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C i ical-Thinking Skills o P incipals’ as Co ela e o Teache s’ Job Pe o mance in Pos -
Basic Schools in No h-Eas Nige ia
SADIQ AHMED
Depa men o Physical Science Educa ion, Modibbo Adama Uni e si y, Yola – Nige ia
[email p o ec ed] 08036788542
ORCID ID: 0009-0002-3931-1837
ABSTRACT
The s udy in es iga ed p incipals’ c i ical hinking skills as a s a egic managemen co ela e o
eache s’ job pe o mance in Pos -Basic Schools in No h-Eas , Nige ia. The pu pose o he s udy
was o de e mine he ex en o p incipals’ c i ical hinking skills in pos basic schools in No h Eas
Nige ia, o also examine he ela ionship be ween p incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills and [ eache s’
job pe o mance] and o assess whe he eache s’ job pe o mance di e s signi ican ly ac oss
p incipals’ c i ical hinking skill le el. Th ee esea ch ques ions we e answe ed and h ee
hypo heses we e es ed a 0.05 le el o signi icance. The s udy adop ed he co ela ion su ey
esea ch design. S a i ied and andom sampling echniques we e used o selec ing he sample o
he s udy. The popula ion was 19,797 esponden s in Pos -Basic Schools om ou s a es
(Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, and Ta aba) d awn om No h-Eas zone, Nige ia. The sample o
he s udy was 592 de e mined using Ta o Yamane o mula and comp ised o 76 p incipals and 516
eache s. The ins umen s o da a collec ion we e wo, a s uc u ed ques ionnai e agged
“P incipals’ C i ical Thinking Skills Ques ionnai e (PCTSQ) which was esponded by eache s,
and s uc u ed ques ionnai e agged “Teache s’ Job Pe o mance Ques ionnai e (TJPQ) was
adminis e ed and esponded o by p incipals o measu e eache s’ pe o mance. The ins umen s
we e ace alida ed and he in e nal consis ency o he ins umen s was de e mined using
C onbach Alpha me hod. Reliabili y yielded 0.71 o P incipal Mo i a ion Skills Ques ionnai e,
0.67 o Teache s’ Job Pe o mance Ques ionnai e. The indings o he s udy e ealed P incipals’
showed high c i ical- hinking compe ence (M = 3.51, SD = 0.61). Reg ession analysis showed ha
c i ical- hinking skills signi ican ly p edic ed eache s’ job pe o mance (β = 0.73, p < 0.001; R² =
0.53). ANOVA con i med he model’s signi icance (F (1, 590) = 84.7, p < 0.001) wi h a la ge e ec
size (ω² ≈ 0.53). Recommenda ions made based on he indings include among o he s ha ;
eache s’ should be assigned subjec s o cou ses o each based on hei a ea o specializa ion,
eache s’ should be p aised a all imes and wo kload be educed, eache s’ wel a e, p omo ion
paymen o sala ies and allowances should be egula and consis en .
Keywo ds
C i ical hinking, leade ship, eache job pe o mance, s a egic managemen , pos -basic educa ion
No h-Eas Nige ia.
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INTRODUCTION
Backg ound
C i ical hinking can p o ide you wi h a mo e insigh ul unde s anding o you sel . I will
o e you an oppo uni y o be objec i e, less emo ional, and mo e open-minded as you app ecia e
o he s' iews and opinions. By hinking ahead, you will gain he con idence o p esen esh
pe spec i es and new insigh s in o bu den some conce ns. Thinking is he base o all cogni i e
ac i i ies o p ocesses and is unique o human beings. P incipals c i ical hinking skill in ol es
manipula ion and analysis o in o ma ion ecei ed om he en i onmen . Such manipula ion and
analysis occu by means o abs ac ing, easoning, imagining, p oblem sol ing, judging, and
decision-making. The mind is he idea while hinking p ocesses o he b ain in ol ed in p ocessing
in o ma ion such as when we o m concep s, engage in p oblem sol ing, o eason and make
decisions. (Cababa and Pespenan,2023).The abili y o hinking logically and sol ing p oblems is
a skill ha school p incipals mus ha e o inc ease eache s pe o mance. I can be used in a ie y
o imes, when eache s un ou o ma ke s, o chalk and he school is ou o s ock, when he e is
con lic among s a o s uden s displaying inapp op ia e beha io , he school p incipal needs o
hink as and in elligen ly o be on op o he si ua ion. Ul ima ely, p incipal abili y o o ganize
school ac i i ies is also an essen ial skill, school manage s a e dealing wi h bo h human and
