amewo ks explain how ins i u ions seek o p ese e c edibili y h ough au ho isa ion, mo al
e alua ion, and a ionalisa ion. In he Nige ian con ex , Igwebuike and Chimuanya (2021)
demons a e how poli ical ake news is legi ima ed on social media using p ecisely hese
s a egies, o e ing a pa allel o how denials may also ely on simila mechanisms bu in he
se ice o ins i u ional ein o cemen . Wa dle and De akhshan’s (2017) global amewo k on
in o ma ion diso de ex ends his analysis by showing how misin o ma ion and i s co ec ion
a e o en symbio ic, each shaping he in e p e i e possibili ies o he o he .
Headline s udies also p o ide ele an insigh s. A ansuyi (2022) illus a es ha headlines and
leads on COVID-19 in Nige ian newspape s equen ly use lexicalisa ion, p esupposi ion, and
me apho o p i ilege ins i u ional accoun s, he eby aming audience ecep ion be o e
engagemen wi h ull a icles. This esona es wi h Liadi, Lawal, and Akin inde’s (2024)
quali a i e assessmen , which iden i ies ha e speech and denial discou ses as deeply en angled
wi h Nige ia’s de elopmen and secu i y ajec o y. Such indings e eal how headlines ac as
ba leg ounds whe e compe ing na a i es o u h, legi imacy, and c edibili y a e con es ed.
To en ich his in e p e i e amewo k u he , esea ch on me adiscou se and aming in
co ec ion con ex s unde lines wo poin s. Fi s , a co ec i e amed as p ocedu al au ho i y
(i.e., poin ing eade s o o icial egis e s o web po als) pe o ms di e en ly om co ec ions
amed as echnical ac checks; he o me emphasizes ins i u ional con inui y while he la e
emphasizes aceable e idence and anspa ency (Ecke e al., 2020). Second, me adiscu si e
ma ke s such as explici disclaime s, e iden ial ph ases, and quo a ion o o icials ope a e no
only o e u e con en bu o e-insc ibe ins i u ional oice and epis emic p i ilege. Thus, he
linguis ic de ices iden i ied in Nige ian headlines (e alua i e adjec i es, pe o ma i e e bs,
ins i u ional quo a ions) can be ead simul aneously as co ec i e echniques shaped by
cogni i e cons ain s and as he o ical mo es shaped by ins i u ional in e es s.
The socio-poli ical implica ions o ake news denials canno be di o ced om he la ge
Nige ian landscape. Onigbinde, Oloyede, and colleagues (2024) emphasise ha
misin o ma ion in e sec s wi h issues o e hnici y, eligion, and poli ics, o en compelling
denials o se e no jus co ec i e bu also ideological unc ions. Omoe a and Uwalaka (2023)
ame ake news as “dis up i e media,” s essing ha ins i u ional ebu als a e hemsel es
he o ical in e en ions designed o es o e o de . Simila ly, Uwalaka, Nwala, and Chinedu
(2021), s udying ake COVID-19 cu es, no e ha he success o denial depends no only on
ac ual accu acy bu also on i s abili y o align wi h cul u al us ne wo ks. Toge he , hese
s udies sugges ha ake news denial is less abou neu al co ec ion and mo e abou s a egic
discou se wi hin con es ed spaces o go e nance and legi imacy.
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
pg. 315
Al hough schola ship has add essed ake news, misin o ma ion, and media c edibili y in
Nige ia, h ee majo gaps pe sis . Fi s , he e is insu icien ocus on headlines and lead
pa ag aphs, despi e hei cen ali y in shaping i s imp essions and in e p e i e ames. Second,
while schola s such as Igwebuike and Chimuanya (2021) highligh legi ima ion in poli ical
ake news, li le has been done o show how denial discou ses hemsel es employ he o ical
s a egies o eclaim ins i u ional au ho i y. Thi d, mos s udies ea ake news and i s
co ec ion in gene al e ms, bu a ely ancho analysis wi hin speci ic empo al con ex s o
single ou le s. This esea ch, he e o e, esponds o hese gaps by examining how Punch
newspape , in Augus 2025, cons uc s ake news denials h ough i s headlines and leads, and
how hese denials in e sec wi h b oade na a i es o go e nance, secu i y, and public us in
Nige ia.
S a emen o he P oblem
Resea ch on misin o ma ion in Nige ia has ocused p edominan ly on sp ead, de ec ion and
public belie . Less a en ion has been paid o how mains eam news media hemsel es deploy
denials and co ec i e language o manage epu a ional isk and shape public in e p e a ion.
