The Status of Biological Invasions and their Management in South Africa in 2019

2019
Biological in asions a e a majo h ea o Sou h A ica’s biodi e si y, economy, and sus ainable
de elopmen . This epo is a pa o Sou h A ica’s commi men o alle ia ing hese impac s. I is a
comp ehensi e na ional-scale assessmen wi h con ibu ions om 36 expe s om 16 ins i u ions. D a s o
he epo we e a ailable o commen in wo subs an i e ounds o e iew, wi h o e 350 commen s
ecei ed om 17 ins i u ions. This epo is unique in he wo ld in ocussing speci ically on in asions and is
an impo an pa o Sou h A ica’s global leading posi ion on he issue ( he go e nmen in es s o e 1
billion ZAR pe yea o deal wi h he p oblem). The epo is based a ound a sui e o 20 indica o s ha
p o ide de ails on: 1) how alien species a e in oduced and mo e a ound he coun y; 2) he s a us and
impac s o 1880 alien species o which 776 a e in asi e; 3) he deg ee o which si es a e in aded and
impac ed; and 4) he e ec i eness o he ull ange o in e en ions ha Sou h A ica has used o add ess
he p oblem. This epo p o ides aluable insigh s in o how Sou h A ica can educe he nega i e impac s
o biological in asions on ecosys ems, he economy, and people while e aining he bene i s alien species
p o ide whe e his is possible and desi able. I colla es ounda ional in o ma ion essen ial o esea che s o
he opic and p o ides an assessmen o in e en ions ha is i al o policy make s and manage s.
Copy igh © 2020 Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e (SANBI). All igh s ese ed. Rep oduc ion o
his publica ion o educa ional o o he non-comme cial pu poses is au ho ised wi hou p io w i en
pe mission om he copy igh holde p o ided he sou ce is ully acknowledged. Rep oduc ion o his
publica ion o esale o o he comme cial pu poses is p ohibi ed wi hou p io w i en pe mission o he
copy igh holde .
ISBN: 978-1-928224-41-9
THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL
INVASIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
IN SOUTH AFRICA
2019
THE STATUS OF BIOLOGICAL
INVASIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
IN SOUTH AFRICA
II
Lead edi o s: Tsungai A. Zengeya1, 2, John R. Wilson1, 3
Chap e lead au ho s: Ka elyn T. Faulkne 1, 2, Tendamudzimu Munyai1, Ma hán Thea 1, B ian W. an Wilgen3,
John R. Wilson1, 3 & Tsungai A. Zengeya1, 2
Wi h con ibu ions om: Ruqaya Adams1, Johan Baa d4, Michael B aack5, Oupa Chauke5 , Nicholas Cole4, Cha les L.
G i i hs6, Lesley Hende son7, Cha lene Janion-Scheepe s8, 9, Ma in P. Hill10, Anja le G ange1, Philip I ey10, S iaan Ko ze5,
Dunisani Malukele11, Clo a A. Mabin12, Nonkazimulo Mdidimba13, Siyasanga Miza1, Musa Mlambo13, E nes Mpo u14,
Xoliswa Ndeleni1, Be na d Ndou5, Kha hu shelo Nelukalo5, Li huwani Nnze u5, And ew A. Tu ne 15, T udy Paap16, Tama a
Robinson3, Nicola J. an Wilgen3, 5, Ka abo Wanjau5, And ew Wannenbu gh5, Pie e Win e 1, Cos as Zacha iades7.
1Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e
2DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology, Depa men o Zoology and En omology, Uni e si y o P e o ia
3DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology, Depa men o Bo any and Zoology, S ellenbosch Uni e si y
4Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks
5Depa men o Fo es y, Fishe ies, and he En i onmen
6DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology, Depa men o Biological Sciences, Uni e si y o Cape Town
7Plan Heal h and P o ec ion, Ag icul u al Resea ch Council
8Iziko Sou h A ican Museum
9Depa men o Zoology and En omology, Uni e si y o he F ee S a e
10Cen e o Biological Con ol, Depa men o Zoology and En omology, Rhodes Uni e si y
11Depa men o Wa e and Sani a ion
12Sou h A ican Ins i u e o Aqua ic Biodi e si y
13Albany Museum
14Depa men o Ag icul u e, Land Re o m and Ru al De elopmen
15CapeNa u e
16Fo es y and Ag icul u al Bio echnology Ins i u e, Depa men o Biochemis y, Gene ics and Mic obiology
Uni e si y o P e o ia
Co e pho og aphs:
Top le – boxing glo e cac us (Cylind opun ia ulgida a . mamilla a) - T. Xi u i
Top middle – di e eam su eying ha bou s o ma ine alien species in Saldanha Bay - T. Robinson
Top igh – Eu opean sho e c ab (Ca cinus maenas) - S. Miza
Bo om le – e micula ed sail in ca ish (P e ygoplich hys disjunc i us) - R. Ka sing
Bo om middle – Common myna (Ac ido he es is is) - R. Taylo
Bo om igh – pine ees (Pinus species) - B. an Wilgen
Ci ing his publica ion:
Fo ci a ions in he scien i ic li e a u e: Zengeya, T.A. & Wilson, J.R. (eds.) 2020. The s a us o biological in asions and hei
managemen in Sou h A ica in 2019. pp.71. Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e, Ki s enbosch and DSI-NRF
Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology, S ellenbosch. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.3947613
Fo ci a ions in policy documen s: SANBI and CIB 2020. The s a us o biological in asions and hei managemen in Sou h
A ica in 2019. pp.71. Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e, Ki s enbosch and DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence
o In asion Biology, S ellenbosch. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.3947613
ISBN: 978-1-928224-41-9
Technical edi ing: Nicole L. Meye
Design & layou : Ha y's P in e s Tshwane
Co e design: Ha y's P in e s Tshwane
P in ed by: Ha y's P in e s Tshwane, 69 P e o ius S ee , P e o ia 0001 Sou h A ica.