ma e ial esou ces, he e o e hei abili y o o ganize and ha ness he esou ces o equi ed ou pu
is essen ial. The p incipal mus also pa icipa e in making cu iculum choices, es ablishing
expec a ions o he quali y o s uden s wo k and he quali y o eaching and o ganizing s a egies
and me hods, (O uaze e al, 2021). The p incipal is expec ed o ha e supe iso y skills such as
p o iding ma e ials, esou ces and assis ance o suppo eaching and lea ning, suppo ing and
coo dina ing e o o imp o e ins uc ional p og am, coo dina ing and in eg a ing he p ocess o
cu iculum de elopmen and implemen a ion. In addi ion, he p incipal also needs o ensu e open
and clea communica ion channels among indi iduals in he school, ini ia ing and implemen ing,
collabo a ing and de eloping s a egies o con inuous imp o emen and acili a ing meaning ul
oppo uni ies o p o essional g ow h h ough semina s, wo kshops and in-se ice aining
(O uaze e al, 2021). Fu he mo e, he p incipal ensu es e ec i e supe ision by in e ac ing
academically and socially on a egula basis wi h eache s and s uden s wi hin and ou side he
class oom, o moni o he implemen a ion o cu iculum and ensu e desi able inc ease in eache
concep ual knowledge and eaching skills. Also o gi e hem suppo in hei wo k o acili a e
be e pe o mance in eache s pedagogical p ac ices and s uden s lea ning ou comes in he school
se ing. O uaze, e al (2021) epo ed ha he p incipal needs o possess managemen quali ies such
as abili y o plan, coo dina e, o ganize and di ec pe sonnel owa ds a aining he school aim and
objec i es. Also, he p incipal should be acquain ed wi h he a ious leade ship s yles and choose
he s yle ha would bes enable him/he o achie e he goals. P incipals a e he key pe sons in
school o ganisa ion ha assume he ole o leade ship and a e e y in luen ial in shaping eache
p o essionalism, school imp o emen and school pe o mance. In de eloped coun ies o he
wo ld, p incipals a e ained o pe o m e ec i ely as ans o ma ional and ins i u ional leade s in
schools. T ans o ma ional leade ship equi es p incipals o inspi e, mo i a e and mobilize school
s a and s uden s o make e o ma i e changes in he a eas o ins uc ion, lea ning, school clima e
and echnology u iliza ion, so as o u n all schools in o mode nized excellen schools. Ul ima ely,
p incipals’ supe iso y skills include p o essional de elopmen , which is he p ocess o acili a ing
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meaning ul oppo uni y o p o essional g ow h such as semina s, wo kshops which de elop he
eache and inc eases his pe o mance. Teache s’ Pe o mance inc eases when p incipals d aw
plans in o he o achie e hei s a ed objec i es.(O uase e . al., 2021).such as p io i izing
adminis a i e du ies o suppo eache s and also ensu e ha communica ion is o ganized and
easily accessible o eache s. O ganizing skill enables coo dina ion, p incipals coo dina e
schedules o minimize dis up ions o eaching ime and s uc u e oppo uni y o con inuous
lea ning and g ow h among eache s and also con ibu es o p o ision o a conduci e en i onmen
o eaching.C i ical hinking is cen al o e ec i e educa ional leade ship. P incipals who eason
logically, analyze p oblems objec i ely, and an icipa e ou comes a e be e posi ioned o guide
eache s and sus ain quali y lea ning. In he challenging en i onmen o No h-Eas Nige ia, whe e
schools ace insecu i y and esou ce sho ages, c i ical- hinking compe ence becomes essen ial o
imp o ing eache pe o mance.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
i. De e mine he ex en o p incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills in pos -basic schools in No h-
Eas Nige ia.
ii. Examine he ela ionship be ween p incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills and eache s’ job
pe o mance.
iii. Tes whe he eache s’ job pe o mance di e s signi ican ly ac oss p incipals’ c i ical-
hinking le els.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. Wha is he ex en o p incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills in pos -basic schools in No h-
Eas Nige ia?
ii. Wha ela ionship exis s be ween p incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills and eache s’ job
pe o mance?
