Fa me s’ pe cei ed inancial and non- inancial cos s o hei biodi e si y
measu es – Explo ing iewpoin s wi h Q-me hodology
Ve ena Sche anz
a
, Henning Schaak
a
, Jochen Kan elha d
a
, Ka l Reimand
a
, Michael B ai o
b
,
Fla iu V. Bodea
c
, C is ina Cos ache
c
, R˘
az an Popa
c
, Reinie de V ies
d
, Da id Kleijn
d
,
Aki Kadulin
e
, Ind ek Mel s
e
, Amelia S.C. Hood
, Simon G Po s
, Lena Schalle
a,*
a
BOKU Uni e si y, Ins i u e o Ag icul u al and Fo es y Economics, Feis man els aße 4, 1180 Wien, Aus ia
b
BOKU Uni e si y, Ins i u e o Sus ainable Economic De elopmen , Feis man els aße 4, 1180 Wien, Aus ia
c
Uni e si a ea Babeș-Bolyai, Facul y o Biology and Geology, S . Clinicilo 5-7, Cluj-Napoca 400006, Romania
d
Wageningen Uni e si y & Resea ch, Plan Ecology and Na u e Conse a ion G oup, D oe endaalses eeg 3a, 6708 PB Wageningen, he Ne he lands
e
Es onian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences, Ins i u e o Ag icul u al and En i onmen al Sciences, F .R. K eu zwaldi 5, 51006 Ta u, Es onia
Cen e o Ag i-En i onmen al Resea ch (CAER), School o Ag icul u e, Policy and De elopmen , Reading Uni e si y, RG6 6AR, Uni ed Kingdom
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Financial cos s
Non- inancial cos s
Q-Me hodology
Fa me ’s pe cep ions
Ag i-en i onmen al p og ams
Biodi e si y measu es
ABSTRACT
Fa me s’ willingness o con inue pa icipa ion in hei ag i-en i onmen al p og am and main ain biodi e si y
measu es in he long e m is shaped by he na u e o cos s hey pe cei e du ing implemen a ion. Resea ch
emphasizes he need o accoun o bo h inancial and non- inancial cos s, bu holis ic assessmen s which bo h
pu hese cos s in o ela ion and accoun o a me s’ a ied pe cep ions emain lacking. To cap u e he plu ali y
o pe cei ed cos s, as well as he plu ali y o iewpoin s a me s ha e o hese cos s, we applied Q-me hodology
ac oss ou Eu opean s udy a eas. Building upon scien i ic li e a u e and expe in e iews, we de ined a Q-se
comp ising 41 cos aspec s om ou dimensions, i.e. inancial, managemen - ela ed, emo ional and social cos s.
34 a me s wi h di e en socio-demog aphic and a ming backg ound Q-so ed hese cos aspec s. Elici ed
iewpoin s showed ha pa icipa ing a me s a e ei he mos impac ed by pe cei ed go e nance- ela ed un-
ce ain y, unp oduc i eness, lack o suppo , adminis a i e bu den, unde paymen , o social non-con o mi y.
Findings gi e indica ions o highly di e se needs when implemen ing a biodi e si y measu e, wi hin and
ac oss s udy a eas. The sys ema ic insigh s in o a me s’ cos pe cep ions and he s uc u e es ablished o his Q-
s udy can guide esea ch and policymake s who aim o comp ehensi ely explo e and e alua e well- a ge ed ways
o imp o e a me s’ expe iences o biodi e si y measu es wi hin ag i-en i onmen al p og ams.
1. In oduc ion
While nume ous ag i-en i onmen al p og ams incen i ize a me s’
implemen a ion o conse a ion measu es ac oss Eu ope, hei con i-
bu ion in educing na u e deg ada ion is being ques ioned (e.g.: Pe’e
e al., 2022). Gi en ha se e al en i onmen al bene i s acc ue o e
longe ime scales, a key way o imp o e ecological e ec i eness is seen
in ensu ing a me s’ decision o con inue pa icipa ion in ag i-
en i onmen al p og ams and main ain hei conse a ion measu es
(De ancesco e al., 2018). An ex ensi e body o esea che s p o ided
insigh s in o he mul i-dimensional de e minan s, i.e. d i e s and ba -
ie s o making such ag i-en i onmen al decisions (e.g. Knowle and
B adshaw, 2007; Dessa e al., 2019; P okopy e al., 2019; Klebl e al.,
2024; Schaub e al., 2023; Sande e al., 2024; Schulze e al., 2024a).
Among hose, nega i e expe iences wi h ag i-en i onmen al p og ams
and conse a ion measu es we e obse ed as s anding agains a me s’
willingness o con inuing pa icipa ion and main enance (e.g.: Selinske
e al., 2015; Fieni z, 2018; Ranjan e al., 2019; ˇ
Sum ada e al., 2021).
Ye , o be e unde s and such nega i e expe iences and allow policy
and p og am designe s o make adap a ions suppo ing con inua ion, a
de ailed unde s anding o which disbene i s, i.e. “cos s” a me s
pe cei e ega ding he go e nance, implemen a ion and managemen o
hei conse a ion measu es, is needed.
Mos commonly, cos s o ag i-en i onmen al p og ams and measu e
implemen a ion a e associa ed wi h he inancial dimension, i.e. loss o
economic wel a e due o managemen cos s, oppo uni y cos s, and
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (L. Schalle ).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ecological Economics
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ecolecon
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108694
Recei ed 28 May 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 8 May 2025; Accep ed 23 May 2025
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
A ailable online 5 June 2025
0921-8009/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
ce ain ansac ion cos s (e.g.: Ranjan e al., 2019; Tyllianakis and
Ma in-O ega, 2021): Fa me s need o co e expendi u es o se ing up
and main aining conse a ion measu es, disca d po en ially mo e
luc a i e business oppo uni ies on commi ed land, o spend money and
ime on con ac ing, lea ning o moni o ing (e.g.: Knowle and B ad-
shaw, 2007; Me epenningen e al., 2009; Coggan e al., 2022; Schaub
e al., 2023). To ou weigh he loss o economic wel a e, ag i-
en i onmen al p og ams commonly p o ide inancial compensa ion,
as, o example, he Eu opean Union’s (EU) Common Ag icul u al Policy
and i s ag i-en i onmen -clima e paymen s (A icle 28 o Regula ion
(EU) No 1305/2013). Ye , esea ch inc easingly d aws a en ion o po-
en ial d awbacks which a me s pe cei e beyond his neoclassic eco-
nomic a ionale o wel a e losses (e.g.: Bu on, 2004; Bu on e al., 2008;
Me epenningen e al., 2009; Caldas e al., 2016; Selinske e al., 2016;
Dessa e al., 2019; Tyllianakis and Ma in-O ega, 2021).
Applica ions o es ablished concep s om o he disciplines ha e
con ibu ed o a deepe unde s anding o such “non- inancial cos s”.
Cu en ly p ominen in poli ical discussion (Ma hews, 2024), his in-
cludes, in e alia, he so-called adminis a i e bu den. While speci ying
he ansac ion cos s associa ed wi h policy adminis a ion (El Benni
e al., 2021), which o he example o c oss-compliance di ec paymen s
in Swi ze land a e es ima ed o amoun o 5% o he en i e budge , his
concep goes beyond he spending o ime and money. De ined as “an
indi idual’s expe ience o policy implemen a ion as one ous” (Bu den e al.,
2012: 741), he adminis a i e bu den accoun s no only o lea ning
and compliance e o s, bu also psychological cos s esul ing om
policy in e ac ions (Moynihan e al., 2015). Building he eupon, Ri zel
e al. (2020: 12), o example, assessed how pe cei ed loss o au onomy
and inc eased le els o s ess due o adminis a i e obliga ions impac
Swiss a me s’ expe iences wi h ag i-en i onmen al p og ams, and
ound hem as ele an as “ a ional ac o s”, such as documen a y du ies
pe se.
Addi ional non- inancial cos s a ising om conse a ion measu e
implemen a ion can be de i ed om Bou dieu’s capi al heo y. To
p ope ly e lec he eal-wo ld sys em, Bou dieu (1986: 15) ad oca ed
o conside ing “capi al in all i s o ms and no solely in he one o m
ecognized by economic heo y”. In his sense, loss o cul u al capi al and
social capi al among he ag icul u al communi y, h ough loss o p es-
ige o loss o us , migh a ise whene e conse a ion measu es do no
o m pa o “con en ional ‘good a ming’ p ac ices” (Bu on and Pa a-
gahawewa, 2011: 95). Empi ically applying Bou dieu’s capi al heo y,
Bu on e al. (2008), o example, in es iga ed how managemen e-
s ic ions and ex ensi ica ion equi emen s hinde a me s o gene a e
p oduc i is symbols, like “ idy” ields signaling “good a ming” in he
p oduc ion-o ien ed cul u es o hei Ge man and UK s udy a eas. While
Me epenningen e al. (2009) a gue ha compensa ion paymen s shall
compensa e o bo h he mone a y and such non-mone a y cos s, Bu on
e al. (2008: 21) eason ha e en i ag i-en i onmen al paymen s a e
“appa en ly gene ous”, such ba ie s o cul u al capi al gene a ion can
lea e a me s wi h an o e all ne loss (also see Cuswo h, 2020).