Email: ya eesh@ha ysp in e s.com
III
INDEPENDENCE
OF THE STATUS
REPORT
This s a us epo cons i u es an independen assessmen o
he s a us o biological in asions and hei managemen in
Sou h A ica. The epo is in ended o in o m he de elopmen
and ongoing adap a ion o app op ia e policies and con ol
measu es, bo h o educe he nega i e impac s o alien species
on ecosys ems, he economy, and people, and o e ain any
bene i s o in asi e species whe e possible and desi able. The
compila ion o he epo was o e seen by employees o he
Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e (SANBI) and he
DSI-NRF Cen e o Excellence o In asion Biology (CIB). Inpu s
(including da a, pee - e iewed pape s, and unpublished epo s)
we e also ob ained om esea che s and manage s om di e se
ins i u ions ac oss Sou h A ica. Funding o he compila ion o he
epo was ob ained h ough he Na ional Depa men o Fo es y,
Fishe ies, and he En i onmen (DFF E) as pa o SANBI’s Medium
Te m Expendi u e F amewo k. In o de o add ess any po en ial
con lic s o in e es , and o ensu e independence o he epo ,
he ollowing s eps we e aken:
• D a s o he s a us epo we e widely ci cula ed o
con ibu ing au ho s and o he s akeholde s, who we e
in i ed o submi commen s, conce ns o addi ional
in o ma ion, wi h wo dedica ed ounds o e iew in 2019
and 2020;
• A close o inal e sion o he epo was also e iewed in
dep h by wo Sou h A ican and one in e na ional expe on
biological in asions;
• Commen s and conce ns aised we e cap u ed in a da abase,
along wi h he d a ing eam’s esponses o hese commen s
and conce ns. This da abase is a ailable on eques ; and
• A Re e ence and Ad iso y Commi ee (RAC) o e saw he
p ocess aken o compile and e iew he epo , as well as
he d a ing eam’s esponse o he commen s and conce ns
aised by s akeholde s, wi h a iew o s eng hening he
p ocess i necessa y o u u e epo s. The RAC was chai ed
by an expe on assessmen s om he Uni e si y o he
Wi wa e s and, Sou h A ica.
pines in ading ynbos - B. an Wilgen

IV
INDEPENDENCE OF THE STATUS REPORT ............................................................................................... III
PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................. IX
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................................................. X
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................................. XV
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. The impo ance o biological in asions o Sou h A ica .................................................................. 1
1.2. The manda e, pu pose, and s uc u e o he s a us epo ............................................................. 1
1.3. P ocess o he compila ion o he s a us epo ................................................................................. 3
1.4. Indica o s used, upda ing he species lis , and acking change ................................................. 6
1.5. Aspec s o biological in asions ha a e no co e ed ....................................................................... 8
Box 1.1. Is his he 2019, 2020, o 2021 Repo ? .......................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2: PATHWAYS 9
2.1. In oduc ion pa hway p ominence ........................................................................................................... 10
2.2. In oduc ion a es ............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3. Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence ..................................................................................................... 14
2.4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es .................................................................................................................... 14
Box 2.1. Mo emen o alien species wi hin A ica ...................................................................................... 15
2.5. T ends in pa hway indica o s ....................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 3: SPECIES 19
3.1. Numbe and s a us o alien species .......................................................................................................... 20
3.2. Ex en o alien species ..................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3. Abundance o alien species ......................................................................................................................... 23
3.4. Impac o alien species ................................................................................................................................... 23
Box 3.1. The polyphagous sho hole bo e and Fusa ium dieback in Sou h A ica ...... 24
3.5. T ends in species indica o s .......................................................................................................................... 25
TABLE OF CONTENTS
V
CHAPTER 4: SITES 27
4.1. Alien species ichness ..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.2. Rela i e in asi e abundance ........................................................................................................................ 32
4.3. Impac o in asions .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Box 4.1. U ban in asions ......................................................................................................................................... 35
4.4. T ends in si e indica o s .................................................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 5: INTERVENTIONS 37
5.1. Inpu -quali y o he egula ion amewo k ............................................................................................ 39
5.2. Inpu -money spen .......................................................................................................................................... 43
5.3. Inpu -planning co e age ............................................................................................................................... 43
5.4. Ou pu -pa hways ea ed .............................................................................................................................. 44
5.5. Ou pu -species ea ed ................................................................................................................................... 44
5.6. Ou pu -si es ea ed ......................................................................................................................................... 46
5.7. Ou come-e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s ................................................................................. 50
5.8. Ou come-e ec i eness o species ea men s .................................................................................... 50
5.9. Ou come-e ec i eness o si e ea men s ............................................................................................ 51
Box 5.1. The p oposed lis ing o ainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss) and b own ou
(Salmo u a) as in asi e species in e ms o NEM:BA ............................................................................. 51
Box 5.2. The i s c iminal con ic ion o a con a en ion o he alien and in asi e species
p o isions o NEM:BA ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Box 5.3. The con ol o i id weed (Ch omolaena odo a a) in he Hluhluwe-iM olozi Pa k in
KwaZulu-Na al: an example o changing o unes ..................................................................................... 53
5.10. T ends in in e en ions indica o s ........................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 6: GAPS 59
6.1. P ocess o iden i ying gaps ......................................................................................................................... 60
6.2. Indica o s-imp o ing how in asions a e measu ed and p o iding a link o o he
epo s ............................................................................................................................................................................ 60
6.3. Pa hways- acking in asions ac oss Sou h A ica ............................................................................... 60
6.4. Species & Si es-mapping in asions in space and o e ime .......................................................... 61
6.5. Species & Si es-de e mining he impac s and cos s ......................................................................... 61
6.6. In e en ions- he need o an o e -a ching policy and s a egy ................................................ 62
6.7. In e en ions-measu ing he e ec i eness o in e en ions ........................................................ 62
VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 63
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................................. 65
LINKS TO APPENDICES AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ........................................................... 71
VII
PREFACE
The alue o biosecu i y o Sou h A ica and he h ea o biological
in asions ha e ne e been clea e . Biological in asions a e an
ongoing h ea o Sou h A ica’s biodi e si y and ecosys em
in eg i y, and o socie y h ough impac s on people’s li elihoods
and hei heal h (including SARS-CoV-2 he in asi e o ganism
behind he Co id-19 pandemic). The polyphagous sho hole bo e
is sweeping ac oss ou coun y killing he ees in ou ga dens and
on ou s ee s, and impe iling ag icul u e. In asi e plan s ha e
exace ba ed he d ough s in Cape Town, he wild i es in Knysna,
and he loods in KwaZulu-Na al. In asi e plan s educe he
capaci y o ou na u al angelands o suppo li es ock p oduc ion,
he eby h ea ening u al li elihoods and ood p oduc ion.
The Sou h A ican go e nmen has implemen ed legisla ion o
deal wi h biological in asions, in es ing o e 1 billion ZAR pe yea
o p o ec ou na u al asse s om hei impac s. To assis wi h hese
e o s, he Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e (SANBI) has
been manda ed o epo on he s a us o biological in asions and
he e ec i eness o hei managemen in Sou h A ica. This second
epo ep esen s an impo an s ep owa ds he p oduc ion o a
dashboa d whe e policy make s and manage s can e alua e he
s a us o biological in asions as hey a e playing ou , and adap
hei managemen acco dingly.
Al hough some successes in he managemen o biological
in asions ha e been achie ed, cu en e o s would be g ea ly
imp o ed by he adop ion o a na ional policy and s a egy
o managing biological in asions, p ojec -le el planning o
p e en ion and managemen , o mal p og ammes o moni o he
e ec i eness o in e en ions, and enhanced spa ially explici da a.