iii. Do eache s’ job-pe o mance le els di e signi ican ly based on p incipals’ c i ical-
hinking skills?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Concep ual Re iew
C i ical Thinking Skills
. P incipals’ c i ical hinking skill is an ac i e p ocess and a way o hinking egula ly o
unde s and he in o ma ion in-dep h. Acco ding o El- Yazidi (2023) c i ical hinking includes
men al ac i i ies in e ms o sol ing p oblems, analyzing assump ions, p o iding a a ionale,
e alua ing, conduc ing in es iga ions, and making decisions. C i ical hinking skills mus be
de eloped because hey a e no inna e and do no de elop na u ally. These skills can be de eloped
by ge ing used o ac i i ies ha encou age hinking. Thinking c i ically will boos c ea i i y and
enhance he way you use and manage you ime (E-Yazidi, 2023) and c i ical hinking no only
desc ibes he abili y o hink in acco dance wi h he ules o logic and p obabili y, bu also he
abili y o apply hese skills o eal-li e p oblems, which a e no con en -independen . C i ical
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hinking can p o ide you wi h a mo e insigh ul unde s anding o you sel . I will o e you an
oppo uni y o be objec i e, less emo ional, and mo e open-minded as you app ecia e o he s' iews
and opinions. By hinking ahead, you will gain he con idence o p esen esh pe spec i es and
new insigh s in o bu den some conce ns. Thinking is he base o all cogni i e ac i i ies o
p ocesses and is unique o human beings. I in ol es manipula ion and analysis o in o ma ion
ecei ed om he en i onmen . Such manipula ion and analysis occu by means o abs ac ing,
easoning, imagining, p oblem sol ing, judging, and decision-making. The mind is he idea
while hinking p ocesses o he b ain in ol ed in p ocessing in o ma ion such as when we o m
concep s, engage in p oblem sol ing, o eason and make decisions. The his o y o esea ches on
hinking depends upon he ime ha human beings ecognized ha hey hink. Thinking is one o
he ea u es ha dis inguish humans om o he li ing hings (Annunzia a, 2023).
P incipal c i ical hinking skills can in luence eache pe o mance by guiding decision –
making p ocesses and p oblem sol ing wi hin he school en i onmen . P incipals who possess
s ong c i ical hinking skills a e be e equipped o analyze complex si ua ions, assess a ious
op ions, and make in o med choices ha bene i he en i e educa ional communi y. This can lead
o mo e e ec i e school policies, imp o ed esou ce alloca ion and s a egic planning, he eby
c ea ing a mo e conduci e a mosphe e o eache s o ocus on eaching and s uden de elopmen .
In con as , lack o c i ical hinking in leade ship may esul in ine icien decision – making, which
could nega i ely impac eache pe o mance and o e all e ec i eness in he class oom.
(Annunzia a, 2023)
The e ec o p incipal c i ical hinking skills on eache pe o mance is posi i e. P incipals
wi h s ong c i ical hinking skills a e be e equipped o make in o med decisions sol e p oblems
e icien ly and s a egically plan o he schools success. This c ea es a suppo i e en i onmen
whe e eache s can ocus on hei co e esponsibili ies wi hou unnecessa y obs acles. E ec i e
c i ical hinking a he leade ship le el con ibu es o well in o med policies, esou ce alloca ion,
and educa ional s a egies, enhancing he o e all pe o mance and e ec i eness o eache s in
deli e ing quali y educa ion o s uden s (Annunzia a, 2023)
Teache s’ Job Pe o mance
When he eache ’s pe o mance declines, i has a co ela ion o he s anda d educa ion
bo h in he sho and long e m. Teache s’ exe s a g ea in luence on he s uden s and he child en
look up o hem o guidance, suppo and p o ec ion. Child en a e supposed o lea n om hem
in o mally by obse ing hei a i ude, manne ism, conduc and gene al beha iou o mally
h ough hei eaching in he class ooms (Azi i, 2019). Teache s play a pi o al ole in he
educa ion sec o . I was widely belie ed ha he e is no na ion g ea e han he quali y o he
eache s. Fo an educa ion sys em o achie e he desi ed goals and he objec i es, he eache
e iciency mus be aken in o conside a ion. The u u e o any educa ional le el depends no only
on he psychological ac o s bu also he emo ion ac o s o he eache s (Azi i, 2019) The
eache ’s ole in he s uden academic achie emen canno be o e emphasized. The educa ional
a ainmen s o s uden depend on he e iciency o he eache s. Hence, he eache social, poli ical
and economic well-being a e e y impe a i e.
