The status of biological invasions and their management in South Africa in 2022 [FIRST DRAFT FOR PUBLIC COMMENT]

The S a us o Biological In asions and hei
Managemen in Sou h A ica in 2022
[FIRST DRAFT FOR PUBLIC COMMENT]
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No e o eade 1
We a e in i ing you o submi commen s, co ec ions, and que ies on his hi d s a us epo on 2
biological in asions1. We ha e p epa ed a s anda d o m o commen ing ha you can ill in i you 3
wish, bu i you would p e e o send in you inpu s in you own o ma , please indica e he page and 4
line numbe s o which you commen e e s. Many o he echnical de ails (and da a on which he 5
epo is based like he lis o alien species) a e a ailable in he appendices and supplemen a y 6
ma e ial (links a ailable on he las page). Please also conside commen ing on hese. I you a e in a 7
posi ion o p o ide addi ional in o ma ion, we would be e y g a e ul, and will aim o ensu e all 8
con ibu o s a e app op ia ely acknowledged. I you do no wish o be named, please le us know. We 9
would like as many people and o ganisa ions o make inpu s as possible, so please pass he epo on 10
o anyone you hink migh be able o con ibu e. We will cap u e all commen s ecei ed du ing his 11
commen ing pe iod and ack how hey a e esponded o. A da abase o hese commen s and he 12
esponses will be a ailable on eques once he epo has been eleased. 13
Commen s o be sen o: [email p o ec ed] By: 28 Feb ua y 2023
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Fo m o commen ing: h ps:// inyu l.com/m 2mu6xz
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This is a “ i s d a o public commen ”. I ou lines he o ma and sec ions o he in ended epo , 16
and p o ides some p elimina y indings, bu many o he es ima es o indica o alues will change as 17
a esul o ongoing analysis, and because o inpu s ecei ed du ing his e iew pe iod. In pa icula 18
he epo will be based on in o ma ion up o he end o Decembe 2022, his o cou se was no 19
possible in his d a . The e o e he esul s should iewed as demons a i e o wha he inal epo 20
will look like a he han indica i e o he cu en s a e. Foo no es a e added o he ex o indica e 21
whe e addi ional analyses a e pending. 22
Thank you in ad ance o you commen s, his epo elies on he ac i e pa icipa ion o a wide ange 23
o s akeholde s, and we app ecia e you aking he ime o engage wi h us. 24
You s since ely, 25
D Tsungai Zengeya (on behal o he hi d s a us epo d a ing eam) 26
Ki s enbosch, 20 Decembe 2022 27
1The p e ious s a us epo s a e a ailable o download a h p://ias epo .sanbi.o g.za/ , links o on-line
esou ces a e a ailable a end o his epo .
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Ci ing his publica ion 28
Fo ci a ions in he scien i ic li e a u e: Zengeya, T.A. & Wilson, J.R. (Eds.), 2022. The s a us o 29
biological in asions and hei managemen in Sou h A ica in 2022 [FIRST DRAFT FOR PUBLIC 30
COMMENT]. Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e, Ki s enbosch and DSI-NRF Cen e o 31
Excellence o In asion Biology, S ellenbosch. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7414804
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Fo ci a ions in policy documen s: SANBI and CIB 2022. The s a us o biological in asions and hei 34
managemen in Sou h A ica in 2022 [FIRST DRAFT FOR PUBLIC COMMENT]. Sou h A ican Na ional 35
Biodi e si y Ins i u e, Ki s enbosch and DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology, 36
S ellenbosch. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7414804
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ISBN: o be included in he inal epo 39
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Au ho s 41
Lead edi o s: Tsungai A. Zengeya, John R. Wilson 42
Chap e lead au ho s: Ka elyn T. Faulkne ; Lau a M. Fe nandez Winze ; Michelle G e e; Siyasanga 43
Miza; Emily J. McCulloch-Jones; Pe e C. le Roux; Ma hán Thea ; B ian W. an Wilgen; John R. 44
Wilson & Tsungai A. Zengeya 45
Wi h con ibu ions ( o da e) om: Julie A. Coe zee; Nicholas Cole; Whi ney Engelb ech ; Ma in P. 46
Hill; Ca ol Jacobs; Sab ina Kumschick; Debbie Mui ; Wilma Nel; Leoni P e o ius; Roge P ice; Tama a 47
B. Robinson; A iwe Si uba; Louise S a o d; And ew A. Tu ne ; Ka abo Wanjau; And ew Wannenbu gh; 48
An on Wol aa d ; Cos as Zacha iades 49
The au ho ship lis is expec ed o expand in he nex d a . 50
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No e o eade ....................................................................................................................................................................... i 53
Ci ing his publica ion ........................................................................................................................................................... ii 54
Au ho s ................................................................................................................................................................................. ii 55
Con en s ................................................................................................................................................................................... iii 56
P e ace by SANBI CEO .............................................................................................................................................................. i 57
Lis o ac onyms ....................................................................................................................................................................... i 58
Glossa y ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Execu i e summa y ................................................................................................................................................................... x 60
Key indings and gaps ............................................................................................................................................................ x 61
T ends in indica o s............................................................................................................................................................... x 62
Chap e 1: In oduc ion............................................................................................................................................................. 1 63
1.1 The impo ance o biological in asions o Sou h A ica .................................................................................................. 1 64
1.2 The manda e, pu pose, and s uc u e o he hi d s a us epo .................................................................................... 1 65
1.3 P ocess o he compila ion o he epo ...................................................................................................................... 3 66
1.4 Indica o s ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7 67
1.5 Wo k lows and p o ocols ................................................................................................................................................ 7 68
1.6 Aspec s o biological in asions ha a e no co e ed ...................................................................................................... 8 69
Chap e 2: Pa hways ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 70
2.1 In oduc ion pa hway p ominence ............................................................................................................................... 11 71
2.2 In oduc ion a es ......................................................................................................................................................... 12 72
2.3 Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence ........................................................................................................................... 15 73
2.4 Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es ...................................................................................................................................... 16 74
Box 2.1. Wo k owa ds imp o ing he pa hways indica o s ............................................................................................... 17 75
2.5 T ends in pa hway indica o s ........................................................................................................................................ 20 76
Chap e 3: Species ................................................................................................................................................................... 22 77
3.1 Numbe and s a us o alien species .............................................................................................................................. 23 78
3.2 Ex en o alien species................................................................................................................................................... 24 79
3.3 Abundance o alien species ........................................................................................................................................... 25 80
3.4 Impac o aliens ............................................................................................................................................................. 25 81
Box 3.1 Na i e-alien popula ions ........................................................................................................................................ 26 82
3.5 T end in species indica o s ............................................................................................................................................ 28 83
Chap e 4: Si es ....................................................................................................................................................................... 30 84
4.1 Alien species ichness ................................................................................................................................................... 31 85
4.2 Rela i e in asi e abundance ......................................................................................................................................... 35 86
4.3 Impac o in asions ...................................................................................................................................................... 35 87
4.4 T ends in si es indica o s .............................................................................................................................................. 37 88
Chap e 5: In e en ions ......................................................................................................................................................... 38 89
5.1 Inpu —quali y o he egula ion amewo k ................................................................................................................. 40 90
5.2 Inpu —money spen ..................................................................................................................................................... 43 91
5.3 Inpu —planning co e age ............................................................................................................................................. 47 92
5.4 Ou pu —pa hways ea ed ........................................................................................................................................... 49 93
5.5 Ou pu —species ea ed ............................................................................................................................................... 50 94
5.6 Ou pu —si es ea ed ................................................................................................................................................... 52 95
5.7 Ou come—e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s ......................................................................................................... 52 96
5.8 Ou come—e ec i eness o species ea men s ........................................................................................................... 53 97
5.9 Ou come—e ec i eness o si e ea men s ................................................................................................................. 54 98
Box 5.1 The G ea e Cape Town Wa e Fund...................................................................................................................... 55 99
Box 5.2 Success ul biological con ol o wa e hyacin h on a eu ophic sub- opical wa e -body ..................................... 56 100
5.11 T ends in in e en ions indica o s .............................................................................................................................. 58 101
Chap e 6: The s a us o biological in asions and hei managemen in he P ince Edwa d Islands.................................... 62 102
6.1 Pa hways ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63 103
6.2 Species .......................................................................................................................................................................... 68 104
6.3 Si es ............................................................................................................................................................................... 71 105
6.4 In e en ions ................................................................................................................................................................. 72 106
6.5 T ends in indica o s ....................................................................................................................................................... 78 107
Chap e 7: Gaps ....................................................................................................................................................................... 79 108
Acknowledgemen s ................................................................................................................................................................. 79 109
Re e ences ............................................................................................................................................................................... 79 110
Links o supplemen a y ma e ial and appendices ................................................................................................................. 87 111
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P e ace by SANBI CEO 114
To be added—a p e ace will be d a ed and inalised by in 2023. The p e ace will ou line he pu pose 115
o epo , he scope, legal equi emen , p incipal indings, and hei implica ions. 116
Lis o ac onyms1
117
ASRARP Alien Species Risk Analysis Re iew Panel 118
A&IS Alien and In asi e Species as e e ed o ei he in he egula ions o he egula o y lis s 119
published unde he auspices o he Na ional En i onmen al Managemen : Biodi e si y 120
Ac 121
CBD he Con en ion on Biological Di e si y o he Uni ed Na ions 122
CIB he Depa men o Science and Inno a ion-Na ional Resea ch Founda ion Cen e o 123
Excellence o In asion Biology 124
DALRRD Depa men o Ag icul u e, Land Re o m and Ru al De elopmen 125
DFFE Depa men o Fo es y, Fishe ies, and he En i onmen 126
EICAT En i onmen al Impac Classi ica ion o Alien Taxa 127
hmgc hal -minu e g id cell (used o mapping on he P ince Edwa d Islands) 128
NEM:BA he Na ional En i onmen al Managemen : Biodi e si y Ac (Ac No. 10 o 2004) 129
NEM:BA A&IS: see A&IS 130
NRM Na u al Resou ce Managemen (a di ision o he DFFE) 131
PEIs he P ince Edwa d Islands 132
qdgc qua e -deg ee g id cell 133
RAC he Re e ence and Ad iso y Commi ee (o his hi d s a us epo ) 134
SANBI he Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e 135
SAPIA he sou he n A ican Plan In ade s A las 136
SEICAT Socio-Economic Impac Classi ica ion o Alien Taxa 137
W W Wo king o Wa e 138
ZAR Sou h A ican Rands 139
140
1 These ac onyms a e used ei he in his epo o in he supplemen a y ma e ial. Fo edi o ial con en ions see
supplemen a y ma e ial S1.1.

Glossa y1 141
Abundance (c . dis ibu ion, ex en ): a measu e o he numbe o indi iduals, co e age, o biomass o 142
an o ganism in a speci ied si e. 143
Adap i e managemen : a s uc u ed, i e a i e p ocess ha includes he se ing o goals, egula 144
moni o ing o p og ess owa ds he achie emen o hose goals, and, based on he indings o he 145
moni o ing, he adap a ion o managemen o imp o e i s e ec i eness o a e ision o he goals. 146
Adap i e managemen is use ul whe e he ou pu s and ou comes o managemen a e unce ain, and 147
whe e an app oach o lea ning-by-doing can educe unce ain y o e ime. 148
Alien species (c . ex alimi al, na i e species): a species ha is p esen in a si e ou side i s na u al 149
ange as a esul o human ac ion ha has enabled i o o e come biogeog aphic ba ie s. 150
Assessmen : a c i ical e alua ion o in o ma ion. 151
Bene i : cos a io: see e u ns on in es men 152
Biodi e si y: he a iabili y among li ing o ganisms om all sou ces including e es ial, ma ine, and 153
o he aqua ic ecosys ems and he ecological complexes o which hey a e pa ; his includes di e si y 154
wi hin species, be ween species and o ecosys ems. 155
Biological in asions: he phenomenon o , and sui e o p ocesses ha a e in ol ed in de e mining, he 156
anspo o o ganisms o si es ou side hei na i e ange by human ac i i ies and he a e o he 157
o ganisms in hei new anges. 158
Biological con ol (syn. biocon ol): he use o specimens o one species o he pu pose o p eying 159
on, pa asi izing on, damaging, killing, supp essing o con olling a specimen o ano he species. 160
Biocon ol: see Biological con ol. 161
Biome: a la ge na u ally occu ing communi y o plan s and animals ha ha e common cha ac e is ics 162
in simila physical en i onmen s, e.g., dese o o es . 163
Biosecu i y: measu es ha a e aken o s op he in oduc ion o dispe sal o o ganisms ha m ul o 164
human, animal, o plan li e. 165
Con es ed species: alien species o which he e is dispu e abou he app op ia e (i any) egula o y 166
lis ing. Also e e ed o as con lic -gene a ing species. Such species ha e in some cases been lis ed as 167
ca ego y 2 unde he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions, whe eby a pe mi can be issued o s akeholde s o 168
conduc o he wise illegal ac i i ies wi h he lis ed alien species. The con es a ion may he eby be 169
esol ed. 170
Compliance: The ac ion o ac o complying wi h ins uc ions, in his second epo such ins uc ions 171
p ima ily e e o he p o isions o NEM:BA. 172
Compliance no ice (also p e-compliance no ice): an o icial documen se ed by an en i onmen al 173
managemen inspec o on a pe son when he e a e easonable g ounds o belie ing ha ha pe son 174
has no complied wi h a p o ision o he law o wi h a e m o condi ion o a pe mi , au ho isa ion o 175
o he ins umen issued in e ms o such law. A p e-compliance no ice is a w i en no ice o in en ion 176
1These de ini ions a e based on hose in he second epo , Richa dson e al. (2011), Wilson e al. (2017b), and
an Wilgen e al (2020a) wi h conside a ion o de ini ions gi en in ele an Sou h A ican and in e na ional
legisla ion, speci ically he NEM:BA and i s A&IS Regula ions, and he CBD (
h ps://www.cbd.in /in asi e/ e ms.sh ml). These co e e ms used in his hi d epo and in he
supplemen a y ma e ial o he hi d epo . Fo edi o ial con en ions see supplemen a y ma e ial S1.1.
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o issue a compliance no ice, which p ecedes he issuing o a compliance no ice and in i es he pe son 177
o whom i has been issued o make ep esen a ions o he en i onmen al managemen inspec o . 178
Con ainmen : he goal o p e en ing o educing he sp ead o in asi e species. 179
Con aminan : he acciden al in oduc ion o an alien species wi h an in en ionally anspo ed 180
commodi y wi h which he o ganism has a speci ic, na u al associa ion. 181
Con ol: any ac ion aken o p e en he ecu ence, e-es ablishmen , e-g ow h, mul iplica ion, 182
p opaga ion, egene a ion o sp eading o an alien species. 183
Con ic ion: a e dic o guil y issued by a compe en cou ollowing he p osecu ion o a pe son 184
suspec ed o ha ing commi ed a c iminal o ence. 185
Co ido : he na u al sp ead o an alien species in o a new egion h ough a human-cons uc ed 186
anspo in as uc u e ha connec s p e iously unconnec ed egions, and in he absence o which 187
dispe sal would no ha e been possible. 188
Di ec i e (also p e-di ec i e): an o icial documen se ed by an en i onmen al managemen 189
inspec o on a pe son when such pe son is: a) a pe mi holde and is suspec ed o no complying wi h 190
he condi ions unde which a pe mi has been issued o no aking all he equi ed s eps o p e en o 191
minimise ha m o biodi e si y by he alien species o which he pe mi ela es; o b) a landowne and 192
is suspec ed o no ul illing hei du y o ca e in ela ion o lis ed alien species on hei land. A di ec i e 193
di ec s a pe son o ake s eps o emedy ha m caused o biodi e si y caused by such pe son’s non-194
compliance o ailu e o ul il he landowne ’s du y o ca e. A p e-di ec i e is a w i en no ice o 195
in en ion o issue a di ec i e, which p ecedes he issuing o a di ec i e and in i es he pe son o whom 196
i is issued o make ep esen a ions o he en i onmen al managemen inspec o . 197
Dispe sal (syn. sp ead): mo emen o o ganisms wi hin a de ined si e ha is acili a ed ei he 198
in en ionally o acciden ally by humans, o ha occu s na u ally. 199
Dis ibu ion: he ex en and abundance o a species o e a gi en si e. 200
E adica ion: he comple e emo al o all indi iduals and p opagules o a popula ion o an alien species 201
om a pa icula si e o which he e is a negligible likelihood o ein asion. 202
Escape (c . elease): he sp ead o an alien species ha was in en ionally in oduced and kep in 203
cap i i y o cul i a ion o si es ou side o cap i i y o cul i a ion. Includes bo h na u al sp ead and he 204
acciden al o in en ional illegal human-media ed dispe sal o li e o ganisms om he si e o cap i i y 205
o cul i a ion. 206
Es ablished: see na u alised. 207
Ex en (c . abundance, dis ibu ion): he b oad-scale a ea o e which an o ganism occu s. The spa ial 208
scale o e which ex en is measu ed needs o be speci ied. The occupancy o si es a a ine-spa ial 209
scale is o en equi alen o he abundance. 210
Ex i pa ion (c . e adica ion): he esul o a con ol ope a ion whe eby all indi iduals in a popula ion 211
a e emo ed. O he popula ions migh be close by o pa hways o in oduc ion and dispe sal a e s ill 212
ope a ing such ha he p obabili y o e-in asion is p obable o no known. 213
Ex alimi al (c . alien species, na i e species): a na i e species ha has been in oduced by humans 214
o a pa o Sou h A ica ha is ou side o he species’ na i e dis ibu ion ange. I does no include 215
na i e species ha ha e ex ended hei dis ibu ion by na u al dispe sal. 216
Impac : he e ec o an alien species on he physical, chemical, and biological en i onmen . I can 217
include bo h nega i e and posi i e e ec s. 218
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Incu sion: an isola ed popula ion o a pes , weed, o alien species, ha usually has a limi ed spa ial 219
ex en and has been ecen ly de ec ed a a si e. In gene al, he managemen o incu sions is e e ed 220
o as incu sion esponse. 221
Indica o : a se o measu emen s ha gi e speci ic in o ma ion abou he s a e o some hing. 222
Indigenous species: see Na i e species. 223
In e en ions: he ull a ie y o ac ions aken in esponse o biological in asions, including di ec 224
ac ions, i.e., con ol, and indi ec ac ions like moni o ing, egula ion, and esea ch. 225
In oduced: see In oduc ion. 226
In oduc ion: he mo emen o an alien species (ei he acciden ally, in en ionally and legally, o 227
in en ionally and illegally) by human ac i i y, o a egion ou side i s na i e ange. In oduc ions can 228
also e e o species which we e in oduced o one coun y by humans and sp ead na u ally o 229
neighbou ing coun ies. In he con ex o in oduc ions, he e m ‘acciden al’ is p e e ed o he 230
synonymous e m ‘unin en ional’. 231
In asion: see Biological in asions. 232
In asion deb : he po en ial inc ease in biological in asions a a si e o e a pa icula ime ame in 233
he absence o any in e en ions (Rouge e al., 2016). I is composed o he numbe o new species 234
ha will be in oduced (in oduc ion deb ), he numbe o species ha will become in asi e (species-235
based in asion deb ); he inc ease in a ea a ec ed by in asions (a ea-based in asion deb ); and he 236
inc ease in he nega i e impac s caused by in oduced species (impac -based in asion deb ). 237
In asi e alien species: see In asi e species. 238
In asi e species: Alien species ha sus ain sel - eplacing popula ions o e se e al li e cycles, p oduce 239
ep oduc i e o sp ing, o en in e y la ge numbe s a conside able dis ances om he pa en and/o 240
si e o in oduc ion, and ha e he po en ial o sp ead o e long dis ances. 241
In asi eness: he ea u es o an alien o ganism, such as hei li e-his o y ai s and modes o 242
ep oduc ion, ha de ine hei capaci y o become an in asi e species. 243
Lis ed alien species: species which a e lis ed unde he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions ei he as ‘lis ed 244
in asi e species’ (which a e in ended o only include alien species ha a e p esen in Sou h A ica) o 245
‘p ohibi ed alien species’ (which a e in ended o only be species ha a e absen om Sou h A ica). 246
Moni o ing: a sys ema ic p ocess o collec ing and analysing in o ma ion o ack p og ess owa ds 247
eaching s a ed goals, ha acili a es he assessmen o he e icacy o in e en ions. 248
Na i e-alien popula ions: a popula ion o a axon ha is na i e o a pa o Sou h A ica, bu ha was 249
ounded by indi iduals mo ed by di ec human agency, o e a biogeog aphical ba ie , o an a ea 250
beyond he species’ na i e ange (i.e., i can be conside ed a biological in asions) (see Box 3.1). 251
Na i e species (syn. indigenous species, c . alien species, ex alimi al): species ha a e ound wi hin 252
hei na u al ange whe e hey ha e e ol ed wi hou human in e en ion (in en ional o acciden al).