This epo igh ly highligh s hese needs.
This is an impo an , bu deeply wo ying, ime o be wo king
on biological in asions. SANBI occupies a unique posi ion a he
in e ace o science and policy, whe e i is able o gene a e and
ha ness knowledge on biological in asions o p o ide e idence o
decision-making.
SANBI Ac ing Chie
Execu i e O ice :
Ms Ca mel Mbiz o
XIV
• Regula ion: 1) a law o ule made by he Execu i e Au ho i y in e ms o o iginal legisla ion o egula e
conduc (in his case he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions); 2) he ac o egula ing, i.e. o go e n o di ec
acco ding o ule, o o make egula ions (au ho i a i e ules) o ce ain conduc .
• Regula o y lis s/lis ing: a lis o alien species ha a e egula ed unde he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions.
Fo a de ini ion o he egula o y ca ego ies see Table 5.2 and Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.2.
• Release (c . escape): he in en ional in oduc ion o an alien species o a si e ou side o cap i i y
o cul i a ion. This e e s o bo h legal and illegal in oduc ions, howe e i a legally in oduced alien
species is illegally eleased ou side o cap i i y o cul i a ion hen i is classi ied as an escape.
• Re u ns on in es men : he amoun o alue ha is gained as a esul o a pa icula amoun spen on
an in e en ion. This can be calcula ed as a bene i : cos a io whe eby each and spen ( he cos ) is se
agains he amoun o ands gained (bene i ). An in e en ion is echnically cos -e ec i e i he bene i :
cos a io is g ea e han one, al hough mo e gene ally cos e ec i eness is abou maximising he a io.
• Risk: he likelihood and consequence o an e en , in his con ex he e en is a biological in asion.
• Risk analysis: he p ocess o iden i ying and assessing he likelihood and consequence o an e en , as
well as conside a ions as o how o manage and communica e he isk (see Figu e S5.1).
• Risk assessmen : a componen o isk analysis ha ocuses on e alua ing he likelihood and
consequence o an e en aking place. In his con ex , an e en is he likelihood o an alien species
becoming an in asi e species and he nega i e impac s ha would esul .
• Si e: a de ined spa ial a ea, o example a p o ec ed a ea (as de ined by he Na ional En i onmen al
Managemen : P o ec ed A eas Ac , 2003), o an adminis a i e uni (wi h na ional and p o incial
adminis a i e bounda ies as de ined by he Cons i u ion o he Republic o Sou h A ica, 1996).
• Sp ead: see Dispe sal
• S a egy: a high-le el plan o achie ing managemen goals in a speci ic ime ame unde condi ions
o unce ain y.
• S owaway: he acciden al in oduc ion o an alien species a ached o o wi hin a anspo ec o o
hei associa ed equipmen and media. The o ganism is anspo ed by chance, and he e is no speci ic,
na u al associa ion wi h he ec o .
• Taxon (plu al axa): a g oup o o ganisms ha all sha e pa icula p ope ies (usually e olu iona y
his o y). The g ouping can be below, a o abo e he species le el.
• Th ea : he nega i e impac s ha may occu i an e en happens (c . isk whe e he likelihood is
explici ). In his con ex his e e s o he nega i e impac s esul ing om a componen o he in asion
deb being ealised.
• Unaided dispe sal: see Na u al dispe sal.
• Un egula ed in oduc ion: an in oduc ion ha was no app o ed by he ele an Sou h A ican
au ho i ies unde he ele an egula ions p io o he da e a which i a i ed in he coun y.
• Wa e Managemen A ea: an a ea es ablished as a managemen uni in he Na ional Wa e Resou ce
S a egy wi hin which a ca chmen managemen agency conduc s he p o ec ion, use, de elopmen ,
conse a ion, managemen , and con ol o wa e esou ces.

XV
Biological in asions a e a leading cause o global change and a majo h ea o Sou h A ica’s en i onmen
and socio-economic de elopmen . Sou h A ica’s esponse o his issue has been widesp ead and subs an ial.
The go e nmen has spen in excess o 1 billion ZAR pe yea since 2013 on biosecu i y and con ol p ojec s
and has lis ed 556 in asi e axa as equi ing con ol. This epo ¹ assesses he s a us o biological in asions
in he coun y and he e ec i eness o Sou h A ica’s esponse.
I has been es ima ed ha h ee new alien axa a i e in Sou h A ica acciden ally o illegally e e y yea . While
his a e appea s o ha e declined, such in oduc ions con inue o add o he numbe o in asi e species in
he coun y. No able ecen in oduc ions include he oma o lea mine (Tu a absolu a), which was de ec ed
in 2016 and is now a majo ag icul u al pes , and he polyphagous sho hole bo e (PSHB, Euwallacea
o nica us), an amb osia bee le om Sou heas Asia which was i s de ec ed in 2017 in Pie e ma i zbu g.
The PSHB and i s associa ed ungus ha e al eady killed housands o ees in Sou h A ica’s s ee s, ga dens,
p o ec ed a eas, and o cha ds, and h ea en millions mo e. Sou h A ica’s abili y o know whe e, when, and
how in e en ions should be implemen ed o p e en new in oduc ions has been imp o ed by ecen
esea ch ha has cla i ied how he pe ade, he medicinal plan ade, con aminan s o animal impo s,
and shipping unc ion as in oduc ion pa hways. E ec i e p o ocols a e inc easingly being implemen ed
o egula e in en ional legal in oduc ions o alien species and o ensu e ha he isks o such impo s a e
minimised. Howe e , he e is insu icien capaci y o p e en acciden al o in en ional illegal in oduc ions
o alien species. Mo e wo k is needed o elucida e he ole o many pa hways in acili a ing in oduc ions
and in asions. Inc easing olumes o ade and a el, pa icula ly wi hin A ica, ep esen eno mous
oppo uni ies o Sou h A ica’s economic de elopmen , bu unless judicious biosecu i y measu es can be
implemen ed, Sou h A ica will con inue o impo (and expo ) in asi e species. Simila ly, he de elopmen
o sys ems o ack and unde s and how in asi e species mo e and a e mo ed a ound he coun y a e
needed o he sp ead o be e ec i ely managed.
This epo p o ides in o ma ion on 1880 alien species known o occu in Sou h A ica. A leas a hi d o
hese species ha e escaped (o we e delibe a ely eleased) om cap i i y o cul i a ion and ha e become
in asi e. The impac s o 215 in asi e species ha e been o mally assessed, and se en o hese we e ound
o cause majo o massi e nega i e en i onmen al impac s, while one species was ound o ha e majo
nega i e socio-economic impac s. Impac assessmen s a e needed on he emaining species, bu in many
cases he e is a lack o eliable da a. In asi e ees use up 3–5% o Sou h A ica’s su ace wa e uno
each yea , exace ba ing he e ec s o d ough s. I he e we e no in asi e ees in he Ci y o Cape Town’s
ca chmen , ‘Day Ze o’ ² would ha e been delayed by 60 days du ing he peak o he wa e c isis in 2017.