The measu e o success o a school o he wise known as he pe o mance le el is hinged
on he e iciency and e ec i eness o he eache s which, in u n, is pa ly measu ed in e ms o
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he s uden s achie emen in in e nal and ex e nal examina ions as well as he abili y o he schools
p oduc s o de end hei ce i ica es (Azi i, 2019) he le el o e iciency and e ec i eness and he
chances an o ganisa ion achie ing i s se goals depend p ima ily on he ex en o which i s
wo ke s a e pe o ming hei de ined oles. Wi h his asse ion, he e is a need o p oac i e s eps
by he managemen o educa ion sec o in he coun y o b ace up o hei esponsibili ies and
con ibu e hei quo a o he imp o emen o educa ion in he coun y. Mos especially in he
seconda y school educa ion, he p incipal plays a pi o al ole in an e ec i e school
adminis a ion. Acco ding o O uase,e .al), he eache occupies a cen al posi ion in he
ins uc ional se ing. Azi i (2019) ap ly s a ed his when he asse ed ha he eache is an impo an
igu e in p omo ing educa ional en e p ises.
Sahi o (2016) con ended ha eache s like people in he indus y, we e a ec ed by hei
expe iences. No ma e wha zeal o he eache s o pu in hei bes , can be hampe ed by many
ac o s, hese ac o a e e e ed o as quali y o wo k li e. The quali y o wo k has signi ican
e ec s in eaching and lea ning as well as he eache social in e ac ion wi hin and ou side he
school en i onmen . Acco dingly, he quali y o ela ionship o a eache will de e mine his o he
pe o mance in he o ganisa ion. When he employee pe sonal needs a e aligned app op ia ely
wi h hose o he o ganisa ion, i lead o sa is ac ion o bo h, he employe and he employees. I
is on his basis ha he pe sonal ac o s ela ing o he eache s needs we e also made a pa o he
wo k en i onmen , pe sonal ac o s he e e e s o he pe sonal needs such as com o able housing,
op imal s anda d o li ing, bene i s, e i emen bene i s, pay and aca ion pe iod, he ac o s ha e
been ound o ha e signi ican in luence on he job ou comes (U ami and Vio eza,2021). Teache
pe o mance is mul i ace ed, i ul ima ely cen es on he posi i e impac ha eache s ha e on he
educa ion and de elopmen o hei s uden s. I in ol es a combina ion o e ec i e ins uc ional
s a egies, p o essional g ow h and con ibu ions o he o e all school communi y. E ec i e
eache pe o mance in ol es lesson planning, deli e y, e alua ion, and collabo a ion (A olabi &
Alabi, 2020). When p incipals model c i ical hinking, eache s adop e lec i e p ac ices ha
imp o e ins uc ion (Okeke, 2023).
METHODOLOGY
Resea ch Design
A co ela ion su ey design was employed o de e mine he p edic i e ela ionship be ween
c i ical- hinking skills and eache pe o mance.
Popula ion and Sample
The popula ion comp ised 19 ,797 p incipals and eache s in Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe and
Ta aba S a es. A sample o 592 esponden s (516 eache s and 76 p incipals) was d awn h ough
s a i ied and simple andom sampling.
Ins umen a ion
i. P incipals’ C i ical-Thinking Skills Ques ionnai e (PCTSQ): 5 i ems on p oblem analysis,
logical easoning, decision e alua ion, inno a ion, and e lec ion.
ii. Teache s’ Job Pe o mance Scale (TJPS): 8 i ems on lesson planning, deli e y,
assessmen and class oom managemen .
Validi y and Reliabili y
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Th ee Educa ional-Managemen expe s alida ed he ins umen s. Pilo es ing p oduced α = 0.75
(PCTSQ) and α = 0.70 (TJPS).
Da a Analysis
Desc ip i e s a is ics answe ed Resea ch Ques ion 1; Pea son and Reg ession es ed Ques ion 2;
ANOVA analyzed Ques ion 3 a p < 0.05. Assump ions o no mali y and linea i y we e sa is ied.
RESULTS
Resea ch Ques ion 1: Ex en o P incipals’ C i ical-Thinking Skills
Table 1. Mean and S anda d De ia ion o P incipals’ C i ical-Thinking Skills and Teache s’ Job
Pe o mance (N = 592)
Va iable
N
Mean
SD
Rema k
P oblem iden i ica ion and analysis
592
3.36
0.68
Mode a e
Logical easoning
592
3.41
0.63
Mode a e
De eloping solu ions
592
3.56
0.61
High
E alua ion o decisions
592
3.45
0.65
Mode a e
Encou aging inno a ion
592
3.77
0.59
High
O e all C i ical-Thinking Skills
592
3.51
0.61
High
O e all Teache Pe o mance
592
3.67
0.63
High
No e. 1.00–2.49 = Low; 2.50–3.49 = Mode a e; 3.50–4.49 = High.