This s udy ills ha gap by applying c i ical discou se analysis o 18 denial/ esponse i ems in
Punch (1s - 30 h Aug. 2025), asking how edi o ial language cons uc s legi imacy, di uses
esponsibili y, and shapes public unde s anding o con es ed claims.
Resea ch Objec i es
● To analyze he lexical and he o ical s a egies used in Punch newspape headlines
and lead pa ag aphs o deny ake news epo s in Augus 2025.
● To e alua e how hese denials cons uc and sus ain ins i u ional au ho i y and
c edibili y in he Nige ian media sphe e.
● To examine how ake news denials engage wi h and po en ially eshape b oade
socio-poli ical na a i es on go e nance, secu i y, and public us in Nige ia.
Theo e ical F amewo k
This s udy adop s C i ical Discou se Analysis (CDA) as i s heo e ical ancho , d awing
pa icula ly on he socio-cogni i e app oach ad anced by Van Dijk (2006, 2015). CDA o e s
analy ical ools o in e oga e how ins i u ional ac o s employ language o shape meaning,
main ain au ho i y, and con es public na a i es. I is pa icula ly sui ed o examining ake
news denials in Nige ia, as such ex s a e no me e in o ma ional s a emen s bu discu si e ac s
aimed a managing c edibili y and legi imizing ins i u ional oices in a con es ed media
en i onmen . Headlines and lead pa ag aphs se e as c i ical en y poin s in o hese s uggles,
unc ioning as s a egic si es whe e language, powe , and ideology con e ge.
Van Dijk’s (2006) socio-cogni i e model emphasizes he ela ionship be ween discou se,
cogni ion, and socie y, o eg ounding he ways in which communica o s a emp o in luence
sha ed social knowledge and belie s. Denials o ake news, whe he conce ning go e nance,
secu i y, o public igu es a e s a egically amed o highligh ins i u ional in eg i y while
delegi imizing al e na i e accoun s. This p ocess aligns wi h Van Dijk’s no ion o he
“ideological squa e,” which ope a es h ough he ampli ica ion o posi i e sel - ep esen a ions
and he de-emphasis o nega i e ones, while simul aneously a ibu ing nega i i y o opponen s
o ex e nal ac o s. Such s a egies esona e wi h Fai clough’s (2013) insis ence on he “c i ical”
in CDA, which en ails exposing how discu si e p ac ices sus ain o challenge ela ions o
dominance and inequali y.
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
pg. 316
In he Nige ian media sphe e, ake news denials a e en angled wi h b oade s uggles o e us ,
legi imacy, and s a e au ho i y. They a e no isola ed ebu als bu embedded in e en ions
wi hin ongoing socio-poli ical discou ses, o en seeking o con es pe cep ions o insecu i y,
co up ion, o ins i u ional weakness. By si ua ing he analysis wi hin CDA, his s udy
illumina es how Punch newspape headlines and lead pa ag aphs pe o m ideological wo k:
hey do no me ely epo denials bu ame hem in ways ha ep oduce o esis dominan
na a i es abou go e nance and public us . Thus, he amewo k p o ides a lens o unco e
he sub le in e play be ween linguis ic o m, ins i u ional in e es , and socio-poli ical con ex
in an e a o heigh ened misin o ma ion
Me hodology
This s udy adop s a quali a i e esea ch design g ounded in C i ical Discou se Analysis (CDA),
d awing pa icula ly on Fai clough’s (2013) h ee-dimensional model ( ex , discu si e
p ac ices & social p ac ices) o in e oga e he language o ake news denials in Nige ian media.
Eigh een pu posi ely selec ed headlines, lead sen ences and s a emen s published in Punch
newspape in Augus 2025 o m he co pus, chosen o hei p ominence in shaping public
pe cep ions a ound go e nance, secu i y, and social c edibili y. All i ems we e e ie ed om
Punch’s e i ied online a chi e (www.punchng.com) be ween 1s - 30 h Augus 2025 using
he e ms ‘ ake news’, ‘ ake’, ‘denial’, ‘ alse’, ‘‘dismisses’’ in o de o ensu e ex ual
au hen ici y. Each ex is subjec ed o a sys ema ic lexical and he o ical analysis o unco e
pa e ns o legi ima ion, au ho i y-building, and na a i e aming. This app oach acili a es an
unde s anding o how news ins i u ions discu si ely cons uc c edibili y while simul aneously
nego ia ing socio-poli ical ensions. CDA is complemen ed by Van Dijk’s (2006, 2015) socio-
cogni i e insigh s, enabling an explo a ion o how hese denials a e si ua ed wi hin b oade
ideological s uggles in Nige ia’s media landscape. The analysis p oceeds in wo s ages: i s ,
a close eading o iden i y ecu en linguis ic s a egies (e.g., disclaime s, e alua i e e ms,
and ins i u ional appeals), and second, an in e p e i e mapping o how hese s a egies ein o ce
o con es p e ailing discou ses o powe , go e nance, and us . This me hodological
o ien a ion ensu es ha he s udy no only highligh s ex ual ea u es bu also si ua es hem
wi hin he wide socio-poli ical con ex in which hey acqui e meaning.