Addi ional insigh s in o he inancial and non- inancial dimensions
in which a me s pe cei e nega i e impac s om measu e imple-
men a ion a e o be gleaned om empi ical esea ch going beyond
concep ual lenses. Pa icula ly e-en ollmen esea ch, p o iding
in o med assessmen s o a me s al eady implemen ing conse a ion
measu es, can in o m a which (pe cei ed) cos s implemen a ion migh
come and migh ha e he po en ial o de e ing om con inua ion. Fo
example, in a s udy by Reime and P okopy (2014), in es iga ing US
a me s’ pa icipa ion in di e se conse a ion p og ams, decisions o no
e-en oll we e ound o esul bo h om expec ed oppo uni y cos s,
wi h p oduc i e use o he land becoming mo e bene icial, as well as
om wo kload, bu eauc a ic p og am equi emen s and pe cei ed e-
s ic ions in au onomy. Beyond schola ly publica ions dealing wi h e-
en ollmen , gi en hey a e sca ce (De ancesco e al., 2018), Ba nes
e al. (2019) and Vaske e al. (2021) p o ided ex ensi e epo s on US
conse a ion p og ams and long- e m pa icipa ion, showing ha d op-
ou decisions a e associa ed wi h pe cei ed disbene i s in se e al di-
mensions. Again, inancial cos s we e obse ed as impo an eason o
a me s no wishing o e-en oll. Howe e , easons also comp ised
pe cei ed nega i e impac s on o he managemen dimension,
comp ising limi a ions in land use, locally unsui able equi emen s,
adminis a i e bu den om complex equi emen s and isk o pes o
i e damage, as well as pe cei ed nega i e impac s on indi idual’s well-
being, such as oo much go e nmen al in luence on he p ope y and
educed aes he ics o ec ea ional oppo uni ies. Besides e-en ollmen
esea ch, insigh s in o po en ially ele an cos dimensions can be
de i ed om gene al assessmen s o ag i-en i onmen al p og ams as,
o example, Lim and Wachenheim (2022), epo ing a me s’ (dis-)
sa is ac ion in se e al inancial and non- inancial dimensions, o Eich-
ho n e al. (2020), examining di e se Eu opean ag i-en i onmen al
p og ams. E alua ing inno a i e con ac solu ions o biodi e si y
p o ec ion, hei ex-pos SWOT analyses no only e ealed nega i e
inancial impac s associa ed wi h p og am pa icipa ion, such as ex-
penses o na u e p o ec ion ce i ica ion and inc eased compe i ion
among a me s wi h simila en i onmen ally iendly business models.
The epo also d aws a en ion o disbene i s in he legal sphe e, wi h
he measu e’s equi emen s po en ially coming a cos o o he
con ac ual obliga ions on he a m (Eichho n e al., 2020).
Summing up, bo h concep ual and empi ical esea ch indica e he
need o accoun o pe cei ed disbene i s, i.e. cos s in no only inancial,
bu also non- inancial e ms o a oid nega i e expe iences wi h ag i-
en i onmen al p og ams and sus ainably ancho conse a ion measu e
implemen a ion in a ming. Ye , esea ch sys ema ically syn hesizing
he a ied inancial and non- inancial cos s which a me s pe cei e in
he cou se o measu e implemen a ion and in es iga ing hem in hei
en i e y is, o he au ho s’ bes knowledge, limi ed. While he e is
esea ch inc easing awa eness o he di e si y o inancial o p ac ical
bu dens, wi h o example Schaub e al. (2023: 617) ex ensi ely in es-
iga ing in o “ a me s’ o gone u ili y when choosing o pa icipa e” o
Coggan e al. (2022) ou lining a me s’ a ied ansac ion cos s, exis ing
s udies do no accoun o he ull a ie y o cos s, lea ing aside aspec s
such as psychological one osi ies o loss o non-economic capi al as
ou lined abo e. A he same ime, empi ical s udies so a ha e missed o
examine he di e se pe cep ions a me s ha e o hese a ied cos s. This is
su p ising gi en he b oad empi ical e idence on he he e ogenous
a me s’ ypes and iewpoin s e en wi hin Eu opean egions, which
migh be wo h o be e lec ed in mo e di e se policy mechanisms o
inc ease hei e iciency and e ec i eness (Ba kowski e al., 2022).
The e o e, his s udy is guided by he aim o bo h gain a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o he plu ali y o cos s, h ough syn-
hesizing mul i-dimensional bu dens, as well as explo ing he plu ali y
o pe cep ions he eo . He eby, i ocuses on ag i-en i onmen al mea-
su es speci ically a ge ing biodi e si y conse a ion, in he ollowing
deno ed as “biodi e si y measu es”. This esponds o hei limi ed suc-
cess so a (Eu opean Union, 2020), mi o ed in an un a o able s a us o
ends o species and habi a s ac oss he EU (Eu opean En i onmen
Agency, 2020), and he sus ained e o s needed o p o ec ing hem (e.
g., Race and Cu is, 2009; Reime e al., 2014; D echsle e al., 2017),
emphasizing he necessi y o con inued implemen a ion. Acco dingly,
we seek o answe he ollowing esea ch ques ion: Which di e en
iewpoin s do a me s hold abou he di e se inancial and non- inancial
cos s o hei biodi e si y measu es, as pa o ag i-en i onmen al p og ams?
To his end, his s udy applies Q-me hodology, an explo a o y mixed-
me hods app oach allowing o “ eliably, scien i ically and expe imen ally”
assess people’s subjec i i y and, subsequen ly, elici sha ed iewpoin s
(Wa s and S enne , 2005, 2012: 44). Building on an ex ensi e se -up
p ocess o comp ehensi ely cap u e he mul idimensionali y o cos s,
we conduc ed in e iews wi h a me s ac oss ou subs an ially di e en
Eu opean s udy a eas o elici po en ially a ied pe cep ions o hese
cos s. This s udy makes h ee majo con ibu ions: Fi s , i con ibu es o
a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o po en ial nega i e expe iences,
i.e. pe cei ed cos s as equi alen , mul i-dimensional coun e pa o
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
2
pe cei ed bene i s, also going a beyond he inancial dimension. I hus
complemen s esea ch on he a ious d i e s and ba ie s o a me s’
ag i-en i onmen al beha io h ough p o iding new, syn hesized in-
sigh s in o one such de e minan , i.e. nega i e expe iences a me s make
wi h cu en implemen a ion. Second, i cap u es di e se iewpoin s on
hese mul i-dimensional cos s, in o ming a mo e comp ehensi e de i-
ni ion o suppo ools and p og am adjus men s a ge ed a a me s’
a ied needs o mi iga e po en ially nega i e expe iences wi h biodi-
e si y measu es and hus ensu e con inued implemen a ion. Thi d,
while his s udy does no aim o di ec ly d aw conclusions on con inu-
a ion, he syn hesis o inancial and non- inancial cos s eeding he Q-
me hodological app oach as well as he iden i ied iewpoin s p o ide
sys ema ic ounda ions o uel he sca ce, ye impo an ield o
con inua ion esea ch (Race and Cu is, 2009; Reime e al., 2014;
De ancesco e al., 2018; Ga o e al., 2019; Ranjan e al., 2019) in bo h
quali a i e and quan i a i e e ms.
The emainde o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: In Sec ion 2, we
de ail he Q-me hodological app oach, including da a collec ion and
analysis. The elici ed iewpoin s, building on s a is ical esul s and
na a i e-s yle desc ip ions, a e p esen ed in Sec ion 3. In Sec ion 4, we
discuss o e all pe cep ion ends, he elici ed iewpoin s and hei im-
plica ions o policy-making, alongside he limi a ions o his s udy.
Las ly, conclusions a e d awn in Sec ion 5.