The des uc i e wild i es in Knysna in 2018 we e exace ba ed by plan in asions (15% mo e uel was bu n
in in aded a eas han unin aded a eas, inc easing he se e i y o i es and making con ainmen measu es
ine ec i e). In asi e plan s educe he alue o li es ock p oduc ion om na u al angelands by ZAR 340
million pe yea , and his will g ow apidly i in asions a e no con olled. Biological in asions a e he hi d-
la ges h ea o Sou h A ica`s biodi e si y (a e cul i a ion and land deg ada ion), and a e esponsible o
25% o all biodi e si y loss.
SUMMARY
1 This second epo ocuses on he s a us as o Decembe 2019 and he ends since he i s epo (i.e. since Decembe 2016) as manda ed unde he
NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions. The epo is composed o chap e s add essing he pa hways o in oduc ion and sp ead, he s a us o alien species and
hei impac s, he deg ee o which si es a e in aded, and he e ec i eness o in e en ions; and discusses ends in ou head-line indica o s (Table
A.1) and 20 lowe -le el indica o s (discussed a he end o each chap e ). The epo concludes wi h a chap e iden i ying key gaps ha , i add essed,
would imp o e he abili y o Sou h A ica o espond o he challenges posed by biological in asions and imp o e he e u ns on in es men .
2 ’Day Ze o’ was he day du ing Cape Town’s wa e c isis o 2015–2018 ha he Ci y’s dams would ha e un ou o po able wa e .
XVI
Se e al ini ia i es ha e been highly e ec i e in con olling in asions, and d ama ic posi i e e u ns on
in es men ha e been epo ed o he u ilisa ion o biological con ol o educe p oblems wi h in asi e
plan s (bene i :cos a ios om 8:1 o ~4000:1). Howe e , he e icacy o mos in e en ions is no ou inely
moni o ed. Imp o ed da a on he ou pu s o in e en ions, and a ocus on ou come-o ien a ed a ge s, would
allow manage s o adap hei plans, and policy-make s o e ise egula ions and s a egies acco dingly.
The e a e encou aging signs ha he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions p omulga ed in 2014 a e beginning o
become e ec i e— he i s success ul p osecu ion was in 2019, and he p ocess o g an ing pe mi s is now
well-es ablished and unc ional (~40 pe mon h). Howe e , p oposals o e ise he egula o y lis s in ea ly
2018 we e subs an ially delayed due o con es ed species, in pa icula ou . This has ad e sely a ec ed
he abili y o e ise he cu en egula o y lis s (p oposed changes lis ed in ea ly 2018 came in o e ec in
Ma ch 2021, and isk analyses on 25 lis ed alien species ecommend ha he lis ing o 12 o hem should
be changed).
Biological in asions con inue o be a signi ican , p essing, and in many cases inc easing h ea o Sou h
A ica. These challenges can and a e being add essed—go e nmen and public ini ia i es ha e, in some
cases, educed he impac s and h ea s posed and p o ided aluable e u ns on in es men in e ms o u al
de elopmen and job c ea ion. Howe e , he e ec i eness o cu en in e en ions could be as ly imp o ed
wi h he in oduc ion o goal-o ien ed managemen plans, by moni o ing ou comes in e ms o hose
goals a he han inpu s, by applying a lexible app oach based on he p inciples o adap i e managemen ,
ocussing on p io i y si es and species, and by imp o ing implemen a ion o bes -p ac ice con ol me hods
in he ield.
Eu opean sho e c ab (Ca cinus maenas) - S. Miza Common s a ling (S u nus ulga is) - C. G i i hs
XVII
Table A.1. The s a us o biological in asions in Sou h A ica a he end o 2019 as pe he ou headline indica o s.
Head-line
indica o
T end
(con idence)
Desi ed
end
Cu en s a us Ou look
A. Ra e o
un egula ed
in oduc ion o
new species
(Low)
Be ween 2010 and 2019 app oxima ely 3
new axa we e in oduced pe yea ei he
acciden ally o in en ionally bu illegally. This
was lowe han he es ima ed a e du ing he
p e ious decade (~ 5 pe yea ).
Despi e he appa en ecen decline in in oduc ions, oppo uni ies
o he in oduc ion o alien species a e expec ed o inc ease as he
olume o ade and a el inc eases. Whe he his esul s in he
in oduc ion o mo e in asi e species will depend on he deg ee o
which key pa hways a e iden i ied and p io i ised o managemen .
Imp o emen s o inspec ion, managemen , and he incu sion
esponse a bo de would s eng hen Sou h A ica’s biosecu i y.
B. Numbe o
in asi e species
ha ha e majo
impac s
No assessed In he i s epo , 107 alien species we e
iden i ied by expe s as pa icula ly damaging.
A p ocess is unde way o o mally assess all
in asi e species using he IUCN’s EICAT scheme.
So a 215 species ha e been assessed, and
eigh ound o cause majo o massi e impac s
( i e ish, wo g asses, and one mammal
species). Howe e in many cases he e was a
lack o eliable da a.
The numbe o alien species eco ded o ha e majo o massi e
nega i e impac s will inc ease as mo e species a e o mally assessed.
The o mal assessmen o he impac o alien species p o ides he
a ionale o egula ion and managemen , can imp o e compliance
and implemen a ion o in e en ion measu es, and assis o esol e
con lic s. Howe e , impac assessmen s a e hampe ed by a lack o
eliable da a o mos species. I his si ua ion pe sis s, egula ions will
con inue o be ulne able o legal challenges.
I is e y di icul o con ol in asi e species wi h majo impac s in
a way ha will educe such impac s o mode a e o mino , bu his
has a guably been achie ed by biological con ol o o e 30 in asi e
axa. On-going in es men in biological con ol will likely esul in
mo e such successes. I alien species ha cu en ly ha e mode a e
o mino impac s a e p e en ed om inc easing in abundance and
ex en o he poin whe e hey ha e majo impac s o , whe e easible,
such species a e e adica ed om Sou h A ica, hen a signi ican
e u n on in es men will also be made.
no change; inc ease; dec ease
XVIII
Head-line
indica o
T end
(con idence)
Desi ed
end
Cu en s a us Ou look
C. Ex en o
a ea ha
su e s majo
impac s om
in asions
No assessed Biological in asions con inue o cause majo
impac s on bo h u al and u ban communi ies
by, amongs o he hings, educing Sou h
A ica’s wa e esou ces, deg ading pas u eland,
and making i es mo e in ense and mo e
di icul o con ol. Biological in asions
con inue o con ibu e o biodi e si y loss and
ecosys em change.