P incipals demons a ed high c i ical- hinking abili y, pa icula ly in encou aging inno a ion.
Resea ch Ques ion 2: Rela ionship Be ween C i ical-Thinking Skills and Teache s’ Pe o mance
Table 2. Simple Linea Reg ession P edic ing Teache s’ Job Pe o mance
P edic o
B
SE B
β
T
P
95 % CI (B)
Cons an
0.91
0.10
–
9.10
< .001
[0.71, 1.11]
P incipals’ C i ical-Thinking Skills
0.59
0.06
0.73
9.20
< .001
[0.48, 0.70]
Model summa y: R = 0.73; R² = 0.53; Adj. R² = 0.53; F (1, 590) = 84.7; p < .001.
C i ical- hinking skills explained 53 % o he a iance in eache s’ job pe o mance.
Resea ch Ques ion 3: Di e ences in Teache Pe o mance by C i ical-Thinking Le el
Table 3. ANOVA Summa y o P incipals’ C i ical-Thinking Skills P edic ing Teache s’ Job
Pe o mance
Sou ce
SS
d
MS
F
P
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Reg ession
63.4
1
63.4
84.7
< .001
Residual
287.7
590
0.49
To al
351.1
591
E ec size: ω² ≈ 0.53 (la ge). The model was s a is ically signi ican , indica ing s ong di e ences
in eache pe o mance based on p incipals’ c i ical- hinking compe ence.
DISCUSSION
Findings show ha p incipals exhibi a high le el o c i ical- hinking compe ence, pa icula ly in
inno a ion and solu ion de elopmen . This ag ees wi h Adebayo & Mohammed (2022) and
Abdullahi & Balogun (2021), who epo ed ha e lec i e hinking and p oblem sol ing imp o e
eache engagemen . The mode a e sco es o analysis and e alua ion sugges he need o
addi ional aining in analy ical easoning.
The s ong p edic i e alue (β = 0.73; R² = 0.53) con i ms c i ical hinking as a s a egic d i e o
eache pe o mance. This co obo a es indings by Lambe e al. (2024) and Eze e al. (2023) ha
leade s wi h highe cogni i e skills enhance o ganiza ional esilience. Applying Bloom’s
Taxonomy, p incipals who ope a e a highe cogni i e le els (analysis, e alua ion, c ea ion) enable
eache s o adop e lec i e ins uc ional p ac ices.
The la ge e ec size (ω² ≈ 0.53) sugges s ha o e hal o eache pe o mance a ia ion depends
on leade s’ c i ical easoning. In line wi h Bello & Hassan (2021), p incipals should emphasize
da a in e p e a ion, e lec i e discussion, and pee consul a ion when sol ing school p oblems.
Wi hou such skills, decisions may be eac i e a he han s a egic (Mohammed & Usman, 2020).
Thus, c i ical hinking is no me ely a cogni i e abili y bu a s a egic leade ship ool ha p omo es
inno a ion and eache e ec i eness in esou ce-cons ained con ex s.
CONCLUSION
P incipals’ c i ical- hinking skills signi ican ly in luence eache s’ job pe o mance in pos -basic
schools o No h-Eas Nige ia. High compe ence in p oblem analysis, solu ion de elopmen and
e lec i e easoning enhances eache p oduc i i y and school e iciency. In eg a ing c i ical-
hinking aining in o leade ship p og ams is i al o educa ional quali y. P incipals’ should
encou age c i ical hinking h ough encou aging eache s o hink c i ically and de ise me hods
ha would enable s uden s o be c ea i e
RECOMMENDATIONS
i. O ganize con inuous p o essional de elopmen on c i ical hinking and easoning.
ii. Encou age eache s o hink c i ically h ough explo ing new me hods o alloca ing ask
o s uden s ha will make hem c i ical hinke s as well.
iii. Inco po a e c i ical- hinking modules in o school leade ship ce i ica ion p og ams and
app aisal.
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LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
The s udy used a c oss-sec ional design and sel - epo measu es, which limi causal in e ence.
Longi udinal esea ch and quali a i e case s udies a e ecommended o cap u e con ex ual
dynamics o c i ical hinking in school leade ship.
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