2. Me hods
In his s udy, Q-me hodology explo es sha ed iewpoin s on inan-
cial and non- inancial cos s o measu e implemen a ion o be e un-
de s and he mul i- ace ed bu dens which di e en g oups wi hin he
a ming communi y expe ience and, in a nex s ep, o allow o well-
a ge ed policy esponses. Q-me hodology is a echnique widely used
in socio-en i onmen al sciences (Sneegas e al., 2021). Recen applica-
ions o Q-me hodology ela ing o ag icul u e and ood p oduc ion
comp ise he assessmen o iewpoin s on ood labels (Schulze e al.,
2024b), ag i-en i onmen al con ac design (Schulze and Ma zdo ,
2023), ood sys em sus ainabili y (R¨
o¨
os e al., 2023), and ad iso y sys-
ems (Chowdhu y and Kabi , 2023). This applica ion o Q-me hodology
was guided by Wa s and S enne (2005, 2012) and, as common,
comp ised wo majo s eps (also see Die e en e al., 2023) which a e
b ie ly ou lined as ollows:
In he i s s ep (da a collec ion), he Q-se , i.e. i ems o so such as
s a emen s o pic u es on he esea ch opic, is de ined. The Q-se needs
o be “b oadly ep esen a i e” o he so-called concou se (Wa s and
S enne , 2012: 67), which is he e e y-day communica ion abou he
esea ch opic (B own, 1993). The size o he Q-se should lie wi hin he
“house s anda d” o 40 o 80 i ems (Wa s and S enne , 2012: 67). Sub-
sequen ly, pa icipan s, i.e. he P-se , a e asked o so hese i ems
ela i e o each o he acco ding o hei pe cei ed impo ance, ag ee-
men , p e e ence o he like. Fo insigh ul Q-s udies, he P-se needs o
be ela i ely small, deemed su icien wi h e en less han 40 pa icipan s
(Wa s and S enne , 2005) and a ely exceeding 50 (B own, 1993).
Gi en he a ionale o Q-me hodology and he subsequen analysis wi h
pa icipan s’ Q-so s se ing as he a iables (see below), he P-se is
sampled s a egically acco ding o he esea ch ques ion (Wa s and
S enne , 2012).
1
Impo an ly, he P-se does no need o be ep esen a-
i e o he popula ion, bu di e se o ensu e ha as many po en ial
iewpoin s as possible a e cap u ed (Wa s and S enne , 2005, 2012).
Th ough so ing, pa icipan s ans e nume ous i ems in o hei indi-
idual ges al con igu a ions, he so-called Q-so s (Wa s and S enne ,
2012). To ensu e compa abili y be ween Q-so s, so ing usually ollows
a o ced dis ibu ion. This means ha i ems canno be assigned eely,
bu pa icipan s a e asked o all so in o he same-shaped g id.
2
In he second s ep (da a analysis), Q-so s o all pa icipan s a e
subjec ed o a join by-pe son ac o analysis which ex ac s so-called
“ ac o s”, g ouping a me s wi h simila Q-so s and hus indica ing
sha ed iewpoin s (Wa s and S enne , 2005, 2012). The numbe o
ac o s o keep om ac o analysis is guided bo h by quali a i e con-
side a ions, such as a ac o s’ eal-li e signi icance, and quan i a i e
c i e ia (B own, 1980; Wa s and S enne , 2012). Subsequen ly, ac o
a ays, i.e. “bes -es ima e Q-so s” ep esen ing he iewpoin s, a e
gene a ed o each ac o (Wa s and S enne , 2005: 82). To acili a e he
in e p e a ion o hese iewpoin s, he quan i a i e Q-so ing is ypically
accompanied and/o ollowed by quali a i e in e iews, du ing which
pa icipan s explain he easoning behind hei anking (Wa s and
S enne , 2005; Wa s and S enne , 2012).
2.1. Q-se
The Q-se in his s udy comp ises he mul i- ace ed pe cep ions
a me s migh s a e abou cos s o hei biodi e si y measu e. The Q-se
sampling is desc ibed in Fig. 1. To cap u e he di e si y o po en ially
pe cei ed cos s, his p ocess was uns uc u ed, i.e. no guided by p e-
de ined heo ies (Wa s and S enne , 2012). Concou se iden i ica ion
Fig. 1. P ocess o Q-se sampling.
1
Q-me hodology applies ac o analysis, which is p e e ably un wi h less
a iables han obse a ions. Gi en ha ac o analysis is un by-pe son
(in e ed) wi h pa icipan s’ Q-so s se ing as a iables and Q-i ems se ing
as obse a ions, he P-se he e o e is p e e ably smalle han he Q-se (Wa s
and S enne , 2005; Weble e al., 2009; Wa s and S enne , 2012). Besides,
small samples shall ensu e ocus on “essen ial quali ies” and “sub le nuances” in
he da a (Wa s and S enne , 2005: 79; 2012).
2
I is impo an o no e ha so ing is ela i e. The e o e, he middle o he
g id does no necessa ily sepa a e i ems which a e deemed, e.g., mos impo an
o mos ag eed wi h om hose which a e deemed mos unimpo an o mos
disag eed wi h (Wa s and S enne , 2012).
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
3
(1) was based on pee - e iewed publica ions, p ojec and ins i u ional
documen s, epo ing abou disad an ages which a me s encoun e
wi hin hei ag i-en i onmen al p og ams, o which hey conside when
deciding on u he pa icipa ion. To his end, li e a u e sea ch was
ocused on non- inancial cos concep s as well as e-en ollmen li e a-
u e. Key wo ds used o iden i y pee - e iewed li e a u e comp ised
“non- inancial cos *”, “non-economic cos *”, “non-mone a y cos *”, “ e-
en oll*”, “con inu*”, “pos p og am”, “pos con ac ”, “con ac end” and
“end o con ac ”, combined wi h he e m “ag i-en i onmen *”. Snow-
balling was applied un il no new insigh s could be gained, i.e. sa u a ion.
P ojec and ins i u ional, i.e. go e nmen - ela ed documen s comp ised
p ojec e alua ions esul ing om he li e a u e sea ch ou lined abo e,
deli e ables om p eceding EU p ojec s on he social impac o
ecological a ming app oaches o a me s (LIFT
3
) and on impac s o
inno a i e ag i-en i onmen al con ac solu ions (CONSOLE
4
), as well
as an e alua ion o ag i-en i onmen al paymen s by he Eu opean Union
(2011). The li e a u e sea ch was conduc ed om Feb ua y o June
2023. Expe mee ings wi h an ag icul u al economis and a ep esen-
a i e o a Eu opean a me s’ associa ion we e conduc ed o c oss-check
o missing opics. O e all, 116 cos aspec s, i.e. po en ial disbene i s
encoun e ed du ing he implemen a ion o ag i-en i onmen al p o-
g ams, we e iden i ied. Since publica ions mos ly did no epo hem as
di ec ci a ions om a me s, o epo s we e oo speci ic on single ag i-
en i onmen al p ac ices, he concep ualizing au ho s gene a ed sho
s a emen s in easy- ead and plain language om he iden i ied cos as-
pec s and abs ac ed hem as much as needed o i all in es iga ed
biodi e si y measu es and s udy a eas ( o p ac ical checks see below).
Induc i e clus e ing o he iden i ied cos aspec s elici ed ou “cos di-
mensions”: Financial cos s ela e o inancial loss and unce ain y.
Managemen - ela ed cos s deal wi h adminis a i e and physical im-
pedimen s. Emo ional cos s comp ise impac s on alues, p e e ences and
well-being. Social cos s ega d ad e se e ec s in a me s’ social en i-
onmen . While elici ed cos aspec s on Bou dieu’s (1986) concep o
social and cul u al capi al could be assigned o only one dimension
(“social cos s”), elici ed cos aspec s om he concep s o ansac ion
cos s and adminis a i e bu den we e assigned o se e al dimensions,
gi en hey a e mul i- ace ed in hemsel es and ouch upon di e se as-
pec s, e.g. in o ma ion seeking coming wi h bu den on ime o money o
ea o penal ies leading o emo ional s ess.
In he p e-selec ion (2), s a emen s we e clea ed om edundancies
and adjus ed o simila le els o abs ac ion. To alida e and comple-
men he emaining 66 s a emen s in e ms o p ac ical and local ele-
ance (3), we conduc ed indi idual online in e iews wi h se en u he
expe s ( h ee ad iso s, h ee ag o-economis s, one a me s’ ep esen-
a i e) who a e amilia wi h he ag icul u al con ex o he espec i e
s udy a eas and biodi e si y measu es (see Sec ion 2.3). Building
he eupon, he concep ualizing co-au ho s de ined he quasi- inal se-
lec ion o 41 s a emen s. Fo ine- uning (4), he quasi- inal Q-se was
p e- es ed by a me s (n=3) wi h di e en p oduc ion sys ems,
esul ing in mino changes in wo ding and he eplacemen o wo
s a emen s due o pe cei ed edundancies.