Da a Analysis and Discussion o Findings
Following he s a ed me hodology, each i em was subjec ed o (1) a mic o-le el lexical and
syn ac ic eading o iden i y in ensi ie s, modali y ma ke s, agency/ oice, ansi i i y s uc u es,
p esupposi ions, and e alua i e lexis; and (2) a meso-le el mapping o discu si e mo es
(au ho iza ion, mo al e alua ion, a ionaliza ion, in e ex ual ancho ing) o de e mine he
legi ima ion s a egies a wo k. Rep esen a i e i ems a e ci ed below o g ound claims. Fo
ins ance, he Nige ian De ence Academy’s ins uc ion—“The public is he eby ad ised o
dis ega d his lis as i did no emana e om he NDA” (Punch, Aug. 4, 2025)—illus a es a
s anda d pe o ma i e empla e o denial and p ocedu al eassu ance.
Lexical In ensi ica ion
A dominan ea u e o he da a collec ed is he concen a ed use o e alua i e adjec i es and
pe o ma i e e bs ha in ensi y he nega i e s a us o he con es ed claim. Ac oss he 18
sampled i ems, e alua i e adjec i es such as “ ake,” “ alse,” “malicious,” “baseless,”
“ ab ica ed, ” and “mischie ous.” appea ed 67 imes, wi h “ ake” and “ alse” accoun ing o
nea ly hal o he occu ences. These lexical in ensi ie s unc ion o cons ue he con es ed
in o ma ion as no me ely inco ec bu mo ally suspec .
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Example exce p s include:
“The Kaduna S a e Go e nmen has dismissed as alse and mischie ous a epo anking he
s a e among hose wi h he highes inciden s o kidnapping” (Punch, 29 Aug. 2025),
“The NDA u ged he public o dis ega d a ake lis … as i did no emana e om he Academy”
(Punch, 4 Aug. 2025).
Such adjec i e clus e s do hea y discu si e li ing: hey no only nega e bu mo ally denig a e
he claim’s sou ce, cas ing au ho ship o he alsehood as in en ional w ongdoing a he han
e o . The e bs o epudia ion such as denies, debunks, dismisses, e u es, and disowns, appea
o e 45 imes ac oss he co pus, unc ioning as speech ac s ha enac co ec ion while
simul aneously asse ing ins i u ional agency.
F om a CDA pe spec i e, hese e bs also e eal ansi i i y choices: ins i u ional ac o s
consis en ly occupy he agen ole (e.g., “The Police debunk…”), while alse claims a e cas as
g amma ical objec s, hus o eg ounding ins i u ional con ol o e u h p oduc ion. E en when
passi e o ms appea (“was dismissed as”), su ounding e alua i e lexis keeps he one ac i e
and decisi e. This suppo s Van Dijk’s (2006) no ion o s a egic agency in discou se, whe e
ins i u ions consciously manipula e lexical and syn ac ic esou ces o in luence public
cogni ion.
Van Dijk’s socio-cogni i e pe spec i e helps in e p e hese lexical mo es as a emp s o
eshape collec i e men al models e.g. absolu e nega ions like “did no emana e,” and “no u h
in he s a emen ” exp ess high epis emic modali y, indica ing ins i u ional ce ain y and a
p e e ence o closu e o e dialogue. These linguis ic choices con i m he use o modali y as
an ideological ma ke he eby asse ing ac ual au ho i y while delegi imizing unce ain y.