I con ol e o s ocus on p io i y si es (e.g. si es ha p o ide wa e
o Cape Town’s dams) hen he e will be signi ican e u ns on
in es men . Howe e , wi hou ag eemen on p io i ies, he e is a
subs an ial isk ha con ol could emain ine ec i e, and he a ea
ha su e s om majo impac s will con inue o g ow.
Es ima es o he ull magni ude o impac s equi e mo e accu a e
assessmen s o he ex en o in asions. This, in u n, equi es
e ec i e mapping o he a eas in aded and moni o ing o sp ead.
Such moni o ing is cu en ly lacking, and wi hou which e ec i e
p io i isa ion is no possible.
D. Le el o
success in
managing
in asions
(Low)
Recen s udies suppo he conclusions o
he i s epo ha : 1) biological con ol can
be highly e ec i e; and 2) imp o emen s
bo h in moni o ing and con ol e iciency will
be needed i in asions a e o be e ec i ely
con olled. In se e al wa e bodies, alien ish
species ha e been ex i pa ed in a manne ha
allows o he eco e y o na i e species. This is
a majo new success.
An assessmen o he e ec i eness o con ol measu es emains
challenging in he absence o any o mal p og ammes ha moni o
ou comes. Should his si ua ion con inue, hen whe he he goals o
con ol – o educe he numbe , abundance, ex en , and impac o
in asions – a e being achie ed will emain unknown, managemen
canno be adap i e, and le els o success will emain low. I hese
issues a e no u gen ly add essed, he impac s and cos s o in asions
will ise signi ican ly.
Table A.1 The s a us o biological in asions in Sou h A ica a he end o 2019 as pe he ou headline indica o s. (Con d)
no change; inc ease; dec ease
XIX
swi woodlouse (Po cellio lae is) - C. G i i hs

XX
Paci ic oys e (Magallana gigas) - S. Miza
1
1
INTRODUCTION
Au ho s:
1.1. The impo ance o biological in asions o Sou h A ica
Biological in asions ha e had a ied and signi ican impac s on all
sec o s o Sou h A ican socie y. They a e a majo h ea o socio-
economic sus ainabili y, hey ha e exace ba ed d ough s, loods
and wild- i es, and ha e caused signi ican losses in ag icul u e,
pas o alism, and o es y. Biological in asions accoun o a
qua e o all biodi e si y loss in Sou h A ica o da e ( an Wilgen
e al. 2008). The Sou h A ican go e nmen spends well o e 1
billion ZAR pe yea on hei managemen (Figu e 5.1, see pg.
42). Gi en Sou h A ica’s ich and a ied cul u al and biological
di e si y, and he long his o y bo h o alien species in oduc ions
and o a emp s o egula e, manage, and s udy hem, Sou h
A ica is a global exempla o he impac s o and po en ial
esponses o biological in asions ( an Wilgen e al. 2020b). Sou h
A ica has aken a wo ld-leading s ance in con olling in asions
speci ically in e ms o combining e o s a alien plan clea ing
wi h po e y alle ia ion, he use o classical biological con ol,
and i s inno a i e Alien and In asi e Species (A&IS) Regula ions
o 2014. One ea u e o he A&IS Regula ions is he equi emen
o he Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y Ins i u e (SANBI) o
epo , e e y h ee yea s, on he s a us o biological in asions and
hei managemen in Sou h A ica.
1.2. The manda e, pu pose, and s uc u e o he s a us
epo
The manda e o he s a us epo a ises om sec ion 11 o he
A&IS Regula ions o 2014 ha we e p omulga ed unde he
Na ional En i onmen al Biodi e si y Ac (NEM:BA) (Ac 10 o
2004):
(1) The Ins i u e [i.e. he Sou h A ican Na ional Biodi e si y
Ins i u e (SANBI)] o a body designa ed by he Ins i u e mus ,
o he pu pose o epo ing as con empla ed in sec ion 11(1)
(a) (iii) o he Ac , submi a epo on he s a us o lis ed in asi e
species o he Minis e wi hin h ee yea s o he da e on which
hese egula ions come in o e ec , and a leas e e y h ee yea s
he ea e [ he egula ions came in o e ec on 1 Oc obe 2014].
John R. Wilson
Tsungai A. Zengeya
wa les and pines in ading ynbos - B. an Wilgen
2
(2) A epo con empla ed in sub- egula ion (1) mus con ain a summa y and assessmen wi h:
(a) he s a us o lis ed in asi e species and o he species ha ha e been subjec ed o a isk assessmen ;
and
(b) he e ec i eness o hese egula ions and con ol measu es based in e alia on in o ma ion om:
(i) no i ica ions ecei ed om owne s o land ega ding lis ed in asi e species occu ing on
hei land;
(ii) pe mi s issued o lis ed in asi e species;
(iii) In asi e Species Moni o ing, Con ol and E adica ion Plans¹ ecei ed om o gans o s a e and
managemen au ho i ies o p o ec ed a eas; and
(i ) eme gency in e en ions and en o cemen ac ions in ol ing lis ed in asi e species issued by
he Minis e .
(3) In p epa ing a epo con empla ed in sub- egula ion (1), he Ins i u e mus ca y ou he esea ch and
moni o ing necessa y o iden i y he ma e s con empla ed in sub- egula ion (2).
Mo e b oadly, howe e , he s a us epo aims o s eng hen he links be ween basic esea ch, policy, and
managemen by de ailing he cu en s a us and p o iding suppo o decision make s ha is policy ele an
bu no policy p esc ip i e (see Figu e 1.1 in he i s epo ).
The i s epo – p oduced in 2017 and eleased in 2018 – was s uc u ed a ound an indica o amewo k ha
explici ly conside s biological in asions in e ms o pa hways, species, si es, and in e en ions (sepa a ed in o
inpu s, ou pu s and ou comes, see Figu e 1.3). This indica o amewo k p o ides a anspa en and objec i e
me hod o he es ablishmen o a baseline agains which o assess ends, se ealis ic managemen a ge s,
and o highligh ing impo an gaps in he e idence needed o suppo decision-making. This second epo
is simila ly s uc u ed a ound his indica o amewo k wi h he in en ion o e ining and upda ing alues
in he i s epo . The second epo ocuses on he s a us as o he end o 2019, no ing ends o e he
pas h ee yea s o he ou headline indica o s (Table A.1) and o 20 indica o s acking pa hways, species,
si es, and in e en ions (sec ions 2.5, 3.5, 4.4, and 5.10). Da a a e mo e sys ema ically cu a ed wi h sou ces
clea ly indica ed. T ends can be mo e easily acked, bu some baselines had o be e ised. See Appendix
1 o de ails on sou ces o da a, desc ip ions, le els o con idence, and indica o s ha we e in o med by
such da a. The longe - e m plan is o de elop an on-line esou ce wi h indica o alues upda ed as soon
as new in o ma ion becomes a ailable (i.e. a dashboa d), a sho s a us epo summa ising ends e e y
h ee yea s as pe he cu en egula o y equi emen , and a comp ehensi e epo e e y decade o so (see
Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S1.2).