5
Subsequen ly, we discussed
he wo ding among he en i e eam o co-au ho s o ensu e unambigu-
ous ansla abili y. The inal Q-se is shown in Table 4, while
Appendix A de ails he main sou ces o each s a emen .
2.2. P-se
Gi en he scope o his s udy aiming o mo e comp ehensi ely
unde s and he plu ali y o cos s pe cei ed in he cou se o imple-
men a ion, he P-se comp ises exclusi ely a me s who a e al eady
implemen ing he in es iga ed biodi e si y measu es as pa o an ag i-
en i onmen al p og am (see Sec ion 2.3). Rec ui ing was conduc ed
wi hin he ne wo ks o local esea ch pa ne s om academic esea ch
ins i u ions wi h ag o-ecological ocus and non-go e nmen al ag i-
en i onmen al o ganiza ions p o iding ad iso y se ices o a me s. To
ensu e ha , in case iewpoin s a y among he a ming communi y,
hey a e cap u ed in hei ull plu ali y, we aimed o a me s wi h
a ied socio-economic and a m cha ac e is ics, especially gende , age,
educa ion, a m ype, a m size, and a m managemen . The inal P-se is
p esen ed in Sec ion 3.1.
2.3. S udy a eas and hei biodi e si y measu es
S udy a eas a e loca ed in Es onia, he Ne he lands, Romania, and
he Uni ed Kingdom (Fig. 2). Each a ea aces subs an ial h ea s o
biodi e si y which o igina e om land use change and a e being
add essed by public o p i a e p og ams, incen i izing he imple-
men a ion o co esponding biodi e si y measu es. Table 1 gi es an
o e iew. De ails o he ag icul u al con ex and p og am adminis a-
ion a e p o ided in Appendix B.
2.4. Q-so ing
The Q-so ing was ca ied ou in indi idual ace- o- ace in e iews.
In e iews ook place in au umn 2023 and las ed be ween 0.5 and 2
hou s. In e iews we e conduc ed by na i e-speaking esea ch pa ne s
( o Es onian, Romanian, and Du ch)
6
o he i s au ho ( o English o
Ge man). The i s au ho addi ionally assis ed each in e iew o ensu e
uni o m da a collec ion. We used a me s’ na i e language, excep i
explici ly p e e ed o he wise.
7
P io o so ing, he Q-se was ca e ully
ansla ed and p in ed on o 41 ca ds.
Following Wa s and S enne (2012), a me s i s amilia ized
hemsel es wi h he s a emen s h ough assigning he ca ds o h ee
piles (disag ee, ag ee, neu al/undecided). Based on his ough classi-
ica ion, a me s so ed he s a emen s ela i e o each o he on a scale
Fig. 2. Loca ion o s udy a eas ac oss Eu ope.
3
h ps://www.li -h2020.eu/
4
h ps://console-p ojec .eu/
5
These s a emen s asked abou emo ional dis ess esul ing om adminis-
a i e asks and a me s’ pe cep ion o de ia ing om wha hei pee s do,
ecommend o p io i ize, which appea ed oo close o s a emen s on he o e all
amoun o pape wo k and being seen as good a me , espec i ely.
6
Regula ly, one local esea ch pa ne was in ol ed in he in e iews pe
s udy a ea. Only in he Romanian s udy a ea, 3 esea ch pa ne s we e in ol ed
who al e na ely ook he lead ole.
7
In 2 cases, a me s op ed o an in e iew in English espec i ely Ge man
because hey we e luen in hese languages and wan ed o engage wi h he i s
au ho . Ye , h oughou he in e iews, na i e-speaking assis ance was gua -
an eed h ough local esea ch pa ne s.
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
4
om −4 (mos disag ee) o +4 (mos ag ee), guided by he ques ion
“How do you pe cei e you biodi e si y measu e?”.
8
Fo an illus a ion o
he g id o Q-so ing, i.e. he dis ibu ion o ma applied, see Fig. 3.
So ing was ollowed by quali a i e ques ions, in e alia on mo i a ions
o so ing o he ex eme ends, and su p ising, con using, o missing
s a emen s. The quali a i e ollow-ups we e audio- eco ded o , i he
a me p e e ed, p o ocolled by means o w i en no es.
9
Fa m cha -
ac e is ics and socio-demog aphics we e assessed h ough a sho
ques ionnai e.
2.5. Q pa e n analysis
Q-so s we e analyzed join ly o iden i y di e en and sha ed pa -
e ns ac oss pa icipan s om all s udy a eas. Fo quan i a i e analysis,
we used he open-sou ce so wa e KADE, e sion 1.2.1 (Banasick, 2019).
Fi s , by-pe son p incipal componen analysis wi h subsequen Va imax
o a ion was un on he in e co ela ed Q-so s. In his s udy, Q-so s a e
deemed as loading signi ican ly on a ac o i hei loading exceeds
±0.403(P<0.01; calcula ed a e B own, 1980). Second, and based on
ex ensi e discussions among he concep ualizing co-au ho s on he one
hand, as well as Humph ey’s ule (p oduc o ac o ’s highes wo
loadings exceed once o , s ic e , wice he s anda d e o ), he Kaise -
Gu man c i e ion ( ac o ’s eigen alue ≥1), and he numbe o signi i-
can ly loading Q-so s pe ac o (≥2) on he o he hand, we decided o
e ain 5 ac o s (also see B own, 1980; Wa s and S enne , 2012). Fo
gene a ing he ac o a ays, only Q-so s which ha e a minimum
loading o ±0.403 on he espec i e ac o and do no exceed his le el
o ano he ac o we e used o ac o a ay calcula ion and u he
analysis. Addi ionally, consensus and dis inguishing s a emen s
(P<0.01) we e calcula ed.
10
Fac o 3 was ound bipola , meaning ha
Q-so s load signi ican ly in bo h nega i e and posi i e e ms. Following
B own (1980), we spli his ac o in o sub- ac o s (3a/b), coming wi h
sepa a e ac o a ays and, consequen ly, sepa a e in e p e a ions. Fig. 3
g aphically illus a es he a ay o an exempla y ac o / iewpoin .
Func ioning as bes -es ima e o all Q so s ha ha e been lagged o he
espec i e ac o , i is a speci ic a angemen o he Q-se wi h i s 41 cos
s a emen s om ou dimensions.
Fo in e p e ing he ac o s and ep esen ed iewpoin s, we la gely
adhe ed o “c ib shee s” (Wa s and S enne , 2012): o each ac o a ay,
a c ib shee highligh s which s a emen s a e anked signi ican ly
di e en ly (dis inguishing s a emen s), o simply mo e highly/lowly
compa ed o all o he a ays. In e p e a ion was suppo ed by audio-
eco dings o p o ocols om he quali a i e ollow-ups. Audio- e-
co dings we e ansc ibed and ansla ed by means o a i icial in elli-
gence, i.e. Whispe (Open AI, 2022) and DeepL P o, wi h subsequen
manual co ec ions.
3. Resul s
3.1. Fac o cha ac e is ics
Ac oss s udy a eas, alid Q-so s and quali a i e da a om in e iews
wi h 34 a me s we e collec ed.
11
The cha ac e is ics o he i e
ex ac ed ac o s, including bipola Fac o s 3a/b, a e p esen ed in
Table 2. In e - ac o co ela ion was limi ed o e all, anging om ∣
0.002∣ o ∣0.417∣, indica ing high a ia ion be ween he elici ed ac o s.
Wi h an o e all explained a iance o 50%, we ob ained a solu ion
which in Q li e a u e such as Wa s and S enne (2012) is iewed as
s a is ically sa is ac o y and aligns wi h ecen mul i-na ional applica-
ions o Q me hodology (also see Sec ion 4.1). The ex en o which each
a me ’s Q-so loads on o he ac o s can be seen in Appendix C.
In Table 3, we desc ibe he P-se and he a me s de ining he
espec i e ac o s. Ful illing a p e- equisi e o cap u ing po en ially
Table 1
Desc ip ion o s udy a eas by biodi e si y h ea s and co esponding measu es.
Es onia (EE) Ne he lands (NL) Romania (RO) Uni ed Kingdom (UK)
Region Wes Es onian coas -line wi hou
islands
Sou h Limbu g Uplands o Romanian No h-Wes &
Cen e
Sou he n England
Ag icul u al
con ex
Fla land, mainly c op and li es ock
a ming, a ms ypically sized la ge
han 100 ha (Aamisepp e al., 2023)
Loess-co e ed, incised pla eau wi h
e aces and slopes ( an de
Wes e ingh, 1980); mainly a able
c ops and g assland, a e age a m
size lowe han 30 ha (Ag ima ie,
2018)
Hilly/moun ainous land, mainly
mixed a ming wi h ex ensi e pas u es
and hay meadows, a able land and
adi ional o cha ds, high abundance
o small-scale amily a ms (Page e al.,
2012; Page and Popa, 2013.