Rhe o ical Appeals: E hos, Logos, Pa hos
Punch’s denial ex s deploy a s uc u ed mix o he o ical appeals, each aligning wi h CDA
p inciples o legi ima ion and in e discu si i y.
i. E hos (Ins i u ional C edibili y): Denials consis en ly o eg ound ins i u ional sou ces like
NDA, Nige ia Police Fo ce, s a e go e nmen s, he P esidency, uni e si y managemen ,
egula o y bodies e c hus ans e ing c edibili y om ins i u ion o ex . The ecu en clause
pa e n “The [Ins i u ion] has denied…” o eg ounds au ho ial oice and agen i e ansi i i y,
a i ming Van Leeuwen’s (2007) concep o au ho iza ion. The p e alence o named
spokespe sons (e.g., “Police Public Rela ions O ice CSP Benjamin Hundeyin”) ein o ces
pe sonaliza ion and enhances e hos h ough iden i ica ion.
ii. Logos (P ocedu al E idence): P ocedu al e e en s such as publica ion in “ epu able na ional
dailies” o e i ica ion ia o icial websi es appea ed in 72% o he sample. These elemen s
demons a e a ionaliza ion and in e discu si i y, linking media discou se wi h bu eauc a ic
egis e s o documen a ion and eco d-keeping. Such in e ex ual e e ences o o icial
documen s ope a e as p esupposi ional igge s: hey imply he exis ence o “au hen ic lis s” o
“o icial eco ds,” guiding he eade owa d ins i u ional e idence chains and p ocedu al u h.
iii. Pa hos (Mo alised A ec ): Emo ional appeals emain po en . Lexical i ems like “malicious,”
“delibe a e a emp o a nish,” and “mischie ous” ca y s ong a ec i e and e alua i e
modali y, a ousing public indigna ion and mo al solida i y wi h he ins i u ion. In i ems ied o
sensi i e issues (e.g., he Kebbi o phanage epo ), he pa hos appeal in e wines wi h mo al
Jou nal o Educa ion, Communica ion, and Digi al Humani ies -Vol.2, No.1, Sep . 2025
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e alua ion, wa ning o po en ial social ha m. Thus, emo ional cha ge complemen s logical
p oo and e hical au ho i y, ensu ing ha denial ope a es bo h cogni i ely and a ec i ely.
Ins i u ional Au ho i y and Legi ima ion S a egies
Using Van Dijk’s and Van Leeuwen’s ypologies o legi ima ion, he co pus epea edly
pe o ms h ee in e laced s a egies: au ho iza ion, mo al e alua ion, and a ionaliza ion(Van
Dijk, 2006; Van Leeuwen, 2007).
i. Au ho iza ion: Ins i u ional denials in oke au ho i y h ough i les and o icial designa ions,
ans o ming s a emen s in o speech ac s backed by ins i u ional powe . Di ec quo a ions by
o icials unc ion as embedded oices which a e o ms o in e discu si i y whe e bu eauc a ic
discou se is ep oduced e ba im o au hen ica e he denial.
ii. Mo al E alua ion: The ecu en adjec i es “mischie ous” and “malicious” linguis ically
ma k mo al ansi i i y, assigning nega i e agency o umo -p oduce s and posi i e agency o
ins i u ions. This ep oduces Van Dijk’s (2006) ideological squa e: accen ua ing in-g oup
i ue while ma ginalizing he O he . Th ough mo al e alua ion, alsehood becomes bo h an
epis emic and e hical iola ion.
iii. Ra ionaliza ion: P ocedu al explana ions such as assu ances ha “ he au hen ic lis shall be
published on he NDA websi e” map he epis emic ou e o u h. These s a emen s embed
p esupposi ions o p ocedu al anspa ency: hey imply ha ins i u ional p ocesses inhe en ly
gua an ee au hen ici y. These h ee s a egies, enac ed oge he , p oduce a powe ul
legi ima ion package: deny, dispa age and di ec owa d o icial e i ica ion.
Discu si e Tac ics: Disclaime s, De-con ex ualiza ion, and Pe o ma i e Repai
Close eadings show a s anda dized ex ual sequence: a epudia i e headline e b (“debunks,”
“denies”) ollowed by a lead pa ag aph ha names he con es ed claim, issues ins i u ional
epudia ion, and p o ides p ocedu al eassu ance. This iadic s uc u e pe o ms pe o ma i e
epai , a language ha does no me ely desc ibe co ec ion bu enac s epis emic es o a ion.
Two no able CDA sub le ies eme ge:
(1) The equen de-con ex ualiza ion o i al ma e ials h ough modi ie s like “pu po edly”
and “ci cula ing” cons uc s a discou se o de achmen which dissocia es he ins i u ion om
social media’s diso de ly space.