253
Also includes species ha ha e expanded hei ange as a esul o human modi ica ion o he 254
en i onmen ha does no di ec ly impac dispe sal (e.g., popula ions a e s ill conside ed na i e i 255
hey esul om an inc ease in ange as a esul o wa e ed ga dens, bu a e conside ed alien i hey 256
esul om an inc ease in ange as a esul o sp ead along human-c ea ed co ido s linking p e iously 257
sepa a e biogeog aphic egions). 258
Na u alised (syn. es ablished): Alien species ha sus ain sel - eplacing popula ions o se e al li e 259
cycles o o e a gi en pe iod o ime wi hou di ec in e en ion by people, o despi e human 260
in e en ion. 261
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Na u al dispe sal: he dispe sal o an alien species h ough na u al sp ead om a egion whe e i was 262
p e iously in oduced h ough human assis ance o ac ion, o ano he egion whe e i is no na i e. 263
Pa hway: a b oadly de ined e m ha e e s o he combina ion o p ocesses and oppo uni ies ha 264
esul in he mo emen o alien species om one place o ano he . 265
Pe mi : an o icial documen issued in e ms o Chap e 7 o Na ional En i onmen al Managemen : 266
Biodi e si y Ac , 2004 (Ac no. 10 o 2004). 267
Pes : an o ganism ha causes nega i e impac s. The a ec ed sec o migh be speci ied, so an 268
ag icul u al pes will impac nega i ely on ag icul u al p oduc ion. Pes s can be alien o na i e species, 269
and a e usually aken o e e o animals, wi h pes plan s o en a he e e ed o as weeds and pes 270
ungi o mic obes e e ed o as diseases. 271
Policy: a high-le el o e all plan, adop ed by he Execu i e Au ho i y, o achie ing iden i ied ou comes 272
h ough speci ied me hods o p inciples ha guide decision-making. A policy on biological in asions 273
would be a high-le el plan which iden i ies goals conce ning biological in asions in Sou h A ica and 274
iden i ies he in e en ions ha should be used o achie e hose goals. 275
P e-compliance no ice: see compliance no ice. 276
P e-di ec i e: see di ec i e. 277
P opagule p essu e: a concep ha encompasses a ia ion in he quan i y, quali y, composi ion and 278
a e o supply o alien o ganisms esul ing om he anspo condi ions and pa hways be ween 279
sou ce and ecipien egions. 280
P osecu ion: he ins i u ion and conduc ing o legal p oceedings, usually by he S a e, agains a pe son 281
suspec ed o ha ing commi ed a c iminal o ence. 282
Po o en y: an o icial poin o en y o depa u e om Sou h A ica h ough which goods and people 283
may en e o lea e a coun y, o example a bo de pos , ai po o ha bou . 284
Regula ion: 1) a law o ule made by he Execu i e Au ho i y in e ms o o iginal legisla ion o egula e 285
conduc (in his case he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions); 2) he ac o egula ing, i.e., o go e n o di ec 286
acco ding o ule, o o make egula ions (au ho i a i e ules) o ce ain conduc . 287
Regula o y lis s/lis ing: a lis o alien species ha a e egula ed unde he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions1. 288
Release (c . escape): he in en ional in oduc ion o an alien species o a si e ou side o cap i i y o 289
cul i a ion. This e e s o bo h legal and illegal in oduc ions, howe e i a legally in oduced alien 290
species is illegally eleased ou side o cap i i y o cul i a ion hen i is classi ied as an escape. 291
Re u ns on in es men : he amoun o alue ha is gained as a esul o a pa icula amoun spen on 292
an in e en ion. This can be calcula ed as a bene i : cos a io whe eby each and spen ( he cos ) is 293
se agains he amoun o ands gained (bene i ). An in e en ion is echnically cos -e ec i e i he 294
bene i : cos a io is g ea e han one, al hough mo e gene ally cos e ec i eness is abou maximising 295
he a io.
296
Risk: The likelihood and consequence o an e en , in his second epo he e en is a biological 297
in asion 298
Risk analysis: The p ocess o iden i ying and assessing he likelihood and consequence o an e en , as 299
well as conside a ions as o how o manage and communica e he isk (see Figu e S5.1). 300
Risk assessmen : a componen o isk analysis ha ocuses on e alua ing he likelihood and 301
consequence o an e en aking place. In he con ex o his second epo , such an e en is he 302
1De ini ions o he egula o y ca ego ies and he numbe s in each ca ego y will be p o ided in he second
o de d a . Fo in o ma ion om he second epo see Table 5.2 and Supplemen a y Ma e ial S5.2 he ein.
4
Sep embe 2022, and discussed a he second mee ing o he RAC on 28 Sep embe 2022. The epo 446
was e ised and se ou o public commen on 20 Decembe 2022. The RAC e iewed he nex d a 447
p oduced, be o e he e was a second ound o public commen . The Chai o he RAC also e iewed 448
how he commen s ecei ed du ing all ounds o e iew we e add essed, i.e., ac ed in a e iew edi o 449
ole. Finally, he RAC in ends o p o ide ad ice bo h in e ms o he public elease o he epo , and 450
on e lec ing on he p ocess. 451
Colla e and e iew a ailable in o ma ion: In o ma ion was inco po a ed in o he epo p ima ily om 452
published li e a u e and unpublished in o ma ion p o ided by s akeholde s. In o ma ion con ained in 453
he epo is based on da a a ailable o he epo w i ing eam as o he end o Decembe 2022 (Box 454
1.1). 455
S akeholde engagemen : S akeholde engagemen was an on-going p ocess linked o he o he 456
ac i i ies. Ini ially he d a ing eam engaged di ec ly wi h specialis con ibu o s o ob ain in o ma ion 457
ha was no eadily accessible and iden i ied s akeholde s o be con ac ed o inpu and e iew. 458
Con ibu o s we e iden i ied ini ially based on hose iden i ied p e iously, and hose who p o ided 459
commen s we e asked o upda es. New po en ial con ibu o s we e con ac ed on an ad hoc basis as 460
in o ma ion became a ailable and in esponse o he public consul a ion. Con ibu o s came om 461
academic ins i u ions; esea ch ins i u es and science councils; na ional, p o incial, and local 462
go e nmen depa men s; and om p i a e indi iduals whom we e in e es ed and a ec ed. 463
Con ibu ions om he iden i ied s akeholde s we e in he o m o da a p o ision and commen ing on 464
d a s. 465
All eedback was eco ded and he commen s esponded o in line wi h in e na ional bes p ac ice 466
(IPBES 2018). The inpu s and esponses o he eques s o e iew, we e documen ed and a e a ailable 467
o sc u iny om SANBI on eques . 468
469

5
470
Figu e 1.1 Key s eps in he p oduc ion o he epo ‘ he S a us o Biological In asions and hei 471
Managemen in Sou h A ica in 2022’. The Minis e is he Sou h A ican Minis e o Fo es y, Fishe ies 472
and he En i onmen ; he RAC is he esea ch and ad iso y commi ee; and SANBI is he Sou h A ican 473
Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e. 474
S a us epo eam e iew he elease o he 2
nd
epo
and iden i y wo k lows needed o he 3
d
epo
(Jun–Dec 2021)
Colla e and
e iew
a ailable
in o ma ion
Iden i y and
engage
specialis
con ibu o s
Re e ence and ad iso y commi ee
Assign alues o indica o s
D a o public commen (Dec
2022)
S akeholde engagemen
Iden i y
s akeholde s
S akeholde
e iew
(Dec 2022–Feb
2023)
P oduce e ised d a
(Ap 2023)
Expe e iew
(
May–Jun 2023
)
P oduc ion o epo (Aug 2023)
Media
enqui ies
Submi o SANBI Boa d (Sep 2023)
Submi o Minis e (Oc 2023)
Public elease (Jan 2024)
Re lec on he p ocess
D a able o con en s (Feb 2022)
Mee ing
(22 Feb 2022)
Appoin
a RAC
(Jan 2022)
Con e ence and
wo kshop
p esen a ions
Re iew d a
Re iew o
e ised d a ,
and esponse
o commen s
ecei ed
Mee ing
(~Dec 2023)
S akeholde
e iew
(Jun–Jul 2023)
Check
esponses o
commen s
ecei ed
2
nd
s a us epo inalised
(2 No 2020)
2
nd
s a us epo launched
(28 May 2021)
Engage wi h
go e nmen on
hei esponse
o key indings
(Oc –Dec 2023)
P oduce d a epo (Sep 2022)
Mee ing
(28 Sep 2022)
Mee ing
(~Jun 2023)
P oduce e ised d a
(Jun 2023)
6
P oduce and e iew o d a epo s: A d a was comple ed in Sep embe 2022 and sen o he RAC 475
o in e nal e iew. This was hen discussed a a mee ing o he RAC on 28 Sep embe , e ised, and 476
sen ou o public e iew by expe s and s akeholde s o a pe iod o abou 8 weeks (Decembe 2022–477
Feb ua y 2022). The eques o e iew was submi ed o a Sou h A ican lis se e on biological 478
in asions ([email p o ec ed]), heads o ele an na ional and p o incial go e nmen 479
depa men s, heads o ele an academic depa men s and ins i u ions, and p o essional socie ies and 480
o ums (including he Royal Socie y o Sou h A ica; he Akademie i We enskap en Kuns; he 481
Zoological, En omological, and Bo anical Socie ies; Bi dli e Sou h A ica; and he Wildli e and 482
En i onmen Socie y o Sou h A ica). A copy o he i s d a o public commen was a ached o he 483
o mal no ice and was a ailable o download online (h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7414804)
484
In May 2023, he nex d a o he epo was p oduced and ci cula ed o wo independen expe s 485
om Sou h A ica, and one in e na ional expe , as well as membe s o he RAC (link o be added). 486
Thei commen s we e add essed and a second d a o public commen was ci cula ed as be o e 487
(June–July 2023). 488
Commen s we e ecei ed om …1 ac oss he wo ounds o e iew. 489
P oduce and elease he inal epo : A comple e e sion o he epo was sen in Augus 2023 o he 490
SANBI G aphics eam o edi ing, layou , design, and p in ing and hen submi ed o he SANBI Boa d 491
in Sep embe 2023 o hei conside a ion. A e boa d app o al, he SANBI CEO submi ed he epo 492
o he Minis e o Fo es y, Fishe ies and he En i onmen . A he same ime a copy o he epo was 493
submi ed o he DFFE and he DALRRD as he key ecei e s o he epo . This p o ided he 494
depa men s wi h an oppo uni y o p epa e o esponding o media enqui ies o public conce ns 495
aised and o seek cla i ica ion om he epo d a ing eam as needed, no ing ha no changes could 496
be made o he epo du ing his pe iod. To maximise publici y and media up ake o he epo , he 497
epo is in ended o be eleased o he public in ea ly Janua y 2024 in ime o he esh news cycle 498
o he yea . As wi h p e ious epo s, in o ma ion will be included in he Sou h A ican S a e o he 499
En i onmen Repo p ocess (h p://soe .en i onmen .go .za/soe /).
500
Re lec on he p ocess: A e he public elease o he epo he s a us epo eam will con ene a 501
mee ing wi h key s akeholde s (including membe s o he RAC) o e lec on he p ocess used o 502
compile he epo and o iden i y a eas o imp o emen o subsequen epo s. 503
1 he numbe o people and ins i u ions commen ing o be added la e .
7
1.4 Indica o s 504
This epo is s uc u ed a ound he 20 indica o s and 4 high-le el indica o s ou lined in Wilson e al. 505
(2018) (Figu e 1.2) and adhe es b oadly o he published indica o ac shee s1. Howe e , he e ha e 506
been sligh upda es and co ec ions o how some hings we e sco ed, and so he indica o s should be 507
ead in conce wi h he me ada a o he species lis and o he wo k lows, wi h he mo e ecen 508
documen s aking p ecedence. Speci ically, he echnical de ails on sco ing he indica o s and he high-509
le el indica o s a e a ailable in he supplemen a y ma e ial. Fully e ised and upda ed indica o 510
ac shee s will be p o ided oge he wi h he nex epo . 511
512
Figu e 1.2 Indica o s used in he epo (based on Wilson e al. 2018). 513
No ably, he baselines p oposed in p e ious epo s needed o be e ised in some ins ances (e.g., due 514
o e o s in he o iginal alues). This means ha i is no always app op ia e o compa e alues 515
be ween he epo s, and in some cases he epo calcula ed he alues ha should ha e been in 516
p e ious epo s. Changes o e ime om hese e ised baselines a e p esen ed and discussed in his 517
epo , and di e ences in he calcula ion me hods used be ween he epo s a e no ed in he 518
supplemen a y ma e ial. 519
1.5 Wo k lows and p o ocols 520
Gi en he need o a epea able, anspa en p ocess, a ious wo k lows we e iden i ied and 521
cons uc ed o ou line how he epo was pu oge he and o in o m u u e epo p oduc ion. These 522
1The indica o ac shee s can be downloaded a : h ps:// inyu l.com/5n6 bymh
5. Numbe and s a us o alien species
6. Ex en o alien species
7. Abundance o alien species
SPECIES
SITES
9. Alien species ichness
10. Rela i e in asi e abundance
PATHWAYS
1. In oduc ion pa hway p ominence
3. Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence
INTERVENTIONS
2. In oduc ion a es
4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es
18. E ec i eness o pa hway ea men s
OUTCOMES
8. Impac o alien species
11. Impac o in asions
19. E ec i eness o species ea men s
20. E ec i eness o si e ea men s
15. Pa hways ea ed
OUTPUTS
16. Species ea ed
17. Si es ea ed
12. Quali y o egula o y amewo k
INPUTS
13. Money spen
14. Planning co e age
HIGH LEVEL
A. Ra e o un egula ed in oduc ion
o new species
HIGH LEVEL
B. Numbe o in asi e species ha
ha e majo impac s
HIGH LEVEL
C. Ex en o a ea ha su e s majo
impac s om in asions
HIGH LEVEL
D. Le el o success in managing
in asions
8
a e discussed in he ele an chap e s and p esen ed in ull in Appendix 4. They a e lis ed he e o 523
e e ence1: 524
• In oduc ion pa hway p ominence 525
• T acking da a sou ces 526
• Adding alien axa and en ichmen da a o he species lis 527
• P ocessing occu ence eco ds o gi e species ichness and abundance es ima es a di e en 528
spa ial uni s 529
• Alien axa impac assessmen s 530
• Impac s on key ecosys em se ices 531
• Regula o y p ocesses 532
• Money spen 533
• E alua ing con ol plans and hei implemen a ion 534
• Compliance and inspec ions and cou cases 535
Mi o ing he abo e wo k lows, a wo k low was also es ablished o sou cing, cap u ing, and epo ing 536
in o ma ion o he P ince Edwa d Islands (Chap e 6). 537
Some o hese wo k lows equi ed speci ic p o ocols whe e he in en ion is o hese o be applied 538
ou wi h he epo . Fo example, a p o ocol has been se up o classi y na i e-alien popula ions 539
(Nelu ule e al. 2022, Box 3.1). 540
1.6 Aspec s o biological in asions ha a e no co e ed 541
The aspec s no co e ed in his epo a e la gely he same as hose no co e ed in p e ious epo s 542
(see supplemen a y ma e ial S1.6). The epo ecognises ha COVID-19 has had p o ound impac s on 543
he li es o Sou h A icans, bu as no explici analysis o he e ec o he pandemic was a ailable, he 544
impac o he lockdown on biological in asions is no conside ed he e, excep whe e he e we e 545
palpable impac s on he indica o s (e.g., he signi ican d op in ade and a el a ec ed he indica o s 546
on in oduc ion pa hway p ominence and wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence, c . Figu e S2.19) 547
548
1 o his d a only h ee wo k lows a e included: ‘In oduc ion pa hway p ominence’; ‘T acking da a sou ces’;
and ‘Adding alien axa and en ichmen da a o he species lis ’
9
Box 1.1 The In e go e nmen al Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices 549
(IPBES) hema ic assessmen o in asi e alien species and hei con ol (IAS Assessmen ) 550
The In e go e nmen al Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices (IPBES) is an 551
independen in e go e nmen al body es ablished by S a es o s eng hen he science-policy in e ace 552
o biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices o he conse a ion and sus ainable use o biodi e si y, long-553
e m human well-being and sus ainable de elopmen . In 2018, a global IAS Assessmen was ini ia ed 554
and is o be p esen ed o he IPBES plena y in May 2023 o app o al by he pa ies o IPBES. The aim 555
o he IAS Assessmen “is o c i ically e alua e a ailable e idence on he se e i y o he h ea o 556
biological in asions o unde pin po en ial op ions o decision-making.”. The epo is due o be 557
eleased o he public as pa o he 10 h IPBES Plena y ha is due o un 28 Augus –2 Sep embe 2023. 558
As such i was no possible o include he indings in his hi d epo . Fo de ails see 559
h ps://ipbes.ne /in asi e-alien-species-assessmen 560
561
Box 1.2 The p oposed Con en ion on Biological Di e si y (CBD) a ge on biological in asions and 562
indica o s o ack his 563
One pu pose o his epo is o acili a e Sou h A ica’s epo ing o in e na ional bodies on biological 564
in asions, including o he CBD. As such he aim is o align his epo wi h in e -go e nmen al 565
epo ing p ocesses and indica o s. Howe e , while he e has been signi ican p og ess and he need 566
o a a ge on biological in asions has been ag eed, he CBD is, as o 1 Decembe 2022, s ill o inalise 567
he wo ding o he 2030 and 2050 a ge s (Essl e al. 2020). 568
Pa allel o his p ocess he e has been signi ican esea ch globally in o he mos app op ia e 569
indica o s. Fo example, he wo king g oup sTwis “Theo y and Wo k lows o Alien and In asi e 570
Species T acking” (h ps://www.idi .de/en/s wis .h ml) has p oposed h ee indica o s (McGeoch e 571
al. 2021). Ra e o In asi e Alien Species Sp ead p o ides modelled a es o ongoing in oduc ions o 572
species based on in asion disco e y and epo ing. Impac Risk es ima es in asi e species impac s on 573
he en i onmen in space and ime and p o ides a basis o na ionally a ge ed p io i iza ion o whe e 574
bes o in es in managemen e o s; and S a us In o ma ion on in asi e alien species acks 575
imp o emen in he essen ial dimensions o in o ma ion needed o guide ele an policy and da a 576
collec ion and in suppo o assessing in asi e species sp ead and impac . 577