Fla /hilly land, mainly a able
c ops and li es ock g azing, mo e
han 70% o he land is pa o
a ms la ge han 100 ha (DEFRA,
2023b, DEFRA, 2023c).
Th ea s o
biodi e si y
Abandonmen o coas al meadows,
i.e. biodi e si y- ich, semi-na u al
habi a s c ea ed h ough adi ional
ag icul u e (Mel s e al., 2018;
Lo man and Rannap, 2020)
In ensi ica ion o ex ensi e
pe manen g assland, ich in
biodi e si y and de e minan o
scenic landscape (WallisDeV ies
e al., 2002)
In ensi ica ion o abandonmen o
high na u e alue pe manen
g assland, associa ed wi h small-scale
amily a ms (Page e al., 2012; Page
and Popa, 2013)
In ensi ica ion o a mland and
loss o biodi e si y in one o he
mos na u e-depaupe a e
coun ies wo ldwide (Boa man
e al., 2007; Bu ns e al., 2023)
In es iga ed
biodi e si y
measu e and
equi emen s
Conse a ion/ es o a ion o coas al
meadows, e.g. h ough land
clea ing, ex ensi e g azing, delayed
mowing
Conse a ion/ es o a ion o
ex ensi e g assland, e.g. h ough
delayed mowing, ex ensi e g azing,
and ceased e iliza ion
Conse a ion/ es o a ion o high-
na u e alue g asslands, e.g. h ough
delayed mowing, educed machine y
use, e iliza ion andg azing
p essu e
Win e co e c opping in a able
sys ems o co e soil be ween
summe ha es and sp ing
c opping
Go e nance Public (Es onian ag i-en i onmen al
p og am)
Public (Du ch ag i-en i onmen al
p og am wi h local collec i e)
Public (Romanian ag i-en i onmen al
p og am)
Public (UK ag i-en i onmen al
p og am); p i a e by ce ain wa e
companies
8
Fo example, a a me migh s ongly ag ee o pe cei e he measu e like
desc ibed in s a emen Q11 (“The e is oo much pape wo k coming wi h he
biodi e si y measu e.”) and hus assigned i o +4, while she ag ees sligh ly less
s ongly o pe cei e he measu e like desc ibed in s a emen Q1 (“The biodi-
e si y measu e is es ic ing he lexibili y on my a m.”) and he e o e
assigned i o +3.
9
Ou o 34 alid in e iews (see Sec ion 3.1), 32 a me s ag eed o be audio-
eco ded and 2 a me s p e e ed p o ocolling by means o w i en no es.
10
In case o a dis inguishing s a emen , a ac o ’s z sco e on an i em di e s
signi ican ly om hose o o he ac o s; in case o a consensus, i is simila
ac oss ac o s. The z sco e is based on he a e age o he anks ha he lagged
Q-so s o one ac o assigned o an i em, weighed by he so s’ ac o loadings
(see, e.g., Zabala e al., 2018).
11
Despi e comp ehensi e explana ions, ou Q-so s had been excluded
because s a emen s we e assigned only o he ex eme ends (2), o Q-so s and
ollow-ups showed subs an ial disc epancies (2).
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
5
di e se iewpoin s, he P-se is di e se o mos o he ou lined selec ion
c i e ia, including a m size
12
, a m ypes, a m managemen , yea s in
he biodi e si y measu e, and age. These c i e ia a e ela i ely well-
balanced, meaning ha iewpoin s o he espec i e sub-g oups a e
simila ly likely o be e lec ed in he da a. Pa icula ly in e ms o
gende , howe e , he P-se is o e all no balanced and comp ises mo e
male (31) han emale (3) a me s o a me s indica ing “o he ” (0),
isking ha hei iewpoin s a e cap u ed o a lesse ex en , o no a all.
As can be u he seen in Table 3, ac o s show a high a ie y in
composi ion. Only a me s associa ed wi h Fac o 3b end o be simila
o mos cha ac e is ics, i.e. all applying con en ional managemen as
well as ha ing long expe ience wi h biodi e si y measu es and non-
uni e si y educa ion, while a me s associa ed wi h Fac o 4 appea o
ha e pa icula ly ew simila i ies. No ewo hy cha ac e is ics u he
ela e o a me s associa ed wi h Fac o 5, sha ing a non-con en ional
a m managemen , and o Fac o 4, coming wi h a compa a i ely high
sha e o non- amily a ms.
Table 4 shows he calcula ed ac o a ays. I u he e eals in which
cos aspec s he ep esen ed iewpoin s di e om all o he s, as indi-
ca ed h ough dis inguishing s a emen s (P<0.01). While accoun ed o
in he calcula ions, no consensus s a emen , indica ing con e gen a -
ings, was obse ed ac oss ac o s.
Th oughou eading, i is impo an o no e ha ac o a ays a e
a e aged bes -es ima es which a e ypical o he ep esen ed iew-
poin s, bu can de ia e om indi idual a me s’ lagged Q-so s. Mo e-
o e , he Q-me hodological app oach helps o gain a mo e holis ic
unde s anding o wha bu dens a me s in he cou se o measu e
implemen a ion h ough pu ing a ious cos aspec s in o ela ion and
iden i ying iewpoin s o a me s who deem simila cos s ela i ely mos
o leas ele an . Ye , no conclusions can be d awn abou he absolu e
le el o pe cei ed cos s and a me s’ (dis-)sa is ac ion wi h measu e
implemen a ion. Simila ly, he Q me hodological app oach is based on a
s a egically sampled, bu no - ep esen a i e P-se and, while cap u ing
di e se iewpoin s, does no in o m abou hei ela i e abundance, i.e.
dis ibu ion, among he Eu opean a ming communi y (also see Sec ions
2and 4.3). Las ly, gi en he scope o his s udy, he iewpoin s cap u e
he pe cep ion o cos s, while nei he a me s’ mo i a ions o ( e-)
implemen hei biodi e si y measu e, no any e ec on measu e
implemen a ion can be deduced.
3.2. P esen a ion o ac o s
Fac o 1: go e nance- ela ed unce ain y
Fa me s sha ing he iewpoin ep esen ed by Fac o 1 emphasize
he p oblem o uns able o unclea egula ions, o o he o ms o
go e nance- ela ed unce ain y coming wi h hei biodi e si y measu e.
Mo e han any o he g oup, hey eel oo much insecu i y due o
changing equi emen s (Q20:+4
13
). Like Fa me RO-5
14
, a guing ha
Fig. 3. G aphical illus a ion o an exempla y ac o a ay.
Table 2
Summa y o ac o cha ac e is ics: explained a iance, de ining a iables, and co ela ions o he i e- ac o -solu ion wi h spli bipola ac o s 3a/b.
Fac o
1 2 3a 3b 4 5
Explained a iance (%) 13 9 8 14 6
Numbe o de ining
a iables/ lagged
Q-so s 7 6 3 2 8 3
Co ela ions be ween ac o a ays
Fac o 1 2 3a 3b 4 5
1 1 0.232 0.186 0.155 0.417 −0.002
2 1 −0.025 0.079 0.232 0.067
3a 1 −0.254 0.385 0.061
3b 1 0.116 −0.056
4 1 0.071
5 1
12
Wi h an a e age a m size o 86, 35, 4, and 82 ha in Es onia, he
Ne he lands, Romania, and he Uni ed Kingdom, espec i ely (Eu opean
Commission, 2025, based on da a om 2020; DEFRA, 2024, based on da a om
2023), Table 3 shows ha also a me s widely di e ging om he na ional
a e ages we e included in he P-se o enable cap u ing o po en ially di e se,
a he han mos common iewpoin s.
13
see Table 4; deno ed as ollows: (Q[s a emen ID]:[so ing alue])
14
see Table C.1 in Appendix C; he ID o Q-so s/ a me s is composed o an
abb e ia ion o he s udy a ea (RO =Romania, NL =Ne he lands, UK=Uni ed
Kingdom, EE =Es onia) and a andomized numbe
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
6
“I ’s no eally explained. […] We a e in he og e e y yea ”, Fa me RO-3
easons ha “policies change om yea o yea , and we ha e o adap on he
ly, and we can’ make an exac plan”. Fa me EE-6 ela es unce ain y o
po en ially no ecei ing money when applying o g an s, e en in e u n
o majo in es men s: “And hen, how do you build you ac i i ies, like, on
sand?” In addi ion, wo ies a e exp essed ha lease con ac s migh be
cancelled despi e ongoing obliga ions o main ain he biodi e si y
measu e on he leased land (RO-3), unding migh be s opped because o
lacking s a e budge (EE-6), o paymen s a e oo dependen on unclea
ou comes a he han con ollable e o s (EE-5).