Each chap e s a s wi h a summa y o he s a e o he indica o s, and hen discusses key changes in he
indica o s. Much o he de ail unde lying he p oduc ion o his second epo is con ained wi hin he
appendices and supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable on-line (links o hem a e on he las page o his epo ).
1 The ‘In asi e Species Moni o ing, Con ol and E adica ion Plans’ e e ed o in he egula ions a e in ended o be d awn up o speci ic si es. Fo he
pu poses o his second epo hese a e e e ed o as si e managemen plans. This is dis inc om species managemen p og ammes which ocus
on con olling pa icula species o en ac oss he whole o Sou h A ica.
3
1.3. P ocess o he compila ion o he s a us epo
The p ocess o compiling he second epo was b oadly simila o ha o compiling he i s epo . A
s a us epo d a ing eam was appoin ed, and a Re e ence and Ad iso y Commi ee (RAC) es ablished o
o e see he p ocess. The w i ing eam d a ed a ious e sions o he second epo in consul a ion bo h
wi h he RAC and s akeholde s (Figu e 1.1). Each s ep is desc ibed in de ail below.
Appoin s a us epo d a ing eam: The SANBI-CIB d a ing eam is simila o ha o he i s epo , bu
he e has been a shi in emphasis om a eam headed up by he CIB, o a eam led by SANBI wi h he CIB
p o iding assis ance and ad ice. A no able change was he inclusion o a legal specialis (based a SANBI)
on he d a ing eam.
Appoin he RAC: he RAC was es ablished o p o ide o e sigh o he p ocess and e iew documen s
p oduced. The i s mee ing o he RAC was on 31 May 2019. A he eques o he RAC, a ze o-o de d a
was p oduced and sen o he RAC on 1 July 2019, and subsequen ly app o ed. The RAC simila ly e iewed
a e sion o he i s o de d a be o e i wen ou o public commen , and e iewed he second o de
d a be o e he inal epo was p oduced. The Chai o he RAC also e iewed how he commen s ecei ed
du ing he s akeholde and expe e iew p ocesses we e add essed, i.e. ac ed in a e iew edi o ole. Finally,
he RAC in ends o p o ide ad ice bo h in e ms o he public elease o he second epo , and on e lec ing
on he p ocess.
smallmou h bass (Mic op e us dolomieu) - D. Impson pompom weed (Campuloclinium mac ocephalum) - L. Hende son
10
Indica o s co e ed in his chap e :
2. In oduc ion a es
3. Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence
1. In oduc ion pa hway p ominence
4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es
PATHWAYS
HIGH LEVEL
A Ra e o un egula ed
in oduc ion o new species
2.1. In oduc ion pa hway p ominence
In oduc ion pa hway p ominence conside s he size o he pa hways o in oduc ion in e ms o hei
socio-economic impo ance [in con as , in oduc ion a es (indica o 2) looks a whe he alien o ganisms
a e being in oduced along hese pa hways]. The pa hway ca ego isa ion scheme used o all pa hway
indica o s is ha adop ed by he Con en ion on Biological Di e si y (CBD 2014), wi h p oposed e isions
by Ha owe e al. (2018) [see Ha owe e al. (2018) o de ails on how in oduc ions a e classi ied in o he
di e en pa hways].
In mos cases, in oduc ion pa hway p ominence has no changed since he i s epo (39 o he 44
pa hways; see Figu e 2.1), bu he numbe o ishing boa s in Sou h A ican wa e s has dec eased by 40%
and, he e o e, so oo has he p ominence o he pa hway ela ed o s owaways on ishing equipmen .
The e has, howe e , been some signi ican esea ch on pa hways o in oduc ion since he i s epo ,
acili a ing mo e obus assessmen s o some pa hways, and o o he s allowing in oduc ion pa hway
p ominence o be es ima ed o he i s ime. Recen esea ch has shown ha hund eds o in e eb a e axa
a e sold in he pe ade (195 a an ula species and 53 o he in e eb a es, bu i is likely ha many mo e
a e sold), al hough he ole o he pe ade in new in oduc ions e sus wi hin-coun y dispe sal is unclea
(see Nelu ule 2018; Shi ambu 2018). Based on hese s udies he p ominence o he pe ade pa hway is
now sco ed as mode a e (i was sco ed as mino in he i s epo ). This inc ease in in oduc ion pa hway
p ominence is due o be e knowledge. Whe he he e has been an ac ual change in he olume o ade is
no known. One in oduc ion pa hway ha had p e iously ecei ed li le esea ch a en ion is he adi ional
medicine ade. Hund eds o alien medicinal plan and ungal species (214 species, 101 as p opagules) a e
impo ed in o Sou h A ica, o en om mul iple sou ces (Bu ness 2019; By ne e al. 2017; Faulkne e al.
2020a). Some o hese species (e.g. Mo inga olei e a, Nigella sa i a and Zingibe o icinale) pose an in asion
h ea o he coun y as hey a e impo ed as iable p opagules, ha e high p opagule p essu e, and his o y
o in asion elsewhe e in he wo ld (Bu ness 2019).
The ypes o changes made o he da a since he i s epo a e shown in Table S2.2 and how hese changes
ha e in luenced he indica o is shown in Figu e S2.20, wi h de ails acked in Appendix 3.

11
2.2. In oduc ion a es
In oduc ion a es conside he numbe o new alien axa in oduced h ough he pa hways o in oduc ion,
and how his numbe has changed o e ime. The in oduc ion pa hway o mos axa (54%) in oduced o
Sou h A ica is s ill no known. O he alien axa known o ha e been in oduced o Sou h A ica, mos (15%)
a e plan s ha we e in oduced o ho icul u e and/o o namen al pu poses. Many o he axa ha a e
known o ha e been acciden ally in oduced we e in oduced h ough shipping (5% o all in oduc ions).
Due o be e da a, i is clea ha new alien axa con inue o be in en ionally and acciden ally in oduced o
Sou h A ica, and he e has been an inc ease in he numbe o axa ha a e hough o ha e been in oduced
o e all ime, h ough 18 o he 44 pa hways (Figu e 2.1). Du ing he 2017–2019 pe iod new axa a e likely o
ha e been in oduced acciden ally h ough he imbe ade, shipping (hull ouling o he elease o ballas
wa e ), as con aminan s on impo ed animals, and h ough na u al dispe sal om o he A ican coun ies
whe e p e iously in oduced.