(2) Some denials (e.g., FUOYE’s s a emen u ging in es iga ion) display modali y o
obliga ion (“should in es iga e”), showing ha denials can shi om eac i e o p oac i e
discou se, opening accoun abili y ames. These illus a e ha denial ex s unc ion no only as
co ec i e ac s bu also as in e discu si e links be ween jou nalism, ins i u ional
communica ion, and legal discou se.
Gen e, Headline Syn ax, and he Poli ics o Salience
Headlines in he da ase e eal a ma ked p e e ence o ansi i e syn ac ic s uc u es, ypically
o he o m Ac o + Ac ion Ve b + Objec (“Police debunk i al ideo,” “Oyo denies ma ke
closu e”). This syn ac ic economy o eg ounds ins i u ional agency and assigns passi i y o
umo na a i es. Ac oss all 18 i ems, e bs o denial occu in 100% o headlines, while
e alua i e adjec i es appea in 78%, con i ming a clea gen e pa e n.
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Such s uc u es exempli y p esupposi ional aming by s a ing denial, hey p esuppose he
exis ence o a p io claim, ye simul aneously supp ess i s de ails. Hence, headlines pe o m
double wo k: hey acknowledge con o e sy while eclaiming au ho i y. The “ba leg ound”
me apho ap ly desc ibes his pe o ma i e con es whe e language is bo h weapon and shield.
Social media is po ayed as chao ic (“ i al,” “pu po ed”), while he newspape posi ions i sel
as a ga ekeeping s abilize he eby ein o cing Van Leeuwen’s (2007) a gumen ha
legi ima ion is discu si ely enac ed h ough ex ual con ol.
Thema ic Mapping: Clus e s and Pa e ns
A hema ic ca ego iza ion o he co pus e eals ou p incipal clus e s, each wi h simila
discu si e ac ics bu di e en ideological unc ions:
1. Secu i y and Public-O de Claims (e.g., NDA ake lis , Kaduna kidnapping
epo ): emphasize modali y o ce ain y e.g. “did no emana e” and “no u h
in” o ein o ce s a e compe ence.
2. Repu a ional and Celeb i y Rumou s (e.g., Iyabo Ojo, Ali Nuhu, DJ Dope
Caesa ): o eg ound a ec i e modali y h ough emo ional eassu ance and
epu a ional epai .
3. Ins i u ional and Poli ical In eg i y Claims (e.g., Ta aba spending, POWA dues):
ely hea ily on a ionaliza ion and p esupposi ion o eco d-keeping (“no
o icial eco d”).
4. Local Go e nance and Social S abili y Claims (e.g., Oyo ma ke , Kebbi
o phanage): use mi iga ed modali y (“no plan o…”) o eassu e publics and
p e en panic.
Ac oss clus e s, he ansi i i y pa e n emains cons an : ins i u ions as ac i e agen s,
alsehoods as ac ed-upon objec s. Wha a ies is he social e ain; secu i y (na ional o de ),
celeb i y (a ec i e elie ), poli ics (legi imacy), and local issues (cohesion).
Socio-Poli ical Implica ions
Two in e locking consequences eme ge.
Fi s , denials in Punch unc ion as ins umen s o ins i u ional e-legi ima ion. Whe e
ins i u ions appea ulne able o epu a ional ha m (e.g., accusa ions o alse lis s, phan om
p obes, alleged ex a agan spending), denials pe o m es o a i e wo k: hey easse he
capaci y o ins i u ions o sel -co ec and o police in o ma ion lows. This con i ms he
pa adox no ed in he li e a u e: adi ional media ac as co ec i e agen s e en as aming
choices may hemsel es ep oduce dis us (Anyanwu, 2024; Aondo e e al., 2024).
Second, denial as discou se is inhe en ly poli ical as i manages legi imacy c ises unde he
guise o ac ual co ec ion. As Fai clough (2013) no es, powe is exe cised h ough he capaci y
o de ine u h condi ions; hus, denials cons i u e an ac o discu si e go e nance.
In sensi i e domains ( eligion, iden i y, o leade ship heal h), inadequa e e idence isks u ning
pe o ma i e denial in o symbolic con ainmen o an appea ance o anspa ency wi hou
e i iable p oo . This aligns wi h Wa dle and De akhshan’s (2017) insigh ha misin o ma ion
and i s co ec ion a e symbio ic discou ses: each shapes and limi s he o he ’s ci cula ion and
c edibili y.