The applicabili y o hese indica o s o he Sou h A ica con ex , and how hey ela e o he indica o 578
amewo k used in his epo will be a ocus o u u e epo s. 579
580

10
Chap e 2: Pa hways
581
Lead au ho s: Ka elyn T. Faulkne , John R. Wilson
582
Con ibu ing au ho s: Ma in P. Hill, Wilma Nel, Leoni P e o ius, Tama a B. Robinson, Cos as 583
Zacha iades 584
Key indings 585
● The ade and a el con ols pu in place o p e en he sp ead o Co id-19 had a sho -li ed, 586
quan i a i e, bu no quali a i e, impac on he oppo uni ies p o ided by some pa hways o 587
in oduc ions. In oduc ion oppo uni ies a e di e se and a e e u ning o p e-pandemic 588
le els. 589
● New alien o ganisms con inue o be legally, and illegally o acciden ally in oduced e e y yea . 590
The a e o illegal and acciden al in oduc ions does no appea o ha e ecen ly changed. 591
● Na i e species a e being mo ed and in oduced o pa s o he coun y whe e hey a e no 592
na i e. Mos o hese na i e-alien popula ions a e o namen al plan s, and mammals 593
in oduced o game a ms o a ac ou is s, bu acciden al in oduc ions a e also occu ing, 594
pa icula ly wi h anspo ed plan s o hei p oduc s, and wi h land ehicles and boa s. 595
● Alien o ganisms a e being acciden ally mo ed in o he coun y’s p o ec ed a eas, wi h ecen 596
emphasis on isi o s’ shoes, and ehicles as a sou ce o alien p opagules. 597
Key gap 598
● The e is insu icien in o ma ion on how in asi e species mo e and a e mo ed a ound Sou h 599
A ica. A sys em o ack wi hin-coun y mo emen is equi ed i Sou h A ica is o manage he 600
sp ead o in asi e species. 601
Indica o s co e ed in his chap e 602
603
Fo all pa hways indica o s, he pa hway classi ica ion amewo k o he Con en ion on Biological 604
Di e si y is implemen ed (CBD 2014), wi h p oposed changes by Ha owe e al. (2018). Speci ic de ails 605
o alues a e p o ided in Appendix 5 and me hodological changes om p e ious epo s and de ails 606
o how he calcula ions we e made a e ou lined in he Supplemen a y Ma e ials (e.g., Table S2.1). 607
PATHWAYS
1. In oduc ion pa hway p ominence
3. Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence
2. In oduc ion a es
4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es
HIGH LEVEL
A. Ra e o un egula ed in oduc ion
o new species
11
2.1 In oduc ion pa hway p ominence 608
In oduc ion pa hway p ominence assesses, based on socio-economic da a, he oppo uni ies 609
a ailable o alien o ganisms o be in oduced o Sou h A ica om o he coun ies. P o iding e ec i e 610
biosecu i y measu es a e in place, a la ge o inc easing in oduc ion pa hway p ominence is no , in 611
and o i sel , undesi able in e ms o biological in asions, as his indica o does no conside how many 612
in oduc ions hese oppo uni ies ha e esul ed in. 613
The e has been a >10% decline, o e he pe iod 2020–2022, in he in oduc ion oppo uni ies p o ided 614
by 14 o he 44 in oduc ion pa hways. Fo example, he alue o o es y p oduc impo s dec eased 615
by ~35%, he numbe o ai c a a i als om in e na ional and egional des ina ions declined by 43%, 616
and he numbe o people en e ing he coun y declined by 78%. The con ols placed on ade and 617
a el o p e en he sp ead o Co id-19 d o e hese ends. Howe e , o all hese pa hways he 618
changes a e likely o be sho -li ed, and a e no la ge enough o ha e a quali a i e impac on he 619
indica o (e.g., whe he in oduc ion pa hway p ominence is majo o mode a e). Fo example, in he 620
2019/2020 inancial yea o e 50 000 ai c a a i ed om egional and in e na ional des ina ions, and 621
while in 2020/2021 his numbe declined o ~13 000, by 2021/2022 he numbe had inc eased o 622
~30 000 (Figu e S2.14). The e o e, o his pa hway, in oduc ion pa hway p ominence is ‘mode a e’ 623
h oughou (Figu e 2.1). The e ha e been ew quali a i e changes o in oduc ion pa hway 624
p ominence (Figu e 2.1). Aquacul u e is cu en ly being p omo ed as a sou ce o ood, and, 625
consequen ly, aquacul u e p oduc ion ecen ly inc eased by 35% o 10 000 onnes. The in oduc ion 626
pa hway p ominence o his pa hway has inc eased om ‘mino ’ o ‘mode a e’. In oduc ion 627
pa hway p ominence was es ima ed o he i s ime o wo pa hways – conse a ion, and impo s 628
o machine y and ehicles, bo h o which ha e ‘majo ’ in oduc ion pa hway p ominence (Figu e 2.1). 629
The second epo highligh ed esea ch on he pe ade and medicinal plan ade, and u he wo k 630
has been done on hese wo in oduc ion pa hways. New esea ch on he pe ade has highligh ed 631
he di e si y o he ade (Shi ambu e al. 2022a) which includes alien gas opods (Shi ambu e al. 632
2020), mammals (Shi ambu e al. 2021), ep iles (Man in silili e al. 2022), and bi ds (Shi ambu e al. 633
2022b). Fu he mo e, bo h b ick and mo a and online pe shops con inue o play an impo an ole 634
in he ade, which is mos ly concen a ed in highly popula ed a eas o he coun y wi h ela i ely 635
la ge economies, such as Gau eng, KwaZulu-Na al, and he Wes e n Cape (Shi ambu e al. 2021, 636
2022b, Man in silili e al. 2022). The in o ma ion om hese ecen s udies con i med ha he pe 637
ade has a ‘mode a e’ in oduc ion pa hway p ominence. A consolida ed lis o 475 alien plan axa 638
used as adi ional medicine in Sou h A ica has ecen ly been published (Williams e al. 2021b). 639
Al hough some o hese plan s a e ha es ed in Sou h A ica (see sec ion 2.3), plan s a e also impo ed 640
12
in o he coun y, o en om he home coun ies o ade s (Williams e al. 2021a, 2022). These 641
impo ed plan s en e Sou h A ica h ough ai , oad, and sea anspo , wi h mos plan s aded by 642
A ican ade s a i ing h ough he land bo de pos s sha ed wi h Zimbabwe and Mozambique 643
(Williams e al. 2022). This esea ch has con i med ha he medicinal plan ade is an impo an 644
pa hway, wi h a ‘mode a e’ in oduc ion pa hway p ominence. 645
New esea ch on wildli e anches has highligh ed he oppo uni ies o in oduc ion ha hese anches 646
c ea e. The e a e be ween 4.66 and 7.25 million he bi o es li ing on wildli e anches ac oss Sou h 647
A ica (Taylo e al. 2021). These anches include eco ou ism and ophy hun ing p ope ies, and so 648
in oduc ion pa hway p ominence o he ela ed pa hways hun ing and conse a ion is ‘majo ’. 649
Al hough hese anches c ea e many oppo uni ies o in oduc ions, Sou h A ica has a high di e si y 650
o na i e ungula es, and so he h ea his pa hway poses in e ms o he a e o in oduc ion is likely 651
o be low—only wo alien axa [Kobus leche (Lechwe), including a ious subspecies, and Dama dama 652
(common allow dee )] we e eco ded on su eyed p ope ies. 653
2.2 In oduc ion a es 654
In oduc ion a es conside s he numbe o alien axa ha ha e been in oduced o Sou h A ica 655
h ough he in oduc ion pa hways. O he alien axa o which in oduc ion pa hways a e known (~47 656
% o alien axa), mos a e plan s in oduced o o namen al pu poses and/o ho icul u e (~30%), bu 657
many plan s ha e also been in oduced o ag icul u e (~10%; Figu e 2.1). Many alien o ganisms (e.g. 658
in e eb a e pes s) ha e been acciden ally in oduced along wi h impo ed plan s, animals, o hei 659
p oduc s (~15%); while shipping has acili a ed many in oduc ions (~10%), h ough he elease o 660
ballas wa e by ships, h ough hull ouling, and when o ganisms hi chhike on he ship i sel (Figu e 661
2.1). The e has been li le change o hese ends o e he 2020–2022 pe iod. 662
New in oduc ions ha e been epo ed o 15 pa hways. Howe e , lags in epo ing and o 663
in o ma ion o eed h ough in o his epo con inue o signi ican ly a ec he epo ed alues, and 664
o 13 o hese pa hways ( o es y, esea ch, nu se y ma e ial con aminan , pa asi es o animals, 665
con aminan s o plan s, pa asi es o plan s, imbe ade con aminan , habi a ma e ial con aminan , 666
packing ma e ial, ships (excluding ballas wa e and hull ouling), ballas wa e , and hull ouling, and 667
unaided), hese new in oduc ions we e eco ded be o e 2020. Fo example, he in oduc ion o 668
Dipolydo a socialis, a polychae e collec ed in he Knysna es ua y in 2015, was epo ed in 2021 669
ollowing gene ic analysis ha con i med i s iden i ica ion (Da id e al. 2021). This polychae e could 670
ha e been in oduced o Sou h A ica hough ballas wa e , hull ouling, o wi h o ganisms impo ed 671
o ma icul u e (Da id e al. 2021). In 2020, wo new alien g asses we e eco ded in he coun y, 672
Ag os is capilla is and Fes uca ub a (Syl es e e al. 2021). These axa we e likely in oduced as seed 673
13
con aminan s, when mix u es o g ass seeds we e sown on he Ti indell ski slopes (Syl es e e al. 674
2021) and, he e o e, he e has been an inc ease in in oduc ion a es o his pa hway (Figu e 2.1). 675
The e ha e also been new in oduc ions o biological con ol agen s, wi h i e new agen s eleased 676
agains in asi e plan s in 2021/2022 (see sec ion 5.5. in chap e 5 o u he de ails). While he a e 677
o in oduc ion o biological con ol has, he e o e, inc eased (Figu e 2.1), his is a well- egula ed 678
pa hway, wi h all o hese being legal in oduc ions. Biological con ol aside, o e he pe iod 2020–679
2022 he e was one pe mi issued o he impo o an alien axon ha was no al eady known o be 680
legally p esen in he coun y (see Appendix 6). A pe mi was issued o impo Me iones unguicula us, 681
a ype o ge bil, o be b ed in qua an ine acili ies and used in medical esea ch. Howe e , i appea s 682
ha his axon is al eady p esen in he pe ade (Shi ambu e al. 2021), hough he legali y o he 683
ini ial impo (s) is no known. I is no known i he pe mi has been exe cised. Be ween 2013 and 684
2022, 31 new alien axa we e ei he illegally o acciden ally in oduced, a a a e o h ee in oduc ions 685
pe yea (Figu e 2.2). Be ween 2010 and 2019, an a e age o ou new axa we e in oduced pe yea , 686
his is much close o he numbe s o 2000–2009 han hose epo ed in he second epo (a e age 687
o h ee axa pe yea ), due in pa o delays in he eco ding and epo ing o new in oduc ions (see 688
Box 2.1). 689
20
2.5 T ends in pa hway indica o s 817
Indica o
T end1
Con idence
Desi ed end
Cu en s a us and end
Ou look
1. In oduc ion
pa hway
p ominence
→ Medium No applicable
13 in oduc ion pa hways play a majo ole
socio-economically.
The e ha e been ew quali a i e changes o
his du ing he pe iod 2020–
2022 despi e
empo a y quan i a i e educ ions due o
Co id-
19 esponse measu es. Fo wo
pa hways in oduc ion pa hway p ominence
was es ima ed o he i s ime.
While he ade and a el con ols pu in place o p e en he
sp ead o Co id-19 impac ed he oppo uni ies p o ided by
some pa hways o in oduc ions, hese e ec s ha e been
quan i a i e a he
han quali a i e. The decline in
in oduc ion oppo uni ies ha e been sho -li ed and hey a e
e u ning o p e-
pandemic le els. Please no e, a la ge
in oduc ion pa hway p ominence is no , in and o i sel ,
undesi able in e ms o in asions, p o iding e ec i e
biosecu i y measu es a e in place.
2. In oduc ion
a es → Low
No applicable
( o egula ed
axa)
↘
( o un egula ed
axa)
The e has been li le change ecen ly, and
alien axa con inue o be in en ionally and
acciden ally in oduced
h ough a wide
a ie y o pa hways. Du ing he 2020–2022
pe iod, i e new axa we e legally in oduced
o biological con ol, and one axon ha was
al eady in he coun y was legally in oduced
o o he pu poses. Two new axa we e
acciden ally in oduce
d as seed
con aminan s.
In many cases egula ed axa ( o which he isks ha e been
analysed and ound o be accep able) a e expec ed o be a ne
bene i o he coun y, and in he case o biological con ol,
assis wi h he con ol o biological in asions. The e o e, no
speci ic end is desi able o egula ed axa, bu wha is
desi able is ha a p ocess is in place o egula e hem (sec ion
5.1. in Chap e 5).
The a e o in oduc ion o un egula ed axa will inc ease as
he olume o ade and a el i
nc eases. The a e o
in oduc ion o un egula ed axa is, howe e , sensi i e o he
in ensi eness o su ey ac i i ies and is likely o be ela i ely
un esponsi e o changes in ac ual in oduc ions (Box 2.1).
Unless pa hways a e iden i ied, p io i ised an
d managed,
po en ially ha m ul alien axa will con inue o be acciden ally
and illegally in oduced.
1→ no change; ↗ an inc ease; ↘ a dec ease

21
Indica o
T end1
Con idence
Desi ed end
Cu en s a us and end
Ou look
3. Wi hin-
coun y
pa hway
p ominence
No assessed No applicable
In o ma ion was only ob ained o a ew
pa hways. Many pa hways a e likely playing
a ole socio-economically wi hin he coun y,
bu he ex en o his ole and how i has
changed ecen ly is no known.
Res ic ions on wi hin-coun y ade and a el o p e en he
sp ead o Co id-19 had a sho - e m impac on he wi hin-
coun y dispe sal oppo uni ies p o ided by some pa hways.
The e is no desi ed end o wi hin-
coun y pa hway
p ominence as i is a unc ion o in e nal ade and anspo .
Howe e , ends in hese pa hways need o be acked o
ensu e in e en ions a e in place whe e hey a e needed. I
his is no done ha m ul axa will con inue o sp ead, na i e
axa will be in oduced and possibly cause impac s in pa s o
he coun y whe e hey a e no na i e, and aluable asse s will
be pu a isk.
4. Wi hin-
coun y
dispe sal a es
No assessed
No applicable
( o egula ed
axa)
↘
( o un egula ed
axa)
Na ional-scale da a ha e ye o be colla ed
o alien axa, bu in o ma ion has become
a ailable o na i e-alien popula ions. Mos
na i e-
alien popula ions a e plan s
in oduced o ho icul u e, o mammals o
aes he ics. Bu na i e-alien popula ions a e
also he esul o acciden al in oduc ions, o
example, o ganisms mo ed wi h anspo ed
plan s o plan p oduc s, o ha dispe se
h ough in e -basin wa e ans e schemes.
Inc eases in he olume o ade and a el will lead o
inc eases in he wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es o axa known
o be in asi e, o ha a e conside ed
likely o become
in asi e. Unless pa hways ha acili a e he wi hin-coun y
dispe sal o axa a e iden i ied, p io i ised, and managed, he
sp ead o hese axa will inc ease, and so he e will be
inc eases in bo h he a e o expansion o cu en ly in asi e
axa, and in he likelihood ha alien axa will ind a sui able
pa o he coun y in which o become in asi e.
High le el
indica o
A. Ra e o
un egula ed
in oduc ion o
new species
→ Low ↘
O e he las decade (2013–2022)
app oxima ely 3 new axa we e in oduced
pe yea ei he acciden ally o in en ionally,
bu illegally. This is simila o p e ious
es ima es.
Oppo uni ies o he in oduc ion o alien axa a e expec ed
o inc ease as he
olume o ade and a el inc eases.
Whe he his esul s in he in oduc ion o mo e in asi e axa
will depend on he deg ee o which key pa hways a e
iden i ied and p io i ised o managemen . Imp o emen s o
inspec ion, managemen , and incu sion esponse a -bo de
would s eng hen Sou h A ica’s biosecu i y. See chap e 5 o
de ails on some posi i e de elopmen s on his on .
818
22
Chap e 3: Species 819
Lead au ho s: Tsungai A. Zengeya; John R. Wilson 820
Con ibu ing au ho s: Whi ney Engelb ech ; Ka elyn T. Faulkne ; Lau a M. Fe nandez Winze ; Sab ina 821
Kumschick; Emily J. McCulloch-Jones; Siyasanga Miza; A iwe Si uba 822
Key indings1 823
o be added 824
Key gaps 825
• Da a on he dis ibu ion and abundance o alien species need o be collec ed, colla ed, and 826
in eg a ed in o na ional and global da abases o acili a e he planning o in e en ions. 827
• The sys ema ic quan i ica ion o he impac s o biological in asions would: acili a e he 828
p io i isa ion o in e en ions a ge ing pa icula species and pa icula si es; p o ide he 829
jus i ica ion o go e nmen in es men o con ol biological in asions; and p o ide impo an 830
backg ound o communica e he issue o socie y. 831
Indica o s co e ed in his chap e 832
833
834
1 he key indings will be added a e he analysis is inalised. The gaps lis ed p esen ed a e he same as in 2019,
bu he si ua ion has no changed
5. Numbe and s a us o alien species
6. Ex en o alien species
7. Abundance o alien species
SPECIES
8. Impac o alien species
HIGH LEVEL
B. Numbe o in asi e species ha
ha e majo impac s
23
3.1 Numbe and s a us o alien species 835
A majo pa o his epo cycle was o ensu e ha he species lis used was anspa en and all 836
eco ds a e aceable. This p ocess is on-going. In pa icula new species om addi ional key sou ces 837
will be added (Table 3.1; see supplemen a y ma e ial S3.2 o u he de ails). Some p og ess has been 838
made, bu a la ge pa o he wo k s ill needs o be done and i is an icipa ed ha i should be 839
comple ed o he second d a ha goes ou o public commen . All he e isions o he species lis 840
(Appendix 2) will be inco po a ed in he analyses in he second ound o public e iew. Reade s a e 841
kindly eques ed o in e oga e he species lis and p o ide de ailed eedback; please also e alua e 842
he da a sou ces ha a e o be inco po a ed and p o ide de ails o addi ional sou ces ha should be 843
included. 844
Table 3.1. Lis o key sou ces ha will be used o upda e he checklis o alien species ha a e known 845
o occu in Sou h A ica as o Decembe 2022. 846
Taxa o da abase
Re e ence
Species lis om 2nd epo
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.3947659
Ba code o Li e
www.boldsys ems.o g
Ho icul u al plan s
Hoy e al. 2021
Ma ine axa
Robinson e al. 2016; 2020; Hodgson e al. 2021,
Bezuidenhou and Robinson 2020, Rodewald e al.