Rela edly, a me s end o ag ee o he s a emen ha he agen s
making he biodi e si y measu es lack p ac ical unde s anding
(Q27:+3), esul ing in inadequa e ules (RO-2) o e en ba ie s o
biodi e si y p o ec ion: “We do [biodi e si y conse a ion] o pleasu e.
[…] Bu ag i-en i onmen al measu es don’ le us” (RO-3). Simila ly,
a ming is deemed o ha e become mo e in lexible (Q1:+3). Compa ed
o o he g oups, a me s sha ing his iewpoin also ag ee mo e s ongly
ha implemen ing hei biodi e si y measu e comes a cos o ime o
amily and iends (Q32:+2). This can be ela ed o he p ocess o
unding applica ion: “So i you don’ ha e any hing a all igh om he
s a , you’ e like o ced o w i e hese p ojec p oposals [ o apply o g an s
o biodi e si y measu es], […] all ha unning a ound, all o ha is ee ime
and nigh - ime hou s when you’ e w i ing i , igh ” (EE-6), bu also o
inc eased handwo k, as s a ed by se e al a me s. In line, i is ypically
s ongly ag eed ha compensa ion is insu icien (Q39:+4): “The e a e
many adi ional p ac ices, clea ing he land is di icul , you can’ use ma-
chine y, he land is une en, lack o labo , lack o people. […] You don’ ind
people. They’ e expensi e” (RO-5).
Whe eas a me s pe cei e ela i ely high cos s associa ed wi h
go e nance and p ac ical wo k, as laid ou abo e, hey pe cei e hei
biodi e si y measu e as i ing hei local con ex ela i ely well.
Looking a he on- a m i on he one hand, a me s in his g oup ypi-
cally disag ee o he s a emen s ha hei measu e nega i ely impac s
essen ial ope a ions (Q4:−4) and h ea s om pes s o diseases
inc eased due o implemen a ion (Q13:−3). Acco dingly, EE-6 con-
cludes: “The e’s no hing else o do he e a e all!“ F om an aes he ical poin
o iew, a me s seem o e en enjoy hei biodi e si y measu e
(Q29:−3): “I ind i ok o be ‘manicu ed’, chemical- ee, adi ional” (RO-5).
Looking a he social i , on he o he hand, a me s end no o eel
s igma ized because o hei biodi e si y measu e, leas om he
a ming communi y (Q30:−4). Fa me s also disag ee, mo e s ongly
han any o he g oup, ha socie y pushes hem in o he biodi e si y
measu e wi hou aking ac ion i sel (Q25:−3*
15
). Ra he han social
p essu e, Fa me RO-2 expe ienced a ce ain indi e ence (“People wan
o ha e a ull s omach and hen, hen hey migh ead wha ’s w i en on [ he
p oduc ]”), and o he a me s such as RO-5 expe ienced only posi i ely
mo i a ing beha io om socie y: “They a e e en exci ed, [saying] ‘luckily
you do ha ’…’ ha ’s good!’”
Fac o 2: unp oduc i eness
Fac o 2 highligh s a pe cei ed disc epancy be ween a me s’ own,
mo e p oduc ion-o ien ed idea o a ming and he need o educe p o-
duc i eness when implemen ing a biodi e si y measu e. This, on he one
hand, esul s in emo ional cos s, including loss o iden i y: Mo e han in
any o he g oup, a me s ag ee s ongly ha hei a mland now looks
less appealing o hem (Q29:+3*). Fa me NL-10, while acknowledging
his measu e’s esul s, a gues: “I p e e o see a s aigh ield, like wha is
being mown e e y ou weeks” and con inues: “The school I wen o, he
ag icul u al school, hey say you ha e o p oduce. Po a oes, milk, bee ; and
his has no hing o do wi h p oduc ion”. Simila ly, hey ag ee ela i ely
s ongly ha he wo k associa ed wi h hei biodi e si y measu e is no
pa o a a me ’s job (Q19:+2).
On he o he hand, a me s eel ha hei biodi e si y measu es
p ac ically hinde p oduc ion, coming wi h managemen - ela ed cos s
o hei a m. Impo an ly, a me s a e mos conce ned ha e-
qui emen s some imes do no i he local condi ions (Q10:+4*), as
illus a ed by NL-1“The pe son who has o con ol e e y hing, he is d i ing
a ound [one day be o e i is allowed] o see i somebody has mown he g ass”
bu “I ha e o wo k wi h he clima e, wi h he wea he , and I don’ ha e o
wo k wi h he calenda ” (NL-1). Addi ionally, a me s sha ing his iew-
poin end o ag ee ha he agen s in ol ed in he biodi e si y measu e
ha e oo li le p ac ical unde s anding (Q27:+3). Besides, h ea s o
a ming a e deemed mo e ele an due o he measu e (Q13:+4*):
Fa me NL-2 assumes ha “ he e will be mo e insec s and c i e s and so on
ha can be undesi able o he egula ag icul u e”, and Fa me NL-10 a -
gues ha “ he he b goes in o he manu e. Then I d i e i back o he o he
ields. […] Well, on ou a m i is e y impo an ha e e y hing we g ow is
weed- ee. […] And ha ’s why we need much less pes icides”.
Table 3
Desc ip ion o o al P-se (n =34) and, by ac o , a me s wi h lagged Q-so s (n
=29). As de ailed, his s udy di e en ia es be ween amily a ms and non- amily
a ms based on who manages he a m, i.e. membe s o he owne ’s amily o
ex e nal pe sons, such as employed a m manage s wi hou amily ies. Like in
Calus and Van Huylenb oeck (2010), his cha ac e is ic does no ela e o he
sha e o en ed/owned land.
Flagged Q so s ( a me s) by
ac o s
1 2 3a 3b 4 5
To al 7 6 3 2 8 3
s udy a ea Es onia 9 4 2 – – 2–
Ne he lands 10 –4–1 2 2
Romania 7 3 –2 1 – –
Uni ed Kingdom 8 – – 1–4 1
Fa m cha ac e is ics
a m size
up o 50 ha 8 1 2 1 1 1 –
51–100 ha 5 1 1 –1 1 1
101–200 ha 7 3 1 1 – – 1
201–500 ha 5 1 1 – – 2–
501–1.000 ha 3 –1 1 –1–
mo e han 1.000
ha 6 1 – – – 3 1
a m ype (sel -
decla ed)
mixed 16 4 3 2 1 4 1
mainly animal
husband y 7 3 1 –1– –
mainly a able 9 –1 1 –4 1
mainly dai y 2 –1– – – 1
a m
managemen
con en ional 19 3 4 2 2 5 –
o ganic (ce i ied) 9 3 1 – – 1 2
ansi ion/o he s/
bo h 6 1 1 1 –2 1
yea s in
biodi e si y
p og am
less han 5 yea s 6 2 – – – 2–
5–10 yea s 10 1 3 2 –2 2
mo e han 10 yea s 18 4 3 1 2 4 1
amily a m
managed by
owne ’s amily 27 6 6 2 2 4 2
managed by
ex e nal pe son 7 1 –1–4 1
Fa me cha ac e is ics
on- a m
employmen
ull o majo ime
(>50%) in
a ming 26 5 3 1 2 7 3
hal o mino ime
in a ming 8 2 3 2 –1–
gende
emale 3 –1 1 –1–
male 31 7 5 2 2 7 3
o he – – – – – – –
age
younge han 50
yea s 18 3 3 2 1 4 1
50 yea s and olde 16 4 3 1 1 4 2
gene al
educa ion
no uni e si y
deg ee 12 2 2 1 2 1 2
uni e si y deg ee 21 5 4 2 –7 1
no disclosed 1 – – – – – –
15
Dis inguishing s a emen s (see Table 4) a e indica ed wi h as e isks
h oughou ac o p esen a ion.