In e ms o legal in en ional in oduc ions, many alien axa (157 axa) ha e been eleased as biological
con ol agen s agains in asi e o ganisms such as in e eb a es and plan s, wi h ou new axa in oduced
o con ol alien plan s du ing he 2017–2019 pe iod (Table S5.10). Biological con ol is a highly egula ed
pa hway and, as pa o ob aining an impo pe mi , hese axa a e assessed and mus be ound unlikely o
ha e impo an di ec nega i e impac s. The in oduc ion o biological con ol agen s p o ides subs an ial
bene i s (see Chap e 5 o u he de ails), and o da e hese in oduc ions ha e caused no impo an
nega i e impac s. The e o e, hese in oduc ions a e no included in he es ima e o he high-le el indica o
‘Ra e o un egula ed in oduc ion o new species’. Besides hose o biological con ol, no impo pe mi s
we e issued in he 2017–2019 pe iod o specimens o axa no p e iously eco ded in he coun y o o
which an impo pe mi had no been p e iously issued (see Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.5 o de ails).
The e has been an inc ease in he numbe o new alien axa ha a e hough o ha e en e ed Sou h
A ica h ough na u al dispe sal om neighbou ing coun ies whe e hey had been p e iously in oduced.
The e o e, while many in oduc ions a e belie ed o be due o in e con inen al human-media ed dispe sal,
i appea s an inc easing numbe o alien axa a e showing in a-A ican dispe sal (Box 2.1).
The ypes o changes made o he da a since he i s epo a e shown in Table S2.3 and how hese changes
ha e in luenced he indica o is shown in Table S2.4, wi h de ails acked in Appendix 5.
12
Figu e 2.1. Cu en s a us o he pa hways o in oduc ion and changes o he pa hways ha ha e been
eco ded since he i s epo . No: numbe o axa in oduced; No since 1s epo : change o he numbe
o axa in oduced [ inc ease; no change; — no applicable (new pa hway)]; Change in IR: change in
in oduc ion a e ela i e o las decade [ inc ease; dec ease; minimal change; X no in oduc ions; ? no
known]; IPP: in oduc ion pa hway p ominence [Min: mino ; Mod: mode a e; Maj: majo ; PNP: pa hway no
p esen ; ? no known]; IPP since 1s epo : change o in oduc ion pa hway p ominence since he i s epo
[ inc ease; dec ease; no change; ? no known; — no applicable ( i s es ima e o new pa hway)].
30
MECHANISM
OF ENTRY
PATHWAY
CATEGORY
PATHWAY SUBCATEGORY No No Since Change
In IR
1s Repo IPP Since
1s Repo
INCREASING HUMAN ROLE
157
93 ?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
??
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
17
Release
33
8
3
8
104
15
6
54
16
COMMODITY Escape
38
u a ms
1
302
276
10
2
1
11
15
15
9
Con aminan
35
24
26
37
11
5
0
0
13
3
24
TRANSPORT
VECTOR S owaway
1
0
1
61
76
1
2
NATURAL
SPREAD
Co ido
0
0
Unaided
13
IPP
Mod
Min
Maj
Mod
PNP
Maj
Min
Min
Mod
Maj
Maj
Min
Mod
Mod
Mod
Min
Mod
Maj
Maj
Maj
Mod
Mod
Mod
Maj
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Maj
Mod
Mod
Maj
Min
Min
Maj
Biological con ol
S abilisa ion & Ba ie s
Fishe y in he wild
Hun ing
Aes he ic elease
Conse a ion in wild
Ag icul u e
Aquacul u e
Bo anical ga dens/zoos
Pe
Fa med animals
Fo es y
Fu a ms
Ho icul u e
O namen al
Resea ch
Li e ood and li e bai s
O he escape
Nu se y ma e ial con aminan
Bai con aminan
Food con aminan
Con aminan o animals
Con aminan o plan s
Seed con aminan
Timbe ade con aminan
Habi a ma e ial con aminan
O he con aminan
Fishing equipmen
Machine y & equipmen
People & luggage
Packing ma e ial
Ballas wa e
Hull ouling
Land ehicles
O he s owaway
Canals & a i icial wa e ways
Tunnels and b idges
Na u al dispe sal
Con aine & bulk ca go
Ai plane
Ship excluding ballas wa e o hull ouling
Pa asi es o animals
Pa asi es o plan s
O he elease
13
Fo nine o he pa hways o which es ima es we e possible he e ha e been minimal changes o he a e
a which new alien axa ha e been in oduced in his decade (2010–2019) in compa ison o he p e ious
decade (Figu e 2.1). The e we e ewe in oduc ions o hun ing in he cu en decade in compa ison o
he p e ious decade, which could be due o inc easing an i-hun ing sen imen (Taylo e al. 2015). The e
appea s o ha e been an inc ease in he a e a which pa asi es o impo ed animals ha e been in oduced.
Howe e , he e has been a decline, since he p e ious decade, in li e animal impo s (Figu e S2.8), and so
his end is likely due o ecen , di ec ed esea ch in e es in pa asi es o eshwa e ish (Weyl e al. 2020) o
due o ime lags be ween in oduc ion and de ec ion. Da e o in oduc ion is o en known o axa ha a e
in en ionally in oduced, bu o axa ha a e acciden ally in oduced, he e is o en a signi ican ime delay
be ween when he axon is in oduced and when i is de ec ed. O e he cu en decade, 57 new alien axa
a e known o ha e been in oduced o Sou h A ica, ewe han he 67 axa eco ded o he p e ious decade
(Figu e 2.2A). No able in oduc ions in he las decade include he polyphagous sho hole bo e (Euwallacea
o nica us), oma o lea mine (Tu a absolu a), and all a mywo m (Spodop e a ugipe da).
Numbe o
in oduced axa
DECADE
YEAR
Numbe o
in oduced axa
All in oduc ions
Un egula ed in oduc ions
0
0
5
10
15
20
40
60
80
100
1950s 1970s 1990s 2010s
2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Figu e 2.2. Numbe o eco ded in oduc ions o Sou h A ica o e ime: (A) o e he las se en decades
and (B) du ing he las decade. These da a a e incomple e, pa icula ly o mo e ecen yea s, as he e a e
ime lags be ween he in oduc ion o a axon, when i is de ec ed, and he publica ion o epo s o he
in oduc ion.
A
B
14
2.3. Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence
Wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence conside s he size o he pa hways o dispe sal wi hin Sou h A ica,
bu does no ake in o accoun he impo ance o hese pa hways o he dispe sal o alien o ganisms. As in
he i s epo , da a o wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence we e no a ailable o mos pa hways, and so
he indica o could no be popula ed (see Chap e 6 o de ails on knowledge gaps and da a equi emen s).