2021; Ma e al 2021; Singh e al. 2021; Zeeman e al.
2020; Makhe ana e al. 2022
Cul i a ed plan s
Glen 2003
T ee species in a bo e a
Cheek a al. 2022
Species in he pe ade
Nelu ule e al. 2020; Shi ambu e al. 2020;
Shi ambu e al. 2021a,b; Man in silili e al. 2022;
Niemann e al. 2022; Shi ambu e al. 2022a,b
Species in zoological ga dens
SANBI
Alien species in he medicinal plan ade
Williams e al. 2021a,b; Williams e al. 2022
Alien e ns
McCulloch-Jones e al. 2021
Insec s o cul i a ed plan s and na u al pas u es
P insloo & Uys, 2015
In e cep ion da a a po s o en y
Saccaggi e al. 2021
Taxa o which pe mi s ha e been issued unde he
NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions
Appendix 6
Ci izen science
iNa u alis
Biocon ol agen s o alien plan s
Cen e o Biological Con ol
He ba ium eco ds and o he species da abases
ha may con ain in o ma ion on alien axa
BODATSA
Alien bamboo species
Cana an e al. 2021
Alien in e eb a es
Cha lene Janion-Scheepe s, Uni e si y o Cape Town
Biocon ol agen s o ag icul u al pes s
P insloo & Uys 2015; P e o ius 2008
Encyclopaedia o biological in asions in Sou h
A ica
an Wilgen e al. 2020
847
24
An in e im analysis is p esen ed in Figu e 3.1, no ing as has been ema ked elsewhe e ha Sou h A ica 848
is a pa icula ho spo o plan in asions and ela i ely (bo h o plan and o o he egions) less 849
a ec ed by animal in asions. 850
851
Figu e 3.1 The numbe o alien species pe kingdom eco ded as p esen in Sou h A ica as o 852
Decembe 2022 (see Appendix 2). Many o hese axa a e no in asi e, and some a e only known om 853
cap i i y o cul i a ion. The lis is no comp ehensi e (many alien axa in cap i i y o cul i a ion a e 854
no included ye ). Howe e , o each axon p esen he e he e idence o hei p esence is clea ly 855
speci ied in Appendix 2 and he names a e alid acco ding o he la es axonomic sou ces. Gi en his 856
is a e ised p ocess, i is no ye possible o compa e alues wi h he p e ious epo . 857
3.2 Ex en o alien species 858
3.2.1 Numbe o b oad-scale egions occupied pe species 859
Table 3.2. The numbe o alien species ha a e eco ded as p esen in a gi en numbe o p o inces in 860
Sou h A ica as o Decembe 2022 based on occu ence eco ds om GBIF and he change in hese 861
alues since Decembe 2019. 862
Pe iod
Numbe o p o inces
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
End o 2019
281
161
140
82
80
63
70
59
87
End o 2022
To be comple ed, bo h o see i he numbe s ha e
changed and i b oad dis ibu ion pa e ns ha e
changed
3.2.2 Numbe o qua e -deg ee g id cells occupied pe species 863
25
To be added. Once he species lis is inalised, Figu e 3.1 will be upda ed based on GBIF da a and 864
his o ical da a, enabling an analysis o whe he b oad dis ibu ion pa e ns ha e changed; cases whe e 865
species ange ha e no ably expanded; and how di e en da a sou ces p o ide addi ional in o ma ion, 866
e.g., iNa u alis . No ably du ing his pe iod he sou he n A ican Plan In ade s A las (SAPIA) was pu 867
on a hia us in he i s qua e o 2020, his was a majo p ojec ha p o ided s anda dised da a on 868
he dis ibu ion o alien plan s, no ably he use o ci izen science da a canno eplace such ac i e 869
su eillance e o s. 870
871
Figu e 3.1. The inc ease in he eco ded ex en o selec ed alien species as p esen ed in he p e ious 872
epo . The igu e will be upda ed o he pe iod 2020–2022 and included as pa o he nex d a . 873
3.3 Abundance o alien species 874
In p e ious epo s, es ima es o he abundance o alien species we e based on wo sou ces o da a 875
on e es ial plan s—a 1998 epo o he Wa e Resea ch Commission (Ve s eld e al. 1998) and he 876
Na ional In asi e Alien Plan Su ey (Ko zé e al. 2010). This si ua ion has no changed. The e ha e 877
been some ecen de elopmen s, o example, he Na ional In asi e Alien Plan Su ey app oach was 878
ecen ly u he desc ibed (Ko zé e al. 2019) and applied a a small scale in he Agulhas Plain in Sou h 879
A ica (Ko zé e al. 2020). 880
3.4 Impac o alien species 881
A ecen e iew o he impac s o biological in asions in Sou h A ica con i med p e ious asse ions 882
ha , al hough i is clea ha a signi ican numbe o species cause majo nega i e impac s, he e a e 883

26
ew s udies ha o mally documen he impac s o alien species on biodi e si y (see supplemen a y 884
ma e ial S3.5; an Wilgen e al. 2022). The e is an inc easing e o o assess he impac s o alien 885
species using s anda dised p o ocols, bu in he ew cases whe e assessmen s ha e been done, he e 886
is gene ally a lack o in o ma ion (Zengeya e al. 2020; an Wilgen e al. 2022). In 2019, na ional-le el 887
EICAT assessmen s had been comple ed o 32 species, his has inc eased sligh ly o 49 species in 2022 888
(see supplemen a y ma e ial S3.5). In addi ion, he numbe o species assessed as ha ing majo o 889
massi e impac s inc eased om se en species in 2019 o 18 in 2022. These include ee species such 890
as he ed gum (Eucalyp us camaldulensis) ha o ms dense hicke s along wa e ways and domina es 891
o excludes na i e ege a ion (Te e ai e al. 2013, Hi sch e al. 2019); wo P osopis species ha 892
compe i i ely displace na i e ege a ion (Schach schneide and Feb ua y 2013), bi ds (Dean e al. 893
2002), and in e eb a e communi ies (S eenkamp and Chown 1996); i e Acacia species ha cause 894
majo impac s on na i e species h ough compe i ion and changes o ecosys em unc ioning (Jasen 895
and Kumschick 2022); as well as Lan ana (Lan ana cama a) and T i id weed (Ch omolaena odo a a) 896
ha cause physical changes o ecosys em s uc u e leading o a decline in, and local ex i pa ion o , 897
some in e eb a e species (Samways e al. 1996, Mgobozi e al. 2008). In e ms o animals, he 898
A gen ine an (Linepi hema humile) compe i i ely displaces and educes he abundance o na i e an s 899
(Schoeman and Samways 2011). 900
In 2019, he e was a limi ed numbe o na ional-le el SEICAT assessmen s done in Sou h A ica and 901
his had no changed by 2022, wi h only a ew addi ional assessmen s done on Acacia species (see 902
supplemen a y ma e ial S3.5). Alien species can cause bo h posi i e and nega i e en i onmen al 903
impac s (Vime ca i e al. 2020). A majo ad ance since 2019 in moni o ing he impac o alien species 904
has been he de elopmen o he EICAT+ amewo k (Vime ca i e al. 2022) ha enables he 905
classi ica ion o posi i e impac s o alien axa on na i e biodi e si y. 906
Box 3.1 Na i e-alien popula ions 907
Species ha a e na i e o Sou h A ica ha e been in en ionally and acciden ally mo ed a ound he 908
coun y and in oduced o pa s o he coun y whe e hey a e no na i e (see Chap e 2 o de ails on 909
hei pa hways o dispe sal). The e a e a ious wo king de ini ions o his phenomenon, and a a ie y 910
o e ms ha e been in use, including ‘ex alimi al in oduc ions’ (Ellende and Weyl 2014) and 911
‘domes ic exo ics’ (Measey e al. 2017). Bu , ecen ly Nelu ule e al. (2022) p oposed ha he 912
phenomenon be de ined as a “popula ion ha is: (1) wi hin a coun y o which he species is na i e, 913
(2) ounded by indi iduals mo ed by di ec human agency [o subs an ial indi ec human agency, see 914
Essl e al. (2018)], (3) o e a biogeog aphical ba ie and (4) o an a ea beyond he species’ na i e 915
ange”. The e m ‘na i e-alien popula ions’ has been p oposed (Nelu ule e al. 2022), and a p o ocol 916
27
o classi ying hese popula ions has been de eloped based on he p oposed de ini ion (Nelu ule e al. 917
in p ep-a). This means ha he e is now a p ocess bo h o ci cumsc ibe he phenomenon and con i m 918
ins ances. Na i e-alien popula ions a e unde s udied globally, bu hey dese e mo e a en ion (Vi ule 919
e al. 2019). This is because al hough hese popula ions a e a subse o alien popula ions, hey end o 920
di e om o he alien popula ions in e ms o hei in asion po en ial and he ype o impac hey 921
ha e, as hey pose a speci ic managemen and egula o y challenge, and as hei p e alence will likely 922
inc ease wi h global change (Nelu ule e al. 2022). 923
In an e o o ill da a gaps, an in en o y o na i e-alien popula ions in Sou h A ica has been 924
de eloped (Nelu ule e al. in p ep-b). The in en o y con ains in o ma ion on 77 na i e species om 925
nine classes ha ha e o med 132 na i e-alien popula ions ac oss he e es ial (101 popula ions), 926
eshwa e (26 popula ions), and ma ine en i onmen s (5 popula ions). Mos o hese popula ions a e 927
es ablished (59%), bu a ew a e in asi e (18%). Some o hese na i e-alien popula ions ha e had di e 928
impac s in Sou h A ica (Box Figu e 3.1). Al hough he phenomenon appea s o be a e in compa ison 929
o he numbe o alien species in oduc ions om o he coun ies (sec ion 3.1), i is unde - epo ed. 930
As he in en o y ollows, whe e possible, global da a s anda ds i can be easily in eg a ed in o he 931
species lis o his epo , hus making i possible o epo on he s a us o hese popula ions in u u e 932
epo s. 933
934
Box Figu e 3.1 Examples o axa wi h na i e-alien popula ions in Sou h A ica ha ha e h ea ened 935
na i e biodi e si y h ough hyb idisa ion: A) popula ions o O ange Ri e mud ish (Labeo capensis) 936
ansloca ed o he Eas e n Cape ha e hyb idised wi h moggel (L. umb a us), leading o in og ession 937
and h ea ening moggel’s gene ic in eg i y (Ramoejane e al. 2020); and B) blesbok (Damaliscus 938
pyga gus subsp. phillipsi) na i e-alien popula ions in he Wes e n Cape hyb idised wi h he endemic 939
bon ebok (D. pyga gus subsp. pyga gus), and only h ough conce ed and in ensi e in e en ions was 940
he ex inc ion o bon ebok p e en ed ( an Wyk e al. 2017). 941
28
3.5 T end in species indica o s 942
Indica o T end1 Con idence
Desi ed
end
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
5. Numbe
and s a us o
alien species
No eassessed ye
↘
( o
in asi e
species)
This epo con ains de ails o XXX alien
species ha we e known o occu in
Sou h A ica. O e XXX % o hese we e
ega ded as in asi e.
The p ocess o documen ing and
acking changes in he s a us o alien
species has been subs an ially
imp o ed h ough he de elopmen o
wo k lows o ensu e ha wo k is
p ope ly documen ed and epea able.
Sou h A ica aces a subs an ial in asion deb because mos alien
species a e no ye in asi e, and new alien species will con inue o
a i e. The numbe o alien species eco ded in he coun y will also
inc ease i mo e e o is spen on de ec ion, e en o well-s udied
g oups like plan s.
The upda ed alien species lis con ained in his epo ep esen s a
s ep owa ds a na ional egis y o alien species in he coun y. I
cap u es he cu en s a e o knowledge o he s a us o each alien
species in a manne ha allows o he in o ma ion o be easily
e iewed and upda ed. This p omises o p o ide he ounda ional
biodi e si y in o ma ion ha is essen i
al o managemen and
policymake s.
6. Ex en o
alien species No eassessed ye ↘
No eassessed ye
In 2019, he majo i y o alien species we e localised and only a ew
we e widesp ead. Howe e , he po en ial o hem o inc ease hei
dis ibu ion is la ge and he ex en o mos species will con inue o
inc ease unless e ec i e con ol is pu in place.
7. Abundance
o alien
species
No assessed ↘
No new da a we e a ailable on he
abundance o alien species
Unde s anding ends in abundance is impo an i he e ec i eness
o managemen in e en ions a e o be moni o ed, and he
magni ude o u u e impac s p edic ed.
8. Impac o
alien species ↗ Medium ↘
17 species ha e been assessed using an
e idence-based amewo k since 2019.
11 species ha e been epo ed o cause
majo o massi e impac s using EICAT
and 5 using SEICAT. Howe e , he e
was no eliable da a o he majo i y o
he assessed species.
This emains a majo gap whe e de ailed esea ch is needed. Unless
he impac s o in asi e species can be quan i ied, a emp s o
egula e hem will emain con en ious in many cases.
1→ no change; ↗ an inc ease; ↘ a dec ease
29
Indica o T end1 Con idence
Desi ed
end
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
High-le el
indica o
B. Numbe o
in asi es ha
ha e majo
impac s
↗ ↘
In 2019, 32 species had na ional-le el
EICAT assessmen s, his has sligh ly
inc eased o 49 species in 2022. The
numbe o species ha we e assessed
as ha ing majo o massi e impac s
inc eased om se en species in 2019 o
18 species in 2020 ( i e ish, wo
g asses, 10 ees, and one mammal
species, one an species).
Howe e , in many cases, he e was a
lack o eliable da a.
Tha is he numbe o alien species eco ded o ha e majo o massi e
nega i e impac s will inc ease as mo e species a e o mally assessed.
The o mal assessmen o he impac o alien species p o ides he
a ionale o egula ion and managemen , can imp o e compliance
and implemen a ion o in e en ion measu es, and assis o esol e
con lic s. Howe e , impac assessmen s a e hampe ed by a lack o
eliable da a o mos species. I his si ua ion pe sis s, egula ions will
con inue o be ulne able o legal challenges. I is e y di icul o
con ol in asi e species wi h majo impac s in a way ha will educe
such impac s
o mode a e o mino , bu his has a guably been
achie ed by biological con ol o o e 30 in asi e axa. On-going
in es men in biological con ol will likely esul in mo e such
successes. I alien species ha cu en ly ha e mode a e o mino
impac s a e p e en ed om inc easing in abundance and ex en o
he poin whe e hey ha e majo impac s o , whe e easible, such
species a e e adica ed om Sou h A ica, hen signi ican e u ns on
in es men may also be made.
943
36
Box 4.1 Es ima ing he cos s o in asions (damage and in e en ion)—In aCos 1034
Biological in asions a ec ecosys em unc ioning and hinde he deli e y o ecosys em se ices, o en 1035
leading o signi ican economic losses (Vaissiè e e al. 2022). His o ically, he cos s ha biological 1036
in asions cause in damages and he cos s spen ying o mi iga e o p e en in asions ha e a ely 1037
been es ima ed in de ail, and whe e es ima es ha e been made, hey a e gene ally augh wi h majo 1038
assump ions (Cu hbe e al. 2020) and canno easily be compa ed o allied a na ional o global scales 1039
(La ombe e al. 2017; Diagne e al. 2020a). In an a emp o add ess his, Diagne e al. (2020b) 1040
de eloped a global-scale da a eposi o y o he epo ed economic cos s associa ed wi h biological 1041
in asions (dubbed In aCos ). Cos s a e adjus ed o in la ion and ca ego ised by a ious desc ip o s 1042
including whe he hey a e obse ed o p edic ed; whe he he me hod use has a high o low 1043
eliabili y; and whe he he cos s a e o managemen o damage. 1044
In aCos s udies ha e been comple ed o a ange o opics ( o he la es lis see 1045
h ps://in acos . /en/ou comes/), bu no as ye o Sou h A ica. Ini ial wo k om Sou h A ica using 1046
obse ed, highly eliable cos en ies, has placed he es ima e a USD6.6 billion (all cos s adjus ed o 1047
2017 USD alues). These cos s a e due o 42 (mos ly plan ) axa. This o al comp ised a ela i ely e en 1048
di ision be ween damage (USD3.22 billion) and managemen (USD3.44 billion), a inding e y di e en 1049
o o he exis ing na ional syn hesis which show a clea dominance in damage cos s (Zenni e al. 2021). 1050
The e was almos no eco ded spending p e-in asion managemen in he coun y; ins ead he 1051
majo i y o cos s (USD3.28 billion) we e o pos -in asion managemen ; wi h ela i ely small bu s ill 1052
signi ican spending on communica ion and esea ch (~USD15 million) and on o he ancilla y cos s 1053
(USD 51.4 million). 1054
These igu es a e conside ably highe han hose es ima ed by an Wilgen e al. 2022, he easons 1055
emain o be explo ed. The e emain many cos -da a gaps o he coun y, speci ically as p esen ed 1056
by he se e e lack o cos in o ma ion o a ious axonomic g oups and species. These cos s a e hus 1057
an incomple e e lec ion o he impac s and ela ed cos o in asions in Sou h A ica. The e is a need 1058
o ela e en i onmen al impac s udies o economic alues as a means o be e in o m in e en ions 1059
and policy de elopmen . 1060

37
4.4 T ends in si es indica o s 1061
Indica o
T end
(con idence)
1
Desi ed
end
Cu en s a us
Ou look
9. Alien species
ichness
No eassessed
ye
↘
( o
in asi e
species)
No eassessed ye
The de elopmen o a obus and eliable moni o ing me hodology should be seen as a
p io i y, because in he absence o eliable in o ma ion on species ichness and ela i e
abundance, nei he he magni ude o impac s no he e ec i eness o managemen can be
p ope ly assessed.
10. Rela i e
in asi e
abundance
No assessed ↘
The e a e no coun y-wide
es ima es o he ela i e
abundance o in asi e species,
bu es ima es o in asi e
plan s in p o ec ed a eas
managed by Cape Na u e and
SANPa ks in asions a e mino o
mode a e.
Achie ing consis ency in acking ela i e abundance in p o ec ed a eas could be acili a ed
by he inclusion o a s anda dised moni o ing p o ocol in he c i e ia o he p epa a ion o
managemen plans which we e de eloped by he DFFE in e ms o he A&IS Regula ions. I
is expec ed ha exis ing in asions will densi y unless managed. The cos s o con ol and he
impac s caused o en inc ease d ama ically wi h he le el o in asion.
11. Impac s o
in asions
No eassessed
ye ↘
No eassessed ye
Impac s a e likely o inc ease as in asi e species con inue o sp ead, and as con ol e o s
a e scaled back in esponse o iscal cons ain s. This unde sco es he impo ance o e-
ocussing con ol e o s on ag eed p io i y si es, and aking s eps o imp o e con ol
e ec i eness.
High le el
indica o
C. Ex en o a eas
ha su e majo
impac s om
in asions
No eassessed
ye ↘
I con ol e o s ocus on p io i y si es (e.g. si es ha p o ide wa e o Cape Town’s dams)
hen he e will be signi ican e u ns on in es men . Howe e , wi hou ag eemen on
p io i ies, he e is a subs an ial isk ha con ol could emain ine ec i e, and he a ea ha
su e s om majo impac s will con inue o g ow. Es ima es o he ull magni ude o impac s
e
qui e mo e accu a e assessmen s o he ex en o in asions. This, in u n, equi es
e ec i e mapping o he a eas in aded and moni o ing o sp ead. Such moni o ing is
cu en ly lacking, and wi hou which e ec i e p io i isa ion is no possible.