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
7
Despi e pe cei ed con lic s be ween biodi e si y measu e and p o-
duc ion, a me s sha ing his iewpoin ha e compa a i ely less conce n
in e ms o wo kload and complexi y (e.g.: Q5:−2*; Q32:−3), as well as
inancial insecu i y (Q38:−3) o insu icien paymen (Q39:0). On he
one hand, his can be because he business model is al eady based on
ex ensi e a ming. Fo example, Fa me s NL-1 easons ha “i ’s no
wo k-in ensi e because i ’s […] in he s a egy o he company”, while “ he
in ensi e ones a e no going o i because you ha e o change eally a lo ”. On
he o he hand, his can be because only disad an aged plo s a e
en olled o which he measu e s ill b ings some income while no
comp omising p oduc ion o , as a gued by Fa me NL-10, he long- e m
alue o he soil. Fa me NL-8 explains: “On ha ield, yes, he e is no o he
unc ion ha b ings mo e ewa d” bu “i i was eally an in e es ing a able
plo , I wouldn’ do his”. Fa me NL-8 also links his o sho con ac s
which do no allow o majo changes, bu which would be needed o
“o ganize you whole business a ound ha ”. Rela edly, insecu i y wi h he
egula o y amewo k is anked ela i ely high (Q2:+3).
In line wi h a mo e p oduc ion-o ien ed idea o a ming, a me s
sha ing his iewpoin ag ee mo e s ongly han o he g oups ha so-
cie al p essu e pushes hem in o hei biodi e si y measu e, while so-
cie y i sel is no doing enough o p o ec biodi e si y (Q25:+3). Fa me
NL-8 easons ha , gene ally in ag icul u e, people ell a me s how o
a m, al hough “I don’ hink hey hemsel es ha e e e ouched a cow o
any hing”; and e en i hey manage a small ga den, hey “jus do i on he
side. I you’ e a a me and ha e o li e […] o i , hen i ’s a di e en s o y”.
Ye , in e u n o implemen ing hei biodi e si y measu e, po en ially
e en beyond pe sonal p e e ences, a me s sha ing his pe spec i e
ypically anked social cos aspec s pa icula ly low. Impo an ly,
a me s mos s ongly disag ee ha hey a e no longe seen as good
a me s among hei pee s (Q30:−4) and ha ag i-business ac o s iew
hem mo e nega i ely (Q34:−4). Acco ding o NL-10, he biodi e si y
measu e could a he se e as “license o p oduce”, legi imizing he mo e
Table 4
Fac o a ays o i e- ac o solu ion including bipola Fac o s 3a/b. Dis inguishing s a emen s (P<0.01) a e indica ed in bold.
Cos -dimension ID Cos aspec /S a emen 1 2 3a 3b 4 5
managemen - ela ed
cos s
1 The biodi e si y measu e is es ic ing he lexibili y on my a m. 3 1 ¡42−1 1
2 The e is oo much insecu i y wi h he biodi e si y measu e, e.g. because o changing policies, ules and
equi emen s, unding o pa icipa ion c i e ia.
2 3 1 0 2 1
3 The biodi e si y measu e con lic s wi h o he ules and equi emen s on my a m. 1 0 ¡41 0 0
4 The biodi e si y measu e nega i ely impac s essen ial ope a ions on my a m. −4−3−3 0 −1−1
5 My a ming has become mo e complex wi h implemen ing he biodi e si y measu e. 0 ¡22 1 3 2
6 The e is oo much con lic ing in o ma ion a ound he biodi e si y measu e: I do no know which ad ice
o ollow.
2 1 2 ¡21 2
7 I ha dly ecei e eedback, e.g. on wha is going well o how I could imp o e he biodi e si y measu e. −1 2 1 −2 2 2
8 The e is oo li le p ac ical in o ma ion a ailable on he biodi e si y measu e. 0 −13−1 0 −3
9I is di icul o access he ma e ials equi ed o he biodi e si y measu e (e.g. equipmen , seeds o
b eeds). 2 0 0 3 −4−4
10 The equi emen s o he biodi e si y measu e a e some imes unsui able o he local condi ions o my
a m, such as soil o wea he . 04−3−2−1 1
11 The e is oo much pape wo k coming wi h he biodi e si y measu e. 1 0 −2 3 2 3
12 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, he o e all wo kload on my a m has inc eased. 2 −1 0 0 3 0
13 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, I inc easingly ha e o deal wi h pes s, diseases o o he h ea s.−34−2 1 1 −2
14 The biodi e si y measu e hinde s me om adap ing my a m o clima e change.−1−1−3 0 −4−3
15 Wi h he biodi e si y measu e, a m wo k has become physically mo e s aining. 1 −2−1−2 1 −1
emo ional cos s 16 The e is oo much ex e nal in e e ence coming wi h he biodi e si y measu e: I o en eel su eilled o
lec u ed.1 2 −1 3 3 −2
17 I eel ha my own knowledge is igno ed by he agen s in ol ed in he biodi e si y measu e. 0 −13−1 0 0
18 I some imes eel o e whelmed by all he equi emen s o he biodi e si y measu e. 0 0 0 2 3 3
19 Managing such a biodi e si y measu e does no eel like being pa o a a me ’s job.−1 2 −2 3 −3−1
20 Since ha ing opened my a m o he biodi e si y measu e, I eel exposed o e e new equi emen s. 4 1 −1 2 −1 0
21 I am s essed ha I will be penalized ha shly i I acciden ally make a mis ake wi h he biodi e si y
measu e. 1 2 1 4 2 1
22 I some imes eel ha my e o s spen on he biodi e si y measu e will no make any di e ence.−1−1 0 −4 0 −3
23 I some imes eel like being le alone wi h e e y hing ela ed o he biodi e si y measu e. 0 −3 1 −4−1−2
24 I some imes eel ea ed un ai ly wi h ega d o he biodi e si y measu e. 0 0 0 ¡32 2
25 I eel us a ed ha socie al p essu e pushed me in o he biodi e si y measu e, while socie y i sel does
no do enough o p o ec biodi e si y.
¡33 1 0 1 0
26 I eel ha my e o s spen on he biodi e si y measu e a e no acknowledged by socie y.−1 1 4−2 0 1
27 I eel he agen s making such a biodi e si y measu e ha e oo li le unde s anding o a ming. 3 3 2 1 0 ¡2
28 I eel o e whelmed wi h all he esponsibili y o p o ec ing biodi e si y ha is now es ing on my
shoulde s. 1−2−241−3
29 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, my a m land looks less appealing o me. −33−3−1−3 1
social cos s
30 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, o he a me s no longe see me as a good a me .−4−4−2 2 −2 3
31 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, some neighbo s a e wo ied abou pes s, diseases o o he h ea s
coming om my a m. −2 1 −1−3−24
32 The biodi e si y measu e comes a cos o ime o my amily o iends. 2 −3 1 −1−2−1
33 People would judge me ha shly i hey eel ha I make a mis ake wi h ega d o he biodi e si y
measu e. −2−2 3 −3−1 2
34 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, ac o s such as banks, e ilize o c op p o ec ion supplie s iew me
mo e nega i ely.−3−4 0 1 −3 3
inancial cos s 35 Gene ally, he biodi e si y measu e esul ed in highe p ices o buying o en ing new a m land. 3 1 2 −1−2 4
36 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, my a m has a disad an age compa ed o my compe i o s.−2−1−1−3−3−1
37 My e o s spen on he biodi e si y measu e a e no e lec ed in highe p ices on he ma ke . 3 2 4 0 4−1
38 Financial unce ain y has inc eased due o he biodi e si y measu e. −2−3−1 2 0 −2
39 The implemen a ion and managemen o he biodi e si y measu e causes expenses which a e only
pa ially co e ed by he paymen s. 4 0 3 1 4 0
40 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, my a m has o o ego mo e luc a i e business oppo uni ies.−2−2 0 0 −2 0
41 Due o he biodi e si y measu e, i is mo e di icul o my a m o espond o changed economic
condi ions.−1 0 2 −1 1 −4
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
8
in ensi e p oduc ion on hei emaining a mland in on o business
pa ne s, who seek o imp o e hei image. Simila ly, Fa me EE-7 who
is implemen ing biodi e si y measu es agains land abandonmen
(sh ub enc oachmen ) a gues ha hose owning he en ed land li e in
ci ies, bu “ hey come he e once a yea o a holiday [and hey] a e indeed
happy ha ... well, ha he su ounding ields a e clean […]”.
Fac o 3a: lack o suppo
Mo e han any o he g oup, a me s sha ing his pe spec i e eel
insu icien suppo . This, on he one hand, e e s o he public: Fa me s
a e mos conce ned ha hei e o s a e no acknowledged by socie y
(Q26:+4*), which would a he judge any seeming mis akes ha shly
(Q33:+3), no by he ma ke (Q37:+4). Fa me RO-1 illus a es “ ha ’s
wo o us om like, I do no know, 2.000 people” who app ecia e he
biodi e si y measu e in he egion, while “you clien s, whe e you a e
selling he milk and so on, hey don’ look […] i you gi e only hay o he
cows”.