1062
1→ no change; ↗ an inc ease; ↘ a dec ease
38
Chap e 5: In e en ions 1063
Lead au ho s: B ian W. an Wilgen; Ka elyn T. Faulkne ; John R. Wilson; Má han Thea 1064
Con ibu ing au ho s: Nicholas Cole; Julie A. Coe zee; Leoni P e o ius; Roge P ice; Louise S a o d, 1065
And ew A. Tu ne ; Ka abo Wanjau; And ew Wannenbu gh; Cos as Zacha iades 1066
Key indings 1067
• The NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions and Lis s we e e ised and p omulga ed in 2020. These 1068
amendmen s a e conside ed o ha e imp o ed he egula o y egime. 1069
• A leas R 1.4 billion has been spen on he managemen o biological in asions o e he pe iod 1070
2020–2022. Howe e , he money spen has declined s eadily in eal e ms since 2015. 1071
• A lack o adequa e planning emains a cons ain o e ec i e managemen , and a lack o 1072
moni o ing means i is ha d o e alua e he e ec i eness o managemen ha is in place. 1073
• Plans a e assumed o exis o he managemen o 40 o 44 iden i ied in oduc ion pa hways, 1074
al hough no o mal plans ha e been app o ed by DFFE. The managemen o se en pa hways 1075
is e ec i e and o one pa hway is pa ially e ec i e. Fo he emainde , he e ec i eness o 1076
managemen is ei he unknown (14 pa hways), ine ec i e (17 pa hways), o he e is no 1077
managemen ( i e pa hways). 1078
• Few egula ed species ha e managemen plans in place. 1079
• 196 ou o he 559 egula ed axa ha e ecei ed some o m o ac i e ea men (e.g., clea ing) 1080
o e he pas h ee yea s. Howe e , he e ec i eness o con ol is unknown o mos (130) o 1081
he ea ed species. Twel e species we e assessed as being unde pe manen con ol (based 1082
on an assessmen o comple e biological con ol). O he emainde , con ol was e ec i e (16 1083
species), pa ially e ec i e (13 species) o ine ec i e (11 species). Fo 14 species ha a e 1084
a ge s o na ional e adica ion, he e ec i eness o managemen s ill has o be e alua ed. 39 1085
alien pes s o ag icul u al c ops we e subjec ed o biological con ol, bu only one o hese 1086
pes s is lis ed unde he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions. 1087
• Only ~15% o he es ima ed in aded a ea in Sou h A ica is co e ed by si e managemen plans; 1088
many o hese plans do no mee he equi ed s anda ds. Con ol ope a ions eached 1% o 1089
he es ima ed in aded a ea be ween 2020 and 2022. The e is e idence ha con ol e o s 1090
ha e educed he a ea in aded a some si es, bu mos in asi e species ha e con inued o 1091
expand hei ange when assessed a a na ional scale. 1092
• The Wo king o Wa e p og amme’s pe o mance is measu ed in e ms o employmen 1093
c ea ed and money spen (inpu s), and a ea clea ed (an ou pu ), bu no in e ms o ou comes 1094
39
(changes in he ex en o in asions; es o a ion o ecosys em unc ion). I he e o e plans o 1095
spend money, employ people and clea si es, bu no explici ly o achie e con ol. This lack o 1096
moni o ing o he ou comes o con ol measu es, along wi h he absence o managemen 1097
plans wi h clea goals, emains a subs an ial impedimen o assessing he e ec i eness o 1098
con ol measu es. 1099
Key gaps 1100
• In e en ions on biological in asions in Sou h A ica a e no s a egically ocussed in he 1101
absence o a comp ehensi e policy and s a egy. 1102
• The effec i eness o in e en ions canno be ou inely demons a ed, con ol measu es 1103
canno be compa ed and imp o ed, and i is no clea whe he p og ess is being made o 1104
educe he nega i e impac s o in asions. Fo mal p og ammes o moni o he e ec i eness o 1105
in e en ions would assis wi h all o hese. 1106
Indica o s co e ed in his chap e 1107
1108
1109
INTERVENTIONS
12. Quali y o egula o y amewo k
13. Money spen
14. Planning co e age
HIGH LEVEL
D. Le el o success in managing
in asions
INPUTS
15. Pa hways ea ed
16. Species ea ed
17. Si es ea ed
OUTPUTS
18. E ec i eness o pa hway
ea men s
19. E ec i eness o species ea men s
20. E ec i eness o si e ea men s
OUTCOMES
40
5.1 Inpu —quali y o he egula ion amewo k 1110
Be ween Janua y 2020 and Decembe 2022, he p ima y legisla ion go e ning biological in asions in 1111
Sou h A ica ( he NEM:BA o 2004) has no changed1, hough he associa ed egula ions ha e (see 1112
supplemen a y ma e ial S5.1 o he ull de ails). Re ised NEM:BA A&IS egula ions and lis s we e 1113
published in Sep embe 2020. The e ised egula ions and lis s came in o o ce on 1 Ma ch 2021, bu 1114
he inclusion o wo ou species, Onco hynchus mykiss and Salmo u a, in he lis s has been 1115
suspended un il u he no ice. 1116
The main changes we e: 1117
● P o ision o “Ca ego y 1b Con ol Plans” (includes axa in o he ca ego ies ha a e beyond 1118
pe mi ed o exemp a eas); 1119
● Po s o en y o impo a e speci ied; 1120
● A gene al obliga ion is speci ied equi ing e o s o p e en sp ead and con ol any escapes 1121
o lis ed in asi e species; 1122
● The emo al o he p ohibi ed lis ; 1123
● Applica ions o pe mi s o lis ed in asi e species need o include in o ma ion speci ied in he 1124
“Risk assessmen amewo k” (p e iously his was only speci ied o impo pe mi s); 1125
● Risk assessmen p ac i ione s (p e iously acili a o s) do no need o be independen , and 1126
whe he a isk assessmen is equi ed is de e mined by he issuing au ho i y; 1127
● The issuing au ho i y mus no i y po en ially a ec ed municipali ies (no jus p o inces) o an 1128
applica ion o a pe mi ; 1129
● Whe e o he egula o y p ocesses also go e n he es ic ed ac i i ies, and he issuing 1130
au ho i y is also he decision-make in e ms o he o he egula o y p ocesses, he applicable 1131
decision-making ime ames mus be aligned; 1132
● Pe mi s may only be issued o a pe iod no exceeding en yea s (p e iously i e) unde 1133
ci cumsc ibed ci cums ances; 1134
● I lis ed in asi e species a e p esen on land ha is sold, pe mi s may be ans e ed o he 1135
new owne p o iding he new owne con ac s he depa men (p e iously, he selle was 1136
obliga ed o no i y he buye o he p esence o alien and in asi e species on he land and he 1137
buye had o apply o a pe mi s), his does no apply o he sale o lis ed in asi e species; and 1138
● The heading “P ohibi ed alien and lis ed in asi e species di ec i es” was emo ed. The 1139
obliga ion o keep a eco d o di ec i es has been e ained, bu mo ed o ano he egula ion. 1140
The e we e no changes o he annexu es. 1141
1i is likely ha he Na ional En i onmen al Managemen Laws Amendmen Ac , 2022 will be b ough in o
e ec in 2023
41
The decision o emo e he p ohibi ed lis 1 was on he basis ha : a) all alien axa no legally p esen 1142
in Sou h A ica equi e an impo pe mi ega dless o whe he hey a e lis ed as p ohibi ed; and b) 1143
he e idence as o why axa we e included on he p ohibi ed lis was no a ailable. This does no a ec 1144
he ac i i ies ha a e p ohibi ed wi h ega d o o he lis ed axa. 1145
O he han he p ohibi ed lis he e we e changes o he lis ings o ~82 axa be ween 2018 and 2020. 1146
The majo i y o lis ings (>85%) s ayed he same2. 1147
Reques s o change he lis ings o axa unde he NEM:BA A&IS egula ions ha e, o da e, been deal 1148
wi h on an ad hoc basis (see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.3). A s anda dised o icial p ocess o 1149
publishing p oposals o e ise he egula o y lis s is unde de elopmen . To suppo his, isk analyses 1150
a e p oduced in a consis en o ma using a isk analysis amewo k de eloped speci ically o Sou h 1151
A ica (Kumschick e al. 2020a). These isk analyses a e e iewed by an independen scien i ic panel 1152
[ he Alien Species Risk Analysis Re iew Panel (ASRARP); see Kumschick e al. (2020a) o mo e de ails] 1153
se up and un by SANBI on DFFE’s behal . 1154
Six y-se en isk analyses we e e iewed by he ASRARP and submi ed by SANBI o DFFE be ween 1155
Janua y 2020 and he end o No embe 2022 (see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.5). Ten o hese axa 1156
we e no lis ed, o he emaining 57, he lis ing o 33 axa was sugges ed o emain as is (changes o 1157
nomencla u e excep ed). Howe e , he isk analyses hemsel es a e no ye , in he public domain, 1158
and he amewo k is no ye , an o icial go e nmen documen . 1159
Te ms o e e ence o a go e nmen al decision-making body [The Risk Analysis Re iew Commi ee 1160
(RARC)] ha e been ci cula ed and he body is due o ha e i s inaugu al mee ing in Feb ua y 2023. The 1161
RARC, amongs o he unc ions, in ends o e iew p oposals o change lis ings ecei ed by SANBI 1162
(based on ASRARP’s ecommenda ions). This p ocess would acili a e egula e isions o he lis s as 1163
new in o ma ion becomes a ailable, as new eques s a e made, and as nomencla u e changes3. 1164
In e ms o pe mi s4, in 2020 i e impo pe mi s we e issued by DFFE on ou axa [Bi is nasico nis 1165
(Shaw, 1802), Dend oba es inc o ius (Schneide , 1799), Nas u ium o icinale R.B ., Pennise um 1166
pu pu eum Schumach.5]; by compa ison 76 impo pe mi s we e issued on 14 axa in he pe iod 2015–1167
1a lis o axa ha we e no legally in he coun y and ha may no be impo ed
2 his analysis is s ill o be inalised; i will be p esen ed in S5.2 in he nex d a .
3no ably, he nomencla u e in he egula o y lis s does no cu en ly ma ch ha o app op ia e axonomic
backbones o a signi ican numbe o lis ed axa, wi h se e al synonyms included, and wo axa a e lis ed ha
a e no alid (see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.4).
4 his analysis is only based on da a up o he end o 2020 (see Appendix 6). The pe mi da a will be eanalysed
using da a collec ed up o he end o 2022 in he nex d a .
5The names p esen ed he e a e as hey we e on he pe mi s (see Appendix 6), see supplemen a y ma e ial
S5.4 o a able con e ing hese names o hose in he species lis ( ia he use o a axonomic backbone).

42
2019 (no pe mi s we e issued in 2014). Du ing 2020, 216 pe mi s we e issued o ca ego y 2 species. 1168
This was also ewe ha he numbe issued in he p e ious yea s (an a e age o ~350 pe yea o 1169
2015–2019). No ably, 37 o he 117 ca ego y 2 lis ed axa ha e had no pe mi s issued o hei usage, 1170
a u he 37 axa ha e had i e o ewe pe mi s issued, bu he i e mos equen ly pe mi ed axa 1171
ha e had o e 200 pe mi s each (Kobus leche subsp. leche; C enopha yngodon idella including iploid 1172
g ass ca p; alien O eoch omis species; Psi acula k ame i; and Dama dama) (see supplemen a y 1173
ma e ial S5.6; o he ull lis o pe mi s see Appendix 6). 43 pe mi s we e issued o esea ch, display, 1174
o biocon ol pu poses in 2020 (compa ed o an a e age o 17 pe yea p e iously). This included an 1175
impo pe mi o Me iones unguicula us (Milne-Edwa ds, 1867) o use in medical esea ch as a model 1176
o ganism. One explana ion o hese ends is ha ewe pe mi s we e issued o ca ego y 2 axa due 1177
o he lockdown educing in e nal ade, bu he g ea e numbe o esea ch pe mi s issued e lec s a 1178
g ea e awa eness and subsequen compliance wi h he egula ions ( he lack o esea ch pe mi s 1179
ela i e o he expec ed need was no ed as a conce n in p e ious epo s). 1180
The e we e no success ul p osecu ions unde he NEM:BA A&IS egula ions in he pe iod co e ed by 1181
his epo . Two cases wen o cou bu we e dismissed. In he i s case, he s a e ailed o p o e 1182
in en ion ( o he anspo o ed-ea ed slide s, T achemys sc ip a). The second case in ol ed a pe 1183
shop ha had applied o a pe mi o ade in Ca ego y 2 lis ed species, and hen sold hem be o e a 1184
pe mi was issued. The cou uled ha he DFFE had aken an excessi ely long ime o issue he 1185
pe mi , hus un easonably p e en ing he ade om conduc ing business, and he case was 1186
dismissed. 1187
The Na ional En i onmen al Laws Amendmen Ac , 2022 (NEMLAA) was assen ed by he P esiden in 1188
June 2022 al hough as o 20 Decembe 2022 i has no been p omulga ed. The Amendmen Ac 1189
amended, among o he Ac s, NEM:BA. Once NEMLAA commences, NEM:BA will ha e clea e 1190
de ini ions o he e ms “e adica e” and “con ol”. I will also be clea e om he ex ha in asi e 1191
species mus be ei he e adica ed o con olled depending on wha is possible unde he 1192
ci cums ances, whe eas p esen ly, landowne s and o he ole-playe s a e equi ed o bo h e adica e 1193
and con ol in asi e species. Fu he mo e, NEM:BA will no longe equi e landowne s o no i y 1194
compe en au ho i ies o he p esence o in asi e species on hei land. The Minis e will ha e he 1195
powe o speci y he ci cums ances unde which such no i ica ion mus be gi en o he compe en 1196
au ho i y. 1197
A na ional s a egy o biological in asions is unde de elopmen , led by he DFFE wi h inpu om 1198
o he depa men al o icials and scien is s om SANBI. As o 1 Decembe 2022, he d a s a egy is 1199
ye o be made a ailable o public commen . 1200
43
Finally, a “D a Whi e Pape on he Conse a ion and Sus ainable Use o Sou h A ica’s Biodi e si y” 1201
was published o public commen in Augus –Sep embe 2022. Biological in asions we e e e ed o 1202
in one policy objec i e: “P e en he in oduc ion, es ablishmen , and sp ead o po en ially ha m ul 1203
alien species, and con ol and e adica e, whe e easible, in asi e species which h ea en ecosys ems, 1204
habi a s and species.” This d a policy objec i e and he expec ed ou pu s and ou comes a e no 1205
cu en ly aligned wi h he d a CBD goals no he de eloping na ional s a egy, e.g., he ocus was 1206
simply on species, a he han on pa hways, species, and si es (c . Essl e al. 2020). The p oposed whi e 1207
pape will ep esen an impo an s ep, bu i is unclea i i would nega e he need o a policy 1208
speci ically on biological in asions as a guably he scope o he Whi e Pape does no ully o e lap 1209
wi h he scope o conce ns aised by biological in asions. Lukey and Hall (2020) make i clea ha law 1210
can be used o implemen policy. I a law does no make p o ision o a means o implemen policy, i 1211
may be necessa y o in oduce new laws o egula ions. A Whi e Pape is a p e-cu so o law, bu he e 1212
is s ill no policy on biological in asions, so i is no immedia ely clea wha has in o med he d a ing 1213
o e e ences o in asions in he Whi e Pape . 1214
A an in e na ional le el, Sou h A ica is pa y o he Con en ion on Biological Di e si y (CBD). The 1215
CBD se a se ies o in e na ional goals o 2020 (including he Aichi Biodi e si y Ta ge s, wi h a ge 9 1216
explici ly on biological in asions). While he scien i ic communi y has discussed wha a e ised a ge 1217
on biological in asions should con ain (e.g., Essl e al. 2020), a e ised a ge is s ill o be ag eed on a 1218
a poli ical le el1. 1219
An analysis o en o cemen ac i i ies, and speci ically he use o no i ica ions, di ec i es, p osecu ions, 1220
and con ic ions will be p o ided in supplemen a y ma e ial in he nex d a (see supplemen a y 1221
ma e ial S5.2). 1222
5.2 Inpu —money spen 1223
In o al, 14 o ganisa ions epo ed on money spen on biological in asions o 2020–2022, amoun ing 1224
o ~R1.4 billion (Table 5.1). 1225
A e ospec i e analysis o he a ailable in o ma ion on spending by he DFFE’s Wo king o Wa e 1226
p og amme (W W) be ween 1999 and 2020 ( an Wilgen e al., 2022) conside ed i e ca ego ies o 1227
spending: 1) e o s o con ol es ablished in asi e species; 2) an incu sion esponse p og am ha 1228
assessed and con olled alien plan axa ha we e ei he no lis ed o ha we e e adica ion a ge s; 1229
3) alue-added p ojec s; 4) high-al i ude si es; and 5) biological con ol esea ch and implemen a ion. 1230
1a e ised a ge is being discussed a he COP15 Mee ing in Mon éal, Canada, 7–19 Decembe 2022, he
ou come will be included in he nex o de d a .
44
The o al amoun spen on in e en ions by he W W p og am be ween 1999 and 2020 amoun ed o 1231
ZAR 7.1 billion, adjus ed o 2020 alues o ZAR. The bulk o his (ZAR 5.27 billion) was spen on he 1232
con ol o species ha we e well-es ablished. Annual amoun s spen on con ac eams ose s eeply 1233
be ween 2000 and 2003, and hen s abilised un il 2010. Fu he inc eases ollowed, peaking in 2015, 1234
and declined s eadily he ea e (see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.7). Some o he ela i e decline in 1235
amoun spen on con ol p ojec s a e 2015 was due o unding being di e ed o alue-added 1236
p ojec s. Be ween 2015 and 2020, a ailable in o ma ion shows ha an a e age o ZAR 62.7 million 1237
was spen on biological con ol esea ch and implemen a ion pe yea (2020 ZAR alues). O his, 87% 1238
was spen on loca ing, sc eening, eleasing, and moni o ing new biological con ol agen s, and 13% on 1239
mass- ea ing and elease p og ams o es ablished agen s. 1240
Ano he es ima e o he money spen was om he In aCos da abase, which is based on consolida ed 1241
in o ma ion om a ious sou ces (see Box 4.1)1. Fo Sou h A ica, he e was no eco d o unding o 1242
p e-in asion managemen . Pos -in asion managemen cos s amoun ed o 3 667 860 483 USD (~ZAR 1243
62.3 billion). Knowledge unding in Sou h A ica amoun ed o USD 14 964 839 (~ZAR 253 million). 1244
Mixed unding added a u he USD 51 431 269 (~ZAR 873 million). All alues in he In aCos da abase 1245
a e exp essed in 2017 alues o USD. These igu es a e known o be unde es ima es, bu seem o be 1246
conside ably highe han hose es ima ed by an Wilgen e al. (2022). 1247
Jubase e al. (2021) su eyed he con ibu ions made by olun ee hack g oups in he Wes e n Cape 1248
p o ince. They b oadly es ima ed ha hal o hese g oups clea ed nea ly 5300 ha o land pe yea 1249
wi h es ima ed labou con ibu ions o ZAR 5.1 million when aligned wi h o mal s a e managemen 1250
cos es ima es. 1251
Maluleke e al. (2021) e ospec i ely es ima ed he ela i e he bicide cos -sa ing associa ed wi h he 1252
use o biological con ol ins ead o chemical con ol. The s udy used a cos bene i analysis amewo k 1253
wi h an 8% discoun a e. The es ima ed cos -e ec i eness o he biological con ol on ou in asi e 1254
alien aqua ic plan species (Azolla iliculoides, My iophyllum aqua icum, Pis ia s a io es, and Sal inia 1255
moles a, in o de o cos -e ec i eness), which a e unde comple e biological con ol in Sou h A ica, 1256
was abou ZAR 7.8 million, while he es ima ed cos o chemical con ol o achie e he same le el o 1257
con ol a ied be ween ZAR 150 million and ZAR 1 billion, depending on he me hod o applica ion 1258
and numbe o ollow up ope a ions. 1259
1260
1an analysis o In aCOST speci ically o Sou h A ica is unde way and hese numbe s will be e ised based on
ha analysis, his upda ed in o ma ion will be included in he inal epo .
45
Table 5.1 Money epo ed as ha ing been spen on he managemen o biological in asions in Sou h A ica by di e en o ganisa ions be ween 2020 and 1261
2022. The amoun s a e o alled o h ee yea s, unadjus ed o in la ion. Inpu s a e s ill o be ecei ed om a ious o ganisa ions and many s akeholde s, 1262
pa icula ly in he p i a e sec o , ha e no been included (and so he o e all igu e should be iewed as a lowe es ima e). Howe e , i is also possible ha 1263
he e may be some double coun ing, as some o he money spen by implemen ing agencies may also ha e been epo ed by he DFFE’s Wo king o Wa e 1264
P og amme, his is o be add essed in he inal epo . 1265
O ganisa ion
Money spen on
Money spen
No es
Ag icul u al
Resea ch Council
Biological con ol esea ch
104 495 930
ZAR 69 700 073 om he DFFE and ZAR 34 795 857 om he ARC.
Bu alo Ci y (Eas
London)
P o ec ed a eas wi hin he municipal
bounda ies
9 151 000
This includes o he ac i i ies such as clea ing o ege a ion along oad e ges
Cape Na u e
31 p o ec ed a eas in he Wes e n Cape
P o ince
9 299 189
Mos o his money came om Wo king o Wa e and so he e may be some double
coun ing
Cen e o Biological
Con ol, Rhodes
Uni e si y
Biological con ol esea ch and
implemen a ion
82 000 000
ZAR 59 million om Wo king o Wa e ; ZAR 15 million om he DST-NRF ia he Sou h
A ican Resea ch Chai s Ini ia i e; ZAR 8 million om o he sou ces.
The bulk is spen a Rhodes Uni e si y, bu pa o he unding is dis ibu ed o he
Uni e si ies o Cape Town, Wi wa e s and, KwaZulu/Na al, Mpumalanga, and Fo Ha e
Ci y o Eku huleni
(Gau eng)
Managemen o aqua ic ecosys ems
17 700 000
Funding has been expended mos ly on wa e hyacin h (Pon ede ia c assipes), gian eed
(A undo donax), and yellow wa e lily (Nymphaea mexicana) in ading aqua ic ecosys ems
Depa men o
Ag icul u e, Land
Re o m and Ru al
De elopmen
Responsible o Conse a ion o
Ag icul u al Resou ces Ac (CARA) and
o he legisla ion. Main ains a p esence a
all bo de pos s.
wai ing o
inpu s
DFFE animal con ol
p ojec s
Con ol o in asi e animals
wai ing o
inpu s
DFFE Biosecu i y
Moni o ing ac i i ies aimed a in e cep ion
o alien species a OR Tambo In e na ional
Ai po
wai ing o
inpu s
some inpu s ecei ed awai ing ull alues
DFFE high al i ude
eams
Specially ained eams deployed o
con ol in asi e alien plan s in ela i ely
inaccessible o moun ainous e ain
255 298 699
Budge ed amoun o inancial yea s. The DFFE epo ed an amoun o ZAR 208 237 112,
and 22.6% was added o accoun o o e heads ( an Wilgen e al., 2022)
52
we e impo ed o biological con ol p og ammes on 52 pes species on c ops such as ci us, whea , 1362
o es y, ui , and ege ables be ween 1892 and 2008. O hese 142 we e eleased and 49 became 1363
es ablished (see Appendix 2). These biological con ol agen s a e used agains 39 alien ag icul u al pes 1364
species, only one o which is lis ed unde he NEM:BA A&IS egula ions. 1365
5.6 Ou pu —si es ea ed 1366
The DFFE’s Na u al Resou ce Managemen p og ammes epo ed ha in asi e alien plan s we e 1367
subjec ed o con ol measu es o e an a ea o 200 329 ha ac oss all nine p o inces in he coun y. The 1368
a e age co e o in asi e alien plan s in his a ea was 13%, based on he condensed hec a es epo ed. 1369
Addi ional in o ma ion on he a ea managed was supplied by se e al o he agencies, bu canno be 1370
included he e as he e is a la ge bu unspeci ied o e lap wi h he a ea epo ed by DFFE, om whe e 1371
agencies de i e mos o hei unding. 1372
A e ospec i e analysis o he a ea ea ed by he DFFE’s NRM p og ammes be ween 1998 and 2020 1373
was epo ed by an Wilgen e al. (2022). Si e ea men s eached a ela i ely small p opo ion (~14%) 1374
o he es ima ed in aded a ea. Abou 72% o ea men s we e a si es ha me a leas one c i e ion 1375
o being a p io i y si e o con ol (i.e., a s a egic wa e sou ce a ea, a p o ec ed a ea, o an 1376
endange ed o c i ically endange ed ecosys em; see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.13 o mo e de ails). 1377
A new de elopmen was he implemen a ion o he G ea e Cape Town Wa e Fund which has led o 1378
an expansion o he a ea subjec ed o con ol measu es in he in aded wa e ca chmen s o Cape Town 1379
(Box 5.1). 1380
5.7 Ou come—e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s1 1381
Fo 50% o he pa hways he e is ei he no managemen , o managemen was ine ec i e ( o 32% o 1382
pa hways he e ec i eness o managemen could no be es ima ed). The e has been li le ecen 1383
change o he es ima ed e ec i eness o pa hway managemen , wi h he es ima es emaining he 1384
same o 89% o he pa hways. In many cases, ecen ly published esea ch con i med he assessmen 1385
made in he p e ious epo (see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.14). A consolida ed da abase o 1386
in e cep ions made by DALRRD o icials du ing ag icul u al inspec ions was made a ailable, inding ha 1387
be ween 2005 and 2019, he e we e o e 25000 in e cep ion eco ds, o which 30% we e posi i e (i.e., 1388
had a leas one con aminan ) and 13% had mul iple con aminan s (Saccaggi e al. 2021). Qua an ine 1389
pes s a e hose ha ha e been assessed h ough a pes isk analysis, ha e been deemed o pose an 1390
unaccep able isk o ag icul u e, and a e p ohibi ed om en e ing he coun y. Despi e he ac ions 1391
aken o p e en he anspo o qua an ine species o Sou h A ica (e.g., phy osani a y mi iga ion 1392
1addi ional in o ma ion on inspec ions by DALRRD and DFFE will be included in he nex d a

53
measu es ha a e implemen ed p e-bo de ), hese species con inue o be in e cep ed, al hough a a 1393
ela i ely low a e. Species wi h an unknown qua an ine s a us, ha could also pose a h ea , a e o en 1394
in e cep ed in ag icul u al inspec ions (Nnze u e al. 2021, Saccaggi e al. 2021, Tshikhudo e al. 2021a, 1395
Tshikhudo e al. 2021b). S udies on he pe , aqua ium, and adi ional medicine ades also con i med 1396
ha he managemen o hese pa hways is ine ec i e, and indica ed ha egula ed species con inue 1397
o be illegally sold (Nelu ule e al. 2020, Shi ambu e al. 2020, Williams e al. 2021, Niemann e al. 1398
2022). In adi ional medicine ma ke s, 16 ca ego y 1b species, one ca ego y 1a species, and one 1399
ca ego y 2 species we e illegally sold (Williams e al. 2021). A su ey o aqua ium and pond plan 1400
e aile s in Johannesbu g used DNA ba coding o iden i y aded mac ophy es, and ound ha among 1401
he iden i ied species, 12% (9 species) we e on he NEM:BA alien and in asi e species lis s (Niemann 1402
e al. 2022). In e es ingly, a su ey o pe shops a ound he coun y showed ha mos esponden s 1403
(68%) we e awa e o he NEM:BA egula ions, bu 71% we e agains he egula ion o he ade, and 1404
58% admi ed o losing o ganisms h ough escapes (Shi ambu e al. 2022). Un o una ely, mos pe 1405
ade s (83%) we e no egis e ed wi h he pe ade s associa ion, and his makes i di icul o 1406
egula e he ade (Shi ambu e al. 2022). Fo one pa hway he e ec i eness o ea men s could be 1407
es ima ed o he i s ime, o his pa hway, which conce ns in oduc ions o conse a ion, 1408
managemen was es ima ed o be pa ially e ec i e as e y ew species alien o he coun y a e being 1409
kep on wildli e anches used o eco ou ism (Taylo e al. 2021). 1410
5.8 Ou come—e ec i eness o species ea men s 1411
O he 196 species ha we e epo ed o ha e been ea ed o e he 2020–2022 pe iod, con ol was 1412
ega ded as pe manen o 12 species, e ec i e o 16 species, ine ec i e o 11 species, unknown o 1413
130 species, and 14 species a ge ed o e adica ion a e o be assessed. The e ec i eness o species 1414
ea men s could, in almos all cases, only be sco ed o plan species unde biological con ol, wi h 1415
con ol sco ed as pe manen in cases whe e biological con ol was assessed as comple e (Zacha iades, 1416
2021; see supplemen a y ma e ial S5.15 o ull de ails). 1417
In e ms o speci ic ou comes, Mo i soe e al. (2020) epo ed ha biological con ol o he alien 1418
aqua ic plan Sal inia moles a by he in oduced wee il Cy obagous sal iniae acili a ed he eco e y 1419
o epili hic algae and aqua ic mac oin e eb a e communi ies. Coe zee e al. (2022) epo ed ha 1420
inunda i e eleases o he biological con ol agen , Megamelus scu ella is a Ha beespoo Dam 1421
esul ed in a educ ion in co e o wa e hyacin h (Pon ede ia c assipes) om o e 37% o less han 1422
6% o e wo consecu i e yea s (Box 5.2). Cas añeda e al. (2020) moni o ed na i e ishes o e i e 1423
yea s a e he e adica ion o in asi e smallmou h bass (Mic op e us dolomieu) om he Rondega 1424
Ri e in he Wes e n Cape, and concluded ha he na i e ish communi y had eco e ed, bu ha he 1425
emo al o smallmou h bass was no su icien o ull eco e y o all species (i.e. o he h ea s 1426
54
emained). Addi ional conse a ion measu es would be needed o secu e he popula ion s abili y and 1427
pe sis ence o endange ed ishes. 1428
5.9 Ou come—e ec i eness o si e ea men s 1429
The ongoing absence o any o mal sys ems ha moni o he ou comes o si e ea men s, no ed in 1430
p e ious epo s, emains an obs acle o he assessmen o he e ec i eness o ea men s. No ecen 1431
esea ch epo s o publica ions we e ound ha ha e assessed he e ec i eness o si e ea men s. 1432
None heless, Cape Na u e assessed he e ec i eness o alien plan con ol measu es on 31 p o ec ed 1433
a ea clus e s, based on es ima es o he co e o alien plan s as: e ec i e o 5 p o ec ed a ea clus e s; 1434
pa ial o 20 clus e s; ine ec i e o 3 clus e s; and unknown o 3 clus e s (see supplemen a y 1435
ma e ial S5.16 o u he de ails). No ably e ec i eness was exp essed in e ms o an inc ease o 1436
dec ease in he co e o in asi e alien plan s, and no in e ms o he eco e y o biodi e si y and 1437
ecosys em unc ioning in he a ge ecosys em (and so somewha mo e aligned o an ou pu in e ms 1438
o he indica o amewo k used he e). 1439
Kee e al. (2022) assessed he le el o compliance wi h alien plan egula ions by compa ing he 1440
numbe o egula ed alien plan s species in 36 ‘camps’ (s a illages, ange ou pos s, and ou is 1441
a eas) in he K uge Na ional Pa k in 2001 wi h numbe s in 2020 (no ing he egula ions came in o 1442
e ec in 2014). The numbe o alien plan species almos doubled a e he i s su ey ( om 231 o 1443
438) likely due o a mo e sys ema ic sea ch by ained bo anis s. Despi e his, bo h he numbe o 1444
egula ed species, and species ichness pe camp declined (by 38% o e all and by 56% pe camp). The 1445
conclusion was ha alien species egula ions p o ided clea guidance o conse a ion manage s, and 1446
ha he e we e p omising signs o educ ions in a ge ed alien plan species. 1447
The e is also e idence ha ac i e es o a ion o in aded ecosys ems may be necessa y a e he 1448
emo al o in asi e alien plan s. The cos s o ac i e es o a ion in e en ions migh , in some cases, be 1449
economically jus i iable, bu he cos o ully es o ing ecosys em s uc u e, unc ioning, and 1450
composi ion in highly deg aded ecosys ems has a ely been deemed economically jus i iable in Sou h 1451
A ica (Holmes e al. 2020; an Wilgen e al. 2022). Gene ally, go e nmen -suppo ed con ol 1452
ope a ions ha e no included es o a ion e o s, a leas in pa because he e is li le o no unding 1453
o implemen ing ac i e es o a ion p ojec s a he necessa y scale—mos si es a e le o passi e 1454
es o a ion ( an Wilgen e al. 2022). 1455
1456
55
Box 5.1 The G ea e Cape Town Wa e Fund 1457
Conce n abou he g owing impac o in asi e alien ees on Cape Town’s wa e supplies led o he 1458
es ablishmen o he G ea e Cape Town Wa e Fund in 2018. The und was based on a easibili y 1459
s udy (Tu pie e al. 2017) and business case (S a o d e al. 2018) which showed ha clea ing Cape 1460
Town’s p io i y wa e ca chmen s by emo ing in asi e ees could gene a e annual wa e gains o 1461
50 billion li es wi hin i e yea s—equi alen o one-six h o he ci y’s cu en supply needs. These 1462
gains could double o 100 billion li es annually wi hin 30 yea s. This app oach was es ima ed o be 1463
signi ican ly mo e cos -e ec i e han o he wa e augmen a ion solu ions. 1464
The und is co-o dina ed by he Na u e Conse ancy (a US-based NGO), and is a pa ne ship be ween 1465
na ional, p o incial, and local go e nmen depa men s, co po a e sponso s (including Nedbank, 1466
Coca-Cola, AB-InBe , and REMGRO), and NGOs ( he Na u e Conse ancy and he Sou h A ican 1467
b anch o he Wo ld Wide Fund o Na u e). 1468
1469
Box Figu e 5.1 Wo ke s om he G ea e Cape Town Wa e Fund emo ing in asi e pine ees om 1470
he ca chmen o he Theewa e skloo dam ( isible in he igh -hand backg ound). Pho o: Louise 1471
S a o d. 1472
The und has a ge ed he ca chmen s o Cape Town’s majo supply dams a Theewa e skloo , 1473
Be g i e , Wemme shoek, and S eenb as, as well as he echa ge basin o he A lan is aqui e (Box 1474
Figu e 5.1). The und has a blended unding model and a 30-yea ime ho izon. I has aised ZAR 182 1475
million o he equi ed ZAR 372 million in unding o i s i s six yea s o ope a ion, wi h signi ican 1476
con ibu ions om co po a e sponso s (28% o unds aised o da e), philan h opic indi iduals and 1477
ounda ions (46%), and he Ci y o Cape Town (26%). 1478
56
The und’s key objec i e is o educe he co e o ma u e alien ees o below 5% wi hin 30 yea s, 1479
and es o e a co e o na u al ege a ion whe e possible. The und has al eady spen ~ZAR 100 1480
million, and is now hal way o achie ing i s ini ial 6-yea a ge o clea ing 55 300 ha. Abou 75% o 1481
he clea ed a ea was uppe ca chmen s in aded by alien pine (genus Pinus) ees. The und uses a 1482
cus om-buil decision suppo sys em o guide i s ope a ions. The sys em acks all clea ing and 1483
ollow-up ope a ions, and p io i ises si es o in e en ions. In e en ions a e also egula ly 1484
moni o ed o assess he e ec i eness o ope a ions, as well as ecosys em eco e y and social 1485
bene i s gene a ed. 1486
The implemen a ion o his und, which a ge s ca e ully p io i ised a eas, and includes he necessa y 1487
componen s o planning and moni o ing p o ides an excep ional example o he implemen a ion o 1488
bes p ac ice in he con ol o plan in asions wi h clea goals and ime ames. I is also unique in ha 1489
i ob ains unding om mul iple sou ces, and p o ides a model o he planning o simila 1490
in e en ions elsewhe e. 1491
1492
Box 5.2 Success ul biological con ol o wa e hyacin h on a eu ophic sub- opical wa e -body 1493
Wa e hyacin h (Pon ede ia c assipes) has caused majo impac s wo ld-wide by co e ing wa e bodies 1494
in ege a ion, educing oxygen le els in he wa e , and he eby al e ing he di e si y o eshwa e 1495
ben hic communi ies and impac ing he p o ision o ecosys em se ices (including oppo uni ies o 1496
ishing, and ec ea ional oppo uni ies such as swimming and boa ing). Biological con ol has been 1497
highly success ul in opical a eas, bu in mo e sub- opical, eu ophic wa e s biological con ol has 1498
been less success ul, especially whe e coole win e clima es p e ail. In Sou h A ica au ho i ies ha e 1499
eso ed, a conside able expense, o sp aying he bicides om ai c a and boa s. Howe e , plan s a e 1500
able o e-colonise hese sp ayed a eas apidly, empo a ily escaping biological con ol. This means 1501
ha sp aying ope a ions need o be cons an ly epea ed, adding ano he sou ce o chemical pollu ion 1502
o he wa e s. 1503
A ela i ely new addi ion o he sui e o biological con ol agen s was Megamelus scu ella is, which 1504
was i s eleased in Sou h A ica in 2013. This insec was p omising because i esponds well o mass 1505
ea ing, ep oduces apidly, and eco e s quickly a e pe iods o coole empe a u es. In addi ion, i 1506
can be excep ionally damaging o wa e hyacin h. Insec s we e mass- ea ed, and eleased in a s and-1507
alone in e en ion on Ha beespoo Dam in 2018 in he absence o he bicide ea men s. 1508
Following equen inunda i e eleases o he agen s, Coe zee e al. (2022) epo ed ha wa e 1509
hyacin h co e was educed om o e 37% o less han 6% o e wo consecu i e yea s (Box Figu e 1510
5.2). The ecommenda ion was o elease he insec s o en and in high numbe s o inunda e and 1511
57
o e whelm he wa e hyacin h and o achie e con ol a a ac ion o he cos o he bicide applica ions. 1512
This ep esen s a majo b eak h ough in he con ol o wa e hyacin h in Sou h A ica (and po en ially 1513
in o he sub- opical and empe a e eu ophic wa e bodies wo ldwide). 1514
1515
Box Figu e 5.2 Declines in he co e o wa e hyacin h be ween Janua y 2017 and Feb ua y 2020 due 1516
o biocon ol by Megamelus scu ella is. Wa e hyacin h is he b igh g een agains he black wa e in 1517
he sa elli e images. This con ol happened in he absence o he bicide applica ions. Figu e om 1518
Coe zee e al. (2022)1519

58
5.10 T ends in in e en ions indica o s 1520
Indica o T end Con idence
Desi ed
end
1
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
12. Quali y o
egula o y
amewo k
→ Medium ↗
The amendmen s o NEM:BA and he A&IS Regula ions and
Lis s ha e imp o ed he egula o y egime sligh ly. The law
e o m has cla i ied some concep s and one o he changes
may well help he Depa men p io i ise whe e o ocus sca ce
law en o cemen in e en ions. Howe e , he undamen al
p o
blems iden i ied in he p e ious epo ha e no been
add essed, including he absence o a comp ehensi e s a egy
o guide implemen a ion o he egula ions and lack o
lexibili y in he egula o y egime.