On he o he hand, a me s end o wish o mo e suppo om he
adminis a i e bodies. Compa ed o o he g oups, a me s anked mo e
highly ha agen s in ol ed in he espec i e biodi e si y measu e
igno e a me s’ knowledge (Q17:+3). Addi ionally, seeking unambigu-
ous and p ac ical in o ma ion is pe cei ed as, while no impossible, a
leas challenging (Q8:+3* // 6:+2). Fa me UK-2 illus a es: “I hink
he e is mo e in o ma ion becoming a ailable, i ’s jus knowing whe e o ind
i […] and how o in e p e i and how o pu i o use on you own a m. […]
I’m con iden we’ e doing he igh hing, yeah, i ’s no impac ing ou business
so ac ually le ’s keep doing i . Bu i will be nice o ge some in o ma ion back
o say, his is wha ’s happening“ (UK-2).
E en hough a me s in his g oup hus eel mo e le alone wi h
e e y hing ela ed o hei biodi e si y measu es han all o he g oups,
as shown in compa a i ely mos ag eemen wi h s a emen Q23 (+1),
he e is li le doub abou he measu e’s gene al i o hei managemen ,
in insic alues and adminis a ion. Fa me s disag ee ela i ely s ongly
ha lexibili y is es ic ed (Q1:−4*), essen ial ope a ions a e impac ed
(Q4:−3), and ha he measu e con lic s wi h o he ules and e-
qui emen s (Q3:−4*), unsui able local condi ions (Q10:−3), o
aes he ical p e e ences (Q29:−3). Fa me RO-1 illus a es: “You don’
ha e o eel cons ained jus by some ules ha you […] ha e o apply in o de
o main ain some hing you hink ha i ’s aluable o you and o he com-
muni y”. Simila ly, a me s pe cei e he bu eauc a ic side o hei
biodi e si y measu e as ha dly one ous. Compa ed o o he g oups,
he e is no ou s anding o e load wi h adminis a i e opics, pa icula ly
in e ms o excessi e pape wo k (Q11:−2).
Fac o 3b: adminis a i e bu den
Gi en i s bipola i y, a me s sha ing he iewpoin ep esen ed in
Fac o 3b a e leas conce ned abou lacking app ecia ion and suppo
ela ed o hei biodi e si y measu e, as a me s associa ed wi h Fac o
3a a e. This pa icula ly mani es s in s ong disag eemen o eeling le
alone wi h e e y hing ela ed o he measu e (Q23:−4). They a e also
mos su e abou being ea ed ai ly (Q24:−3) and ha ing unambiguous
ad ice (Q6:−2*). Likewise, a me s end o ela i ely disag ee ha hey
eel judged o unacknowledged by socie y (Q33:−3; Q26:−2), which
expands o neighbo s who do no appea wo ied abou nega i e impac s
om he biodi e si y measu e (Q31:−3). Fa me NL-3 illus a es: “Na-
u e managemen is […] being alued by he social en i onmen , he e a e
people who complimen you”.
I is, in con as , he measu e’s adminis a ion which is pe cei ed
mos bu densome among he a me s sha ing his iewpoin . Fa me s
a e mos conce ned o ha sh penal ies in case o acciden al mis akes
(Q21:+4), excessi e pape wo k (Q11:+3), di icul ies o access he
equi ed ma e ials (Q9:+3), oo much esponsibili y es ing on hei
shoulde s (Q28:+4*), and high le els o su eilling o lec u ing in e -
e ence (Q16:+3): “E e y yea , a week would go jus on inspec ion”, Fa me
RO-4 illus a es. In line, a me s sha ing his pe spec i e ag ee mo e
s ongly han all o he g oups ha inancial insecu i y has inc eased
(Q38:+2). This, no leas , can be ela ed o such adminis a i e issues: “I
[ he inspec o ] caugh you no complying, he e was he p oblem ha he could
ake money om you 5 yea s in ad ance. I someone else ploughed you land
by mis ake, you couldn’ p o e i , i was s ill you aul ” (RO-4).
Compa ed o o he g oups, a me s in his g oup also s ongly ag ee
ha hei biodi e si y measu e does no eel like pa o a a me ’s job
(Q19:+3): “On he one hand, you’ e a a me and on he o he hand a na u e
manage . Tha con lic s om ea ly mo ning o la e e ening” (NL-3). This
supposedly also leads o a pe cei ed loss o epu a ion among he
a ming communi y (Q30:+2). Fa me NL-3 a gues ha o an in ensi e
a able a me , “i looks like a mess”, bu “you ha e na u al managemen ,
you also p oduce some hing di e en ”. As a esul , a me s sha ing his
iewpoin s ongly disag ee ha he biodi e si y measu e would no
make a di e ence (Q22:−4) and s ill do no eel like ha ing pu hem-
sel es in o a disad an ageous economic posi ion compa ed o hei
compe i o s (Q36:−3).
Fac o 4: unde paymen
Fa me s sha ing he iewpoin ep esen ed in Fac o 4 a e mos
conce ned ha hei physical and cogni i e e o s a e no su icien ly
acknowledged in inancial e ms. Fi s ly, his ela es o he ma ke p ice
ha does no ise in esponse o he measu es (Q37:+4*). Fa me UK-6
easons: “The e a e added bene i s ha we’ e b inging ha we’ e no being
ewa ded o , […] whe he ha be he ma ke place ha ewa ds ha o
ano he s akeholde in ou en i onmen should be ewa ding o ha ”.
Secondly, i ela es o he le el o compensa ion paymen s om he
p og am (Q39:+4). Fa me s a gue ha he measu e comes wi h oo
es ic i e egula ions, allowing only pa ial unding o he a ea unde
he measu e (UK-7), as well as mone a y d awbacks which a e no
co e ed, such as in la ion (NL-4, NL-7), machine y wea ing ou on
ocky, ex ensi e land (EE-1), g azing li es ock killed by wild animals
(EE-1), o addi ional wo k o handle slug p essu e on co e c ops (UK-3).
Rela ing o his, a me s ag ee ela i ely s ongly ha hey encoun e
un ai ea men (Q24:+2). This is, o example, pu down o un ea-
sonable con ols (e.g. UK-3, NL-4), supplie s bene i ing a hei cos s
(UK-1), o unequal paymen s compa ed o non-ag icul u al na u e
manage s: “When na u al a eas a e being mowed o municipali ies, hen he
ho icul u is s ge […] e y high a es pe hou o mow i wi h e y special
machines. We do i all by hand and we do he same, bu o i le” (NL-4).
In line wi h pe cei ed unde paymen , a me s in his g oup iew
hei measu es as exac ing subs an ial e o s managemen -wise. This is
indica ed h ough high ankings o inc eased complexi y in a ming
(Q5:+3) o o e all wo kload (Q12:+3). Co e -c opping Fa me UK-3
illus a es: “I hink making ano he job a he busies mon h o he yea is
no good news and, and de ini ely i ’s mo e complex”. Also, i ela es o
economics: “I I am going o mow a ound bi d nes s and I am going o mow in
ows and I am going o mow in phases in wo imes on he plo , hen I ha e
much highe cos s” (NL-4). Simila ly, a me s sha ing his pe spec i e eel
ha hei biodi e si y comes wi h subs an ial adminis a i e wo k
(Q18:+3; Q16:+3).
In e es ingly, e en hough a me s sha ing his iewpoin eel ha
hei e o s a e unde paid, i.e. no su icien ly acknowledged, hey a e
ela i ely con iden ha hey s ill made he igh decision wi h imple-
men ing hei biodi e si y measu e. They end no o see mo e luc a i e
business oppo uni ies (Q40:−2) and canno see why hey should be
looked a mo e nega i ely by ag i-business ac o s (Q34:−3) o be less
compe i i e (Q36:−3). Fa me UK-6 a gues: “The e’s a cos included, bu I
don’ eel ha ha cos disad an ages me”. Such obse a ion migh ela e
o he ac ha , beyond eeling en i led o mo e inancial ewa ds o
hei wo k, he a me s’ alues as well as hei social en i onmen and
business concep ha monize pa icula ly well wi h he espec i e mea-
su e, simila o, e.g., Fac o 1. Those sha ing cos - iewpoin 4 no only
expe ience he implemen a ion and managemen o such biodi e si y
measu es as pa o hei job (Q19:−3) and enjoy hem aes he ically
(Q29:−3). They also anked se e al cos s ela ed o hei social en i-
onmen and de icien local embeddedness o he biodi e si y measu e
V. Sche anz e al.
Ecological Economics 236 (2025) 108694
9
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