The Whi e Pape is an indica ion ha he Depa men
plans o amend NEM:BA in he nea u u e. Howe e ,
he Whi e Pape does no add ess he p oblems wi h
he cu en egula o y egime.
The de elopmen and implemen a ion o a na ional
s a egy o biological in asions has he po en ial o be
a miles one in he managemen o biological in asions
in Sou h A ica
The de elopmen and implemen a ion o a p ocess o
egula ly and anspa en ly upda e he egula o y lis s
in o med by he bes a ailable scien i ic e idence is
p omising.
13. Money
spen
↘
Low ↗
An es ima ed R1.4 billion was spen be ween 2020 and 2022.
This is an unde es ima e as no all go e nmen en i ies, NGOs
o he p i a e sec o ha e p o ided es ima es. The amoun
spen has been declining in eal e ms since 2015 ( an Wilgen
e al. 2022).
Go e nmen ’s abili y o und he con ol o biological
in asions has been educed due o ad e se economic
condi ions ha ha e p e ailed o e he pas ew yea s.
La ge inc eases in unding a e unlikely in he nea
u u e. The G ea e Cape T
own Wa e Fund may
p o ide a new model o such und aising (Box 5.2).
1→ no change; ↗ an inc ease; ↘ a dec ease
59
Indica o T end Con idence
Desi ed
end
1
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
14. Planning
co e age ↗ Medium ↗
Pa hways: 40 o he 44 pa hways a e assumed o ha e
managemen plans in place, bu hese ha e no necessa ily
been o malised. No o mal plans ha e been de eloped by
DFFE. The e has been no change since he p e ious epo .
Species: managemen plans a e s ill o be assessed, bu ew o
he 559 egula ed axa ha e plans in place. None o hese plans
ha e been o mally adop ed, no is he p ocess o o mal
adop ion clea , al hough landowne s a e equi ed by law o
con ol species on hei land in acco dance wi h such plans,
should hey exis [NEM:BA Sec ions 75(4) and 75(5)].
Si es: managemen plans co e abou 14.7% o he a ea ha
needs o be managed, and mos o hese plans ha e been
assessed as pa ially adequa e o inadequa e. Se e al plans
a e s ill o be assessed (28 520 km2 o he es ima ed in aded
a ea in he coun y is known o ha e managemen plans).
The e is s ill a need o iden i y p io i y pa hways, and
de elop and o mally adop plans o suppo he
managemen o hose pa hways.
The e is a simila lack o o mal planning p ocesses o
add ess species and si es.
15. Pa hways
ea ed → Low ↗
All pa hways h ough which alien o ganisms can be in oduced
equi e managemen , and cu en ly 39 o he 44 pa hways
(89%) a e managed o some ex en . Mos o he pa hways ha
a e managed a e pa ially managed (51%), bu many (49%)
ha e comple e managemen . The e has been no change since
he second epo .
The es ablishmen o he Bo de Managemen
Au ho i y could esul in mo e co-o dina ed
managemen o pa hways. The implemen a ion o
ballas wa e managemen bill would also imp o e he
si ua ion.
H
owe e , he e is s ill a need o iden i y p io i y
pa hways, and de elop pa hway- ocused managemen
o hose pa hways.
16. Species
ea ed → Low ↗
196 ou o 559 egula ed axa (~35%) ha e been subjec ed o
some o m o managemen . Mos e o is di ec ed owa ds
widesp ead o damaging species o owa ds species ha a e
po en ial e adica ion a ge s.
Se e al in asi e alien species a e expanding hei
anges apidly, so capaci y o deal wi h all species will
be u he educed.
The na ional s a egy on biological in asions, in conce
wi h he e ised CBD biodi e si y a ge on alien
species may incen i ise g ea e p io i isa ion o con ol
e o s agains he mos damaging lis ed in asi e
species, and hose ha p esen he g ea es u u e
h ea s
60
Indica o T end Con idence
Desi ed
end
1
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
17. Si es
ea ed No assessed ↗
The a ea ha has been ea ed 2020–2022 is es ima ed o be
2003 km2, his includes all land pa cels ha ha e been wo ked
on by public wo ks alien plan con ol eams. The es ima ed
o al in aded a ea in Sou h A ica is 194 943 km2, so con ol
ope a ions ha e he e o e eached jus o e 1% o he
es ima ed in aded a ea. A ecen s udy es ima ed ha con ol
ope a ions be ween 1998 and 2020 had eached 14% o he
es ima ed a ea ( an Wilgen e al. 2022). Because con ol
ope a ions a e no ollowed up e e y yea , i may be necessa y
o examine he ex en o ea men o e longe pe iods. The e
a e subs an ial unce ain ies ega ding he es ima ed ex en
o in asion. Con ol also o en does no co e he ull a ea
mapped as ha ing ecei ed con ol, so he 1% (and he 14%)
a e p obably o e es ima es.
I is expec ed ha he a ea in aded in Sou h A ica will
inc ease, hough as o species ea ed, p ocesses a e
in place o ensu e g ea e p io i isa ion o con ol
e o s o ensu e p io i y si es a e clea ed and kep
clea .
18.
E ec i eness
o pa hway
ea men s
→ Low ↗
The e has been no change o he es ima ed e ec i eness o
pa hway managemen o mos pa hways. Fo one pa hway,
eleases o conse a ion, he e ec i eness o managemen
could be es ima ed o he i s ime, and was es ima ed o be
pa ially e ec i e. Fi e pa hways a e no managed, 17 ha e
ine ec i e managemen , one has pa ially e ec i e
managemen , six ha e e ec i e managemen , and one has
pe manen managemen .
The es ablishmen o he Bo de Managemen
Au ho i y, and h ough ha he co-o dina ion o he a -
bo de managemen o pa hways will hope ully
imp o e he e icacy o a -
bo de managemen .
Howe e , he e is s ill a need o measu e he e icacy
o managemen using good da a, and adap whe e
equi ed.
19.
E ec i eness
o species
ea men s
→ Low ↗
E ec i eness o species ea men s: Fo mos o he 559
egula ed species, he e is no e idence ha any managemen
is aking place (363 species), o he e ec i eness o
managemen is no known (130 species). Fo 14 species ha
a e a ge s o na ional
e adica ion, he e ec i eness o
managemen s ill has o be e alua ed. Twel e species we e
assessed as being unde pe manen con ol (based on an
assessmen o comple e biological con ol). Fo he
emainde , con ol was e ec i e (16 species), pa ially
e ec i e (13 species) o ine ec i e (11 species).
Assessing he e ec i eness o species ea men s a a
na ional scale is based on changes in he size o he
popula ion ( o animals) o he ex en o in asion ( o
plan s). These a e cu en ly no moni o ed excep o
some alien plan s ha a e he a ge o biological
con ol. The absence o a eliable baseline and egula
upda es will con inue o p e en accu a e assessmen s
o con ol e ec i eness. When assessed a ine scales,
he e a e examples o pa ially e ec i e ea men s o
species a some si es.
61
Indica o T end Con idence
Desi ed
end
1
Cu en s a us and end Ou look
20.
E ec i eness
o si e
ea men s
→ Low ↗
No assessed. The absence o managemen plans wi h clea
goals and egula moni o ing o hose plans makes i di icul
o assess e ec i eness, which would ha e o be exp essed in
e ms o p og ess owa ds achie ing he goal. Fo some a eas
whe e in o ma ion is a ailable, he e a e indica ions ha
some in e en ions a e a leas pa ially e ec i e, bu he
goals o managemen a e
ypically uns a ed, making such
assessmen s di icul . The e is no in o ma ion o sugges ha
he si ua ion has changed since he second epo .
The e a e no ou inely-collec ed da a o assess he
e ec i eness o si e ea men s, ei he in e ms o
changes in he ex en o he a ea in aded, o in e ms
o ecosys em eco e y ollowing con ol. Assessmen s
a e only possible o small a eas ha ha e been he
subjec o esea ch s udies.
High-le el
indica o
D. Le el o
success in
managing
in asions
→ Low ↗ To be calcula ed om pa hway, species and si e e ec i eness
once hese ha e been inalised.
Making a easonably accu a e assessmen o he
o e all success o managing in asions emains
challenging due o he absence o s a ed goals in
managemen plans agains which o assess p og ess, as
well as he absence o ac i i ies o egula ly moni o
p og ess owa ds goals. As epo ed in he second
epo , hese issues need o be u gen ly add essed,
because wi hou hem e ec i eness canno be known,
managemen canno be adap i e, and he impac s and
cos s o in asions will con inue o ise.
The p oposed na ional s a egy and ac ion plan on
biological in asions may help explici ly add ess hese
issues.
1521
68
6.1.4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es 1664
On P ince Edwa d Island he dispe sal o in asi e plan s (e.g., Sagina p ocumbens and Poa annua) is 1665
likely o occu ia wind and wi h seabi ds (Ryan e al. 2003). E idence om P ince Edwa d Island, 1666
whe e humans a e absen o yea s a a ime and whe e alien sp ead is apid, sugges s ha he 1667
unaided pa hway is impo an o alien plan s on he islands; we suspec ha his is he common 1668
pa hway o dispe sal o alien species. On Ma ion Island, i is hough ha Sagina p ocumbens was 1669
sp ead om he esea ch base by helicop e du ing annual es ocking o he hu s (G emmen and Smi h 1670
1999). The cons uc ion o a s eel helicop e pad a he new esea ch base has likely educed dispe sal 1671
h ough his pa hway, al hough he helicop e s ill lands on ege a ion a he hu s and so migh s ill 1672
be esponsible o sp eading seeds. I is likely ha some p opagules a e sp ead by ield wo ke s, bu 1673
his has no been in es iga ed. 1674
6.2 Species 1675
6.2.1. Numbe and s a us o alien species 1676
74 alien axa ha e been eco ded on he PEIs, wi h 45 s ill p esen , h ee emain doub ul un il 1677
e adica ion is con i med, and wo a e eco ded as c yp ogenic. O he alien axa cu en ly p esen , 26 1678
a e in asi e; i e a e na u alised, bu no in asi e; and wo a e p esen , bu no na u alised (Figu e 1679
6.3). The e a e a u he six axa whe e he e is no enough in o ma ion o assign hem o one o he 1680
basic in oduc ion s a us ca ego ies. The e o e, mo e han hal o he alien axa p esen on he P ince 1681
Edwa d Islands ha e become in asi e (58%). In e eb a es comp ise he highes p opo ion o 1682
in asi e axa (69%), ollowed by plan s (23%), ungi (4%), and mammals (4%) (see supplemen a y 1683
ma e ial S6.2). 1684
The e a e cu en ly no alien axa in cap i i y o being cul i a ed on he P ince Edwa d Islands, and 1685
despi e an ac i e annual sea ch, he e ha e been no ma ine alien species de ec ed o da e (G e e e 1686
al. 2020). Thus, all alien axa eco ded on he P ince Edwa d Islands a e ei he e es ial o eshwa e 1687
species. The e a e also no alien bi ds, ep iles o amphibians (see supplemen a y ma e ial S6.2). 1688
The e is unce ain y ega ding he s a us o se e al species on he island. Fo example, an uniden i ied 1689
mi e species om he Cillibidae amily was i s eco ded om Ma ion Island du ing 1996 o 1997 1690
(Ma shall e al. 1999). This amily had no p e iously been eco ded in he sub-An a c ic and his 1691
species was conside ed “likely” an in oduced species (Ma shall e al. 1999). Howe e , since his ini ial 1692
collec ion no p og ess has been made in de e mining he iden i y o s a us o he species, despi e i 1693
equen ly being he nume ically dominan mi e species in some habi a s (see e.g. Ba endse e al. 1694
2002). 1695

69
1696
Figu e 6.3 The s a us o alien axa in oduced o he P ince Edwa d Islands as pe he Uni ied 1697
F amewo k (Blackbu n e al. 2011), including species ha we e p esen bu a e no longe (A1), see 1698
supplemen a y ma e ial S6.2 o a b eak-down in o unc ional g oups. The in oduc ion s a us o six 1699
axa is no known. 1700
6.2.2. Ex en o alien species 1701
Dis ibu ion da a we e a ailable o all bu one alien axon on he PEIs. Fo Neopygmepho us sp., i is 1702
unclea i he axon is p esen on P ince Edwa d Island. 1703
Es ima ions om a 2008 s udy sugges ed ha less han 5% o he P ince Edwa d Islands had been 1704
co e ed by in asi e plan s (G emmen & Smi h 2008). In a mo e ecen s udy, le Roux e al. (2013) 1705
de e mined ha alien plan species we e p esen in 42% o Ma ion Island’s hal minu e g id cells 1706
(hmgcs a e ~0.59 km2, oughly 926 m by 635 m), and in 53% o P ince Edwa d Island’s hmgcs. Sagina 1707
p ocumbens (166 hmgcs), Poa annua (204 hmgcs) and Ce as ium on anum (162 hmgcs) a e he mos 1708
widesp ead species a bo h islands (DFFE 2010, le Roux e al. 2013, Mai al e al. 2022). Fo occupancy 1709
de ails o each species, see he PEIs Species Lis in Appendix 71. 1710
6.2.3. Abundance o alien species 1711
In o ma ion o Ma ion Island will be included in he nex d a . 1712
6.2.4. Impac o alien species 1713
O he 20 axa assessed using he EICAT scheme, one had a massi e impac (house mouse) and ou 1714
had majo impac s (Table 6.3, see Supplemen a y Ma e ial o he app oach aken). The impac s o 1715
indi idual in asi e axa ha e been quan i ied in a numbe o cases o Ma ion Island (e.g. o he now 1716
1Addi ional in o ma ion on species occu ences will be added o he nex d a .
70
e adica ed Felis ca us ( an Rensbu g and Bes e 1988; Hun e 1990), o Mus musculus (C a o d 1990; 1717
Jones e al. 2019), and o he g ass Ag os is s oloni e a (G emmen 1997, G emmen e al. 1998)). E en 1718
hough no EICAT assessmen s ha e been o mally unde aken and e iewed o he PEIs, se en species 1719
( ou cu en ly p esen ) possess a global published EICAT assessmen ( h ee plan species ha e a 1720
mode a e impac and he house mouse a massi e impac ). 1721
Table 6.3 The numbe o alien axa wi h di e en le els o eco ded en i onmen al impac s on he 1722
P ince Edwa d Islands (PEIs). Taxa we e assigned o a ious ca ego ies o impac based on s udies om 1723
he PEIs (G e e e al. 2017), and no based on global EICAT assessmen s. 1724
Taxon
En i onmen al Impac (~EICAT)
Da a De icien
Minimal
Mino
Mode a e
Majo
Massi e
Mammals
0
0
0
0
0
1
Mic obial species
0
0
0
1
0
0
Te es ial and
eshwa e plan s
1 3 2 2 4 0
Te es ial
in e eb a es
22 0 5 1 0 0
1725
The g ea es eco ded impac s we e associa ed wi h Mus musculus subsp. domes icus (house mouse). 1726
The house mouse is o una ely only p esen on Ma ion Island, bu i has had impac s a he ecosys em 1727
(C a o d 1990) and species le els a ec ing he island’s only sho ebi d (Huyse e al. 2000), seabi ds 1728
(Jones e al. 2019, Jones and Ryan 2010, Dilley e al. 2016), na i e ege a ion (Phi i e al. 2009), and 1729
in e eb a es ( an Aa de e al. 2004). Nega i e impac s ha e been documen ed o plan species 1730
su i al (Azo ella selago; Phi i e al. 2009) and ep oduc ion (Uncinia compac a; Chown and Smi h 1731
1993), in e eb a e abundance, biomass and body size (Chown and Smi h 1993; C a o d and Schol z 1732
1987; T easu e and Chown 2014; McClelland e al. 2018), and alba oss chick su i al (Jones and Ryan 1733
2010, Dilley e al. 2017). House mouse bu owing also al e s sedimen mo emen a es (E iksson and 1734
Eld idge 2014), and likely impac s on nu ien cycling (C a o d 1990b; Smi h and S eenkamp 1990). 1735
E idence shows ha he e has been a shi in mouse beha iou owa ds inc easing p eda ion on 1736
seabi ds’ chicks, including ecen e idence o mice s a ing o a ack adul seabi ds (Jones e a. 2019). 1737
A guably such a beha iou al shi means he impac due o mice has inc eased ma kedly ecen ly, 1738
emphasising he impo ance o achie ing e adica ion soon. 1739
Va ious plan s, including he g ass Ag os is s oloni e a, ha e had majo impac s on na i e ege a ion 1740
and soil auna communi ies (G emmen 1997, G emmen e al. 1998). Ve y li le has been documen ed 1741
on he impac s o e es ial in e eb a es. Las ly, he ungal mic obe Bo yo inia uckeliana was ound 1742
o signi ican ly a ec he dis ibu ion and abundance o a na i e species (Kloppe s and Smi h 1998). 1743
1744
71
6.3 Si es 1745
6.3.1. Alien species ichness1 1746
Alien plan species ichness is highes close o he Ma ion Island base and me eo ological s a ion, and 1747
high along he no he n and eas e n coas al a eas, pa icula ly in a eas wi h cu en o his o ic 1748
an h opogenic dis u bances (e.g. esea ch ield s a ions) (le Roux e al. 2013). 1749
6.3.2. Rela i e in asi e abundance 1750
The mean co e o all in asi e plan species is 1.8% on Ma ion Island (G e e unpublished da a). This 1751
es ima e is based on 475 plo s o 3 x 3 m ha a e sp ead ac oss he island. Gi en ha hese plo s co e 1752
only a small pe cen age o he island, con idence in his es ima e is low. The e is spa ial a ia ion in 1753
he ela i e in asi e abundance ac oss Ma ion Island. Coas al habi a s a e gene ally mo e in aded 1754
han inland habi a s. No da a on he ela i e abundances o alien plan s a e a ailable o P ince Edwa d 1755
Island. 1756
Fo bo h islands, he ela i e in asi e abundance o in e eb a es a ied s ongly be ween habi a 1757
ypes and, o Ma ion Island, along an al i udinal g adien (Figu e 6.4). Collembola a e ela i ely well 1758
su eyed, and ha e ela i e in asi e abundance a ying be ween 0 and 2% on P ince Edwa d Island 1759
and be ween 0 and 90% on Ma ion Island (mean ela i e abundance = 28%; T easu e e al. 2019, 1760
Chown e al. 2022). The ela i e in asi e abundance o Collembola is highes a lowe al i udes, and 1761
in b yophy e- and e n-domina ed ege a ion ypes. Spide s ha e only been adequa ely sampled on 1762
Ma ion Island (and only om i e loca ions on he eas e n side o he island) o documen ela i e 1763
in asi e abundance, and da a shows ela i e in asi e abundance a ying om 0 - 98% (mean = 37%; 1764
Khoza e al. 2005). The ela i e abundance o alien spide s was lowes a he wo si es wi h he highes 1765
ele a ion on he island. Alien mi es comp ise 0 - 26% o all mi es on P ince Edwa d Island (mean = 8%; 1766
Hugo e al. 2006) and 3 - 28 % o mi es on Ma ion Island (mean = 14%; Ba endse e al. 2002). Howe e , 1767
due o unce ain y ega ding he iden i y (and s a us) o Cillibidae sp. no ., which comp ises c. 95 - 1768
100% o he alien mi e indi iduals sampled om he islands, he e is conside able unce ain y in hese 1769
es ima es. Rela i e in asi e abundance o Isopoda is 100% due o he absence o na i e species wi hin 1770
he axon. Rela i e abundance da a o some axa (e.g., Insec a) a e no a ailable due o he lack o 1771
comple e su eys (i.e. no all species wi hin he axon eco ded du ing sampling). 1772
1In o ma ion o P ince Edwa d Island will be added o he nex d a .
72
1773
Figu e 6.4. Rela i e abundance o alien a) sp ing ails on P ince Edwa d Island, b) sp ing ails on Ma ion 1774
Island, c) mi es on P ince Edwa d Island, and d) mi es on Ma ion Island. Labels indica e ege a ion 1775
ype and, whe e app op ia e, he plan species o he al i ude sampled wi hin he ege a ion ype. 1776
No e ha he y-axis limi s di e be ween panels. Bio ic: Poa = Bio ic g assland and he b ield: Poa 1777
cookii; Azo ella = Azo ella selago; Sal -sp ay = Coas al sal -sp ay; Co ula = Co ula plumosa; C assula = 1778
C assula moscha a; Acaena = Acaena magellanica; Blechnum = Blechnum penna-ma ina; Blepha = 1779
Blepha idophyllum densi olium; high-al = high-al i ude; James = Jamesoniella colo a a; mid-al = mid-1780
al i ude; Sanionia = Sanionia uncina a. 1781
6.3.3. Impac o in asions1 1782
G emmen (1997) es ima ed ha in asion by g asses (plo s domina ed by Ag os is s oloni e a bu wi h 1783
p esence o o he aliens) led o a 50% dec ease in na i e ege a ion ichness in in aded d ainage lines. 1784
B yophy e biomass was also 16 imes lowe in hese habi a s, bu he species ichness o 1785
mac oin e eb a es and mi es was highe in in aded a eas (G emmen e al. 1998). 1786
6.4 In e en ions 1787
6.4.1. Inpu —quali y o he egula ion amewo k 1788
1I possible, a biodi e si y in ac ness sco e and es ima es o change in ecosys em unc ioning will be added o a
u u e d a .
73
The PEIs ha e he highes le el o p o ec ion a o ded o any na u al a ea unde Sou h A ican law. 1789
The islands we e decla ed a Special Na u e Rese e in 1995 and a e ese ed p ima ily o scien i ic 1790
esea ch and en i onmen al moni o ing, and ec ea ion ac i i ies a e p ohibi ed (DFFE 2010). The PEIs 1791
we e designa ed a Ramsa We land Si e o In e na ional Impo ance in 2007. In 2013, he P ince 1792
Edwa d Island Ma ine P o ec ed A ea was o mally decla ed. Alien species a e no allowed in o he 1793
P ince Edwa d Islands, he e o e pe mi s canno be issued, and his ban includes biological con ol 1794
agen s. 1795
The NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions (2020) lis 12 ou o he 45 axa cu en ly p esen on he islands (Table 1796
6.4). E en hough Holcus lana us has no been seen on Ma ion Island since 2012, he e was a p oposal 1797
o he addi ion o he species o he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions as ca ego y 1a on 8 Feb ua y 2021. 1798
In e es ingly, none o he species cu en ly egula ed o he PEIs a e egula ed o mainland Sou h 1799
A ica. As o Decembe 2022, no isk analyses o isk assessmen s ha e been pe o med speci ically 1800
o he PEIs. 1801
Table 6.4. Alien axa lis ed in he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions o he P ince Edwa d Islands (2020) o 1802
o which an e adica ion plan has been de eloped (c . he PEIs Species Lis ). Con ol implemen ed 1803
ob ained mainly om DEA and DST-NRF 2012-2013, las upda ed in 2021, o indica ed o he wise. 1804
scien i icName
e nacula Name
Regula o yLis ing
No es on con ol implemen ed
Ag os is
cas ellana
Ben g ass
1a P ince Edwa d
Island
1b Ma ion Island
None implemen ed (G e e e al. 2017, DEA and DST-
NRF 2021)
Ag os is
gigan ea
Black ben g ass
1a
Mechanical emo al o abo eg ound biomass and
he bicide applica ion (Glyphosa e; 2.5% Kilo Max)
Ag os is
s oloni e a
C eeping ben
g ass
1a P ince Edwa d
Island
1b Ma ion Island
None implemen ed (success ul e adica ion deemed
un easible by G e e e al. 2017)
Alopecu us
genicula us
Ma sh ox ail
1a
Manual emo al was applied, assumed o be no
longe p esen since 2012 (G e e e al. 2017)
Ce as ium
on anum
Common mouse-
ea chickweed
1b
None implemen ed (G e e e al. 2017, DEA and DST-
NRF (2021)
Elymus epens
(syn. Ely igia
epens)
Couch g ass
1a
Mechanical emo al o abo eg ound biomass and
he bicide applica ion (Glyphosa e; 2.5% Kilo Max
700g/kg). This g ass is belie ed o ha e been
success ully e adica ed (be ween 2012 and 2016),
bu his needs o be moni o ed o con i ma ion
Fes uca ub a
C eeping ed
escue
1a
He bicide applica ion (Glyphosa e; 2.5 Kilo Max)
Holcus lana us
Common el e
g ass
No lis ed
The species was manually emo ed in 2012, si e and
su ounding a eas a e moni o ed mon hly since o
de ec any eg ow h o new plan s
Luzula
mul i lo a
Wood ush
1a
He bicide applica ion (Glyphosa e; 2.5% Kilo Max). A
gene ic s udy has been ecommended o con i m
ha i di e s om he na i e suban a c ic Luzula
species (and so unequi ocally alien)

74
scien i icName
e nacula Name
Regula o yLis ing
No es on con ol implemen ed
Mus musculus
subsp.
domes icus
House mouse
1a Ma ion Island
Bai and aps a e deployed ou side he base and
hu s o p o ec ood and human heal h (Wol aa d
pe s. comm. 2022). Mice a e no , ye , o he wise
subjec o con ol
Poa p a ensis
Ken ucky
blueg ass
1a P ince Edwa d
Island
1b Ma ion Island
None implemen ed (G e e e al. 2017, DEA and DST-
NRF (2021)
Po cellio scabe
Common ough
woodlouse
No lis ed
The woodlouse is belie ed o ha e been success ully
e adica ed in 2012, bu his needs o be moni o ed
o con i ma ion. E adica ion is ecommended ia
applica ion o py e h oid (Supe C ackdown)
Rumex
ace osella
Sheep so el
1a
Mechanical emo al o abo eg ound biomass and
he bicide applica ion (Glyphosa e; 2.5% Kilo Max
700g/kg)
Sagina
p ocumbens
Bi deye pea lwo
1b
None implemen ed (success ul e adica ion deemed
un easible by G e e e al. 2017)
S ella ia media
Common
chickweed
1a P ince Edwa d
Island
1b Ma ion Island
He bicide applica ion (2.5% Kilo Max).
1805
6.4.2. Inpu —money spen 1806
I was no possible o ge a ull es ima e o he money spen managing biological in asions on he 1807
PEIs. 1808
In 2006 he e was a speci ic a ge ed e o o con ol he in asi e plan Elymus epens, whe e abo e-1809
g ound ma e ial and some o he below-g ound hizomes we e emo ed, and he bicide was applied. 1810
The o al cos o he ope a ion was R201 378 which included human esou ces as well as helicop e 1811
ips o anspo he emo ed biomass. O he wise, he DFFE budge o he bicides ( wo di e en 1812
ypes) and equipmen , including pe sonal p o ec i e equipmen , o con ol o alien species on he PEIs 1813
2011–2022 was 58 664.55 ZAR (see supplemen a y ma e ial S6.3). The only pes icide applied on 1814
Ma ion Island o con ol in e eb a es was dona ed, he alue o his has no been ob ained ye . 1815
The majo cos con olling biological in asions on he island will be he ime o he en i onmen al 1816
con ol o ice s (ECOs). ECOs pe o m a ious du ies, and a me hod o es ima ing hei ime spen 1817
on alien species moni o ing and con ol has no , as ye , been made. Howe e , gi en he disc e e 1818
na u e o he PEIs i should be possible o es ima e he ull cos o he con ol o in asions. 1819
6.4.3. Inpu —planning co e age 1820
The e a e wo managemen plans p e iously de eloped o he PEIs: one published in 1996, and 1821
ano he in 2010 (Ve sion 0.2). The second plan was o icially adop ed by he hen DEA in 2014. 1822
Managemen plans we e se o be e ised and upda ed e e y ou yea s, bu he la es upda ed 1823
managemen plan is only scheduled o be ci cula ed o public commen a ound mid-2023. The e o e, 1824
75
he es ima es p o ided o his indica o and subsequen ones a e ela ed o he managemen plan 1825
om 2010. 1826
The cu en managemen plan de e mines he qua an ine and biosecu i y measu es o be applied o 1827
in oduc ion pa hways, and has ecommenda ions o he managemen o in asi e species. The e is 1828
only one managemen plan, and no sepa a e plans o speci ic species o axonomic g oups. The 1829
P ince Edwa d Islands Managemen Plan includes bo h islands, and so all si es ha e a managemen 1830
plan in place. 1831
All eigh ac i e in oduc ion pa hways, besides he unaided pa hway o which managemen is 1832
imp ac ical, a e co e ed in he plan. The plan ou lines a la ge se o biosecu i y con ol measu es o 1833
educe he isk o in oducing alien species, ei he wi h he essel, wi h people and hei belongings, 1834
and/o wi h ca go. The in en ional in oduc ion o any alien li e o ganisms is p ohibi ed. The e a e 1835
speci ic egula ions on how he essel’s hull mus be cleaned o ouling axa be o e e e y annual 1836
oyage, and ballas wa e canno be discha ged wi hin 200 nau ical miles o he islands (DFFE 2010). 1837
The plan also egula es he numbe o expedi ione s ha can a el o he islands (and he equency 1838
and du a ion in he case o P ince Edwa d Island), wha hey can b ing in hei luggage, and he 1839
equipmen hey a e allowed o anspo . 1840
As pa o he Managemen Plan, a join ini ia i e be ween he hen Depa men o En i onmen al 1841
A ai s and he hen DST-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology de eloped an e adica ion plan 1842
(‘E adica ion, moni o ing and con ol o alien and in asi e alien species on Ma ion Island’) o six 1843
p io i y in asi e plan species and one in e eb a e, which is e ised and upda ed e e y yea by he 1844
DFFE alien species managemen eam. The Managemen Plan conside s only 14 species as in asi e, 1845
al hough his epo ound e idence o in asi eness o 26 o he 45 aliens cu en ly p esen on he 1846
P ince Edwa d Islands. Ou o 12 species p esen on he P ince Edwa d Islands which a e lis ed unde 1847
he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions (2020), only se en a e included in he e adica ion plan. The e a e also 1848
wo species in he e adica ion plan which a e deemed a p io i y o e adica ion ha a e no cu en ly 1849
lis ed unde he na ional egula ions. 1850
The house mouse has a sepa a e e adica ion p ojec , namely ‘Mouse-F ee Ma ion’ 1851
(h ps://mouse eema ion.o g/), which is cu en ly in i s planning phase and unds a e being aised 1852
wi h he aim o implemen ing he p ojec in 2025. The planned cos o he mouse e adica ion is ~ZAR 1853
450M. I is a pa ne ship be ween he Depa men o Fo es y, Fishe ies and he En i onmen and 1854
Bi dLi e Sou h A ica. 1855
6.4.4. Ou pu —pa hways ea ed 1856
76
A DFFE Gea Checks documen p o ides guidance o all expedi ione s on how o clean hei gea , 1857
clo hes and pe sonal equipmen , and o check o he p esence o alien species o p opagules du ing 1858
packing be o e depa u e. A u he Biosecu i y Check is conduc ed en ou e on boa d he SA Agulhas 1859
II, whe e all pa icipan s’ ou e ield gea and equipmen no packed away in he ca go hold is 1860
inspec ed o any biological ma e ial. All pa icipan s mus sign he ‘Biosecu i y sel -audi checklis and 1861
decla a ion’ con i ming ha hey ha e adhe ed o DFFE’s biosecu i y measu es. Measu es a e also in 1862
place o educe he mo emen o p opagules (e.g., seeds) wi hin Ma ion Island (wi hin-coun y 1863
pa hways) om si es close o he base o less in aded si es. The e is a ‘minimum Velc o policy’ gi en 1864
ha p opagules a e known o a ach o his ma e ial. All new s anda d issue p o ec i e clo hing 1865
supplied by DFFE is Velc o- ee as om mid-2022. 1866
Addi ional measu es a e in place be o e a elling o P ince Edwa d Island, e.g. pe sonnel d opped 1867
di ec ly a P ince Edwa d i s (i.e. no p io deploymen a Ma ion), new camping equipmen and 1868
p o ec i e clo hing, e c. 1869
Con aine s which anspo ca go need o be p ope ly cleaned wi h a high-p essu e hose be o e 1870
packing and s o ing ca go, and ca go (including machine y) mus be inspec ed o check o he 1871
p esence o alien o ganisms o p opagules. The same biosecu i y ules a e applied o o he essels as 1872
o he SA Agulhas II. All his is clea ly s a ed in he 2010 managemen plan (Goal 5.1, DFFE 2010). 1873
To a oid alien axa om being anspo ed wi h ood (unin en ional con amina ion), some o ganic 1874
p oduc s a e banned om being anspo ed o he islands (e.g. esh ui and ege ables, yoghu ), 1875
and o he s mus be i adia ed (e.g. eggs) o ozen be o e hey can a el (e.g., mea s and ege ables). 1876
6.4.5. Ou pu —species & si es ea ed 1877
O he 12 egula ed in asi e axa cu en ly p esen , se en axa ha e been subjec ed o some o m o 1878
managemen since 2012 (Ma ion Island only; no species ha e been ea ed on P ince Edwa d Island) 1879
when he e adica ion plan was de eloped (Table 6.4). 1880
Se en ascula plan species, one in e eb a e species (Po cellio scabe ), and he house mouse a e 1881
cu en ly being ea ed on Ma ion Island. All se en plan species and he isopod Po cellio scabe ha e 1882
been ea ed a all he si es ( anging om one o h ee loca ions) whe e he species a e known o 1883
ha e occu ed (Nee hling 2019, DEA and DST-NRF 2021). These si es a e all on he eas e n side o 1884
Ma ion Island, wi h all bu one si e wi hin close p oximi y o he esea ch base (i.e. < 1 km; he dis an 1885
si e is < 5 km om he esea ch base). The house mouse is being con olled a he esea ch base and 1886
all ield hu s, bu his only ep esen s a e y small ac ion o he species ange on Ma ion Island (DEA 1887
& DST-NRF 2021). 1888
77
6.4.6. Ou come—e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s 1889
De ails o be p o ided in he nex d a . 1890
6.4.7. Ou come—e ec i eness o species & si e ea men s 1891
The e ec i eness o species ea men s is assessed on Ma ion Island each yea by he ECOs in e ms 1892
o he bicide ‘kill a e’ (pe cen age o plan s o plan co e killed pe a ea ea ed) and eg ow h o 1893
in asi e plan s, wi h wo species ha ing a 90-100% kill a e, wo species ha ing a 60-80% kill a e, and 1894
one species a 30-40% kill a e. Second he bicide applica ion e ec s a e s ill being moni o ed. Howe e , 1895
he assessmen s a e no pe o med in a sys ema ic manne . 1896
Th ee species a e hough o no longe be p esen due o success ul chemical and mechanical 1897
in e en ions, wo plan s Alopecu us genicula us and Holcus lana us, and he in e eb a e Po cellio 1898
scabus. Howe e , hese species a e s ill included in he e adica ion plan o moni o ing un il 1899
e adica ion is con i med. 1900
The e ec i eness o he con ol epo ed o some species con lic s be ween sou ces. Fo example, 1901
o Ag os is gigan ea he he bicide e ec i eness o kill he plan s was epo ed o be be ween 90-1902
100% (DEA and DST-NRF 2021), bu Nee hling's epo (2019) s a es ha al hough he species was 1903
killed a h ee si es, new popula ions we e ound a sho dis ance om each o hose si es. Howe e , 1904
con ol appea s o ha e been en i ely e ec i e o wo g ass species (Ely igia epens and Holcus 1905
lana us), wi h hese species cu en ly being absen om he single si es om which each species was 1906
known in he mid-2000s. The ea men o he isopod Po cellio scabe also appea s o ha e been 1907
en i ely e ec i e. T ea men ini ially comp ised a ge ed sea ches by esea che s (Janion-Scheepe s, 1908
pe s comm 2022), and a e he ini ia ion o chemical con ol in 2012, no u he indi iduals ha e been 1909
obse ed (la es da a om 2017). The quali y o he implemen a ion o he managemen plans o 1910
hese species is po en ially adequa e, bu he e appea s o be a lack o up- o-da e managemen plans 1911
and p og ess epo s o en con ain inadequa e de ail. As a esul , he quali y o implemen a ion o 1912
managemen plans is no known. 1913
No da a a e a ailable o assess he e ec i eness o he con ol o house mice a he esea ch s a ion 1914
and ield hu s, bu gi en he small ac ion o he species ange ha hese s uc u es comp ise and he 1915
species abili y o mo e ac oss he landscape, i can be assumed ha he impac is negligible. 1916
The ea men s applied o alien plan species appea o be e ec i e a killing indi iduals [30–100% 1917
mo ali y o indi idual plan s (MME 2017, DEA & DST-NRF 2021)], bu accu a e moni o ing a he si e 1918
le el is lacking (In asi e Alien Plan P og amme 2019). 1919
84
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Links o supplemen a y ma e ial and appendices 2327
All he supplemen a y ma e ial and appendices will be a ailable be ween 20 Decembe 2022 and 28 2328
Feb ua y 2023 a h ps:// inyu l.com/m 2mu6xz
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Copies o he iles will be pe manen a ailable a he links below. 2330
Appendix 1. Lis o da a sou ces h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433093
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Appendix 2. The species lis h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433103
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Appendix 3. Me ada a o he species lis h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433113
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Appendix 4. Wo k lows h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433130
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Appendix 5. Pa hways change acke h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433141
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Appendix 6. “Pe mi s issued in espec o Sou h A ica's Na ional En i onmen al Managemen : 2336
Biodi e si y Ac 's Alien and In asi e Species Regula ions o e he pe iod Oc obe 2014–Decembe 2337
2020” h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.5101758
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Appendix 7. The Species Lis o he P ince Edwa d Islands 2339
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433583
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Appendix 8. Me ada a o he Species Lis o he P ince Edwa d Islands 2341
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7433607
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Supplemen a y ma e ial h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7415497
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Fo e e ence his epo is a ailable a h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7414804
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