Howe e , Sou h A ica has ex ensi e anspo ne wo ks (e.g. ~750 000 km o oads, h ps://www. anspo .
go .za/web/depa men -o - anspo / oads accessed Sep embe 2020) ha a e used equen ly by
a la ge p opo ion o he coun y’s popula ion, and ha a e used o anspo a la ge amoun o goods.
As an example, in he 2018/2019 inancial yea he e we e o e 135 000 domes ic ligh a i als a Sou h
A ican ai po s (Ai po s Company Sou h A ica 2019). The numbe o domes ic ligh s and he numbe
o passenge s a elling on hese ligh s has emained ela i ely consis en and hese numbe s a e simila
o hose epo ed in he i s epo (see Figu es S2.21–S2.23). The e a e a numbe o pa hways ha a e
acili a ing he in en ional anspo o axa wi hin he coun y. Fo example: he pe ade (Nunes e al.
2017a), he medicinal plan ade (By ne e al. 2017), and he cul i a ion o plan s o uses ela ed o he
g een economy (Cana an e al. 2019). I is no clea whe he hese p ocesses ha e inc eased o dec eased
since he i s epo .
2.4. Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es
Wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es conside he numbe o axa ha ha e dispe sed wi hin Sou h A ica h ough
he pa hways o dispe sal, and how his numbe has changed o e ime. Da a o wi hin-coun y dispe sal
a es ha e no been colla ed o he en i e coun y, and so he indica o could no be popula ed (see Chap e
6 o de ails on knowledge gaps and da a equi emen s). Howe e , as in he i s epo , da a collec ed
om he li e a u e indica es ha alien and na i e axa a e being in en ionally and acciden ally anspo ed
a ound he coun y, and ha hese axa a e dispe sing wi hin he coun y h ough many pa hways, wi h axa
dispe sing h ough a leas 22 o he 44 pa hways o dispe sal (Appendix 3). Recen esea ch on bio ouling
has highligh ed he impo ance o ec ea ional yach s, pa icula ly hose used o c uising, in he dispe sal
o ma ine alien axa wi hin Sou h A ica (Pe e s & Robinson 2017; Pe e s e al. 2019). Fu he mo e, 137 alien
plan species a e conside ed as ans o me s in Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks, and mos we e in en ionally
in oduced as o namen al plan s o we e dispe sed by i e s and animals (Table S2.5), and many u ilised
mul iple pa hways (Foxc o e al. 2019). I is expec ed ha his pa e n is applicable o Sou h A ica mo e
b oadly. Fo example, a eshwa e gas opod (Ta ebia g ani e a) om Sou h-Eas Asia, is dispe sing apidly
wi hin he coun y bo h h ough na u al sp ead (e.g. on aqua ic plan s and by a aching o he ea he s o
bi ds) and as a s owaway on boa s and aile s (Jones e al. 2017). Howe e , i is unclea how he wi hin-
coun y dispe sal pa hways ha e changed since he i s epo .
15
The in oduc ion o alien species o A ica has inc eased o e ime, a leas o pes s o o es y and
ag icul u e (G aziosi e al. 2020; Sileshi e al. 2019). Sou h A ica is o en he en y poin o alien species
ha dispe se in o o he A ican coun ies (Faulkne e al. 2017b), and mos o es y pes s ha ha e
been in oduced o A ica we e i s eco ded in Sou h A ica (G aziosi e al. 2020). Howe e , in 2016 and
2017, h ee alien pes s o ag icul u e [ ed palm mi e (Raoiella indica), oma o lea mine (Tu a absolu a),
and all a mywo m (Spodop e a ugipe da)] ha we e de ec ed in Sou h A ica o he i s ime had
dispe sed, ei he na u ally o wi h he help o humans, in o Sou h A ica om o he A ican coun ies
whe e hey had p e iously been in oduced (Faulkne e al. 2020a).
The inc ease in he mo emen o alien species be ween Sou h A ica and o he A ican coun ies
(Faulkne e al. 2017b) is likely due o inc easing ade and anspo bo h be ween A ican coun ies and
be ween A ican coun ies and he es o he wo ld. Changes o hese p ocesses and clima e change
could in luence he in a-A ican mo emen o alien species in he u u e, and i he A ican Con inen al
F ee T ade A ea (A CFTA) is es ablished he mo emen o alien species be ween A ican coun ies is likely
o inc ease u he . This is because impo ed goods will only be inspec ed o alien species a he i s
po o en y, and mos A ican coun ies ha e limi ed capaci y o espond o biosecu i y h ea s (Ea ly
e al. 2016). I will be ex emely di icul o p e en he dispe sal o alien species wi hin he con inen
once in oduced (Faulkne e al. 2017b), and he e could be con lic s o in e es i some coun ies could
bene i om he in oduc ion o a species ha could be ha m ul in o he coun ies (Faulkne e al.
2020b). A co-o dina ed egional esponse o alien species in oduc ions is equi ed o be e manage
he in oduc ion and dispe sal o alien species in A ica (Faulkne e al. 2017b; G aziosi e al. 2020;
Sileshi e al. 2019).
Mo emen o alien species wi hin A ica
Box 2.1
oma o lea mine (Tu a absolu a) - D. Visse

16
2.5. T ends in pa hway indica o s
Indica o T end
(con idence) Desi ed end Cu en s a us Ou look
1. In oduc ion
pa hway
p ominence (Medium)
No applicable The e has been li le change since he i s
epo . 11 in oduc ion pa hways play a
majo socio-economic ole.
The e is no desi ed end o in oduc ion pa hway p ominence as i is
la gely a unc ion o global ade and a el. Howe e , he e is a need o
ack pa hways and ends in ade o ensu e ha in e en ions espond o
hese ends, o he wise po en ially ha m ul alien axa will con inue o be
in oduced. Fo example, g ow h in in a-A ican ade will inc ease he isk o
impo ing in asi e axa o Sou h A ica (and expo ing hem o o he A ican
coun ies).
2. In oduc ion
a es (Low)
No applicable
( o egula ed axa)
( o un egula ed axa)
The e has been li le change since he
i s epo , and alien axa con inue o be
in en ionally and acciden ally in oduced
h ough a wide a ie y o pa hways. Du ing
he 2017–2019 pe iod, new axa we e
legally in oduced o biological con ol,
and we e acciden ally in oduced h ough
he imbe ade, shipping, as con aminan s
on impo ed animals, and h ough na u al
dispe sal om o he A ican coun ies whe e
hey had p e iously been in oduced.
In many cases egula ed axa ( o which he isks ha e been analysed and
ound o be accep able) a e expec ed o be a ne bene i o he coun y,
and in he case o biological con ol assis wi h he con ol o biological
in asions. The e o e, no speci ic end is desi able o egula ed axa, bu
wha is desi able is ha a p ocess is in place o egula e hem. The e has been
p og ess on his issue (see Chap e 5).
The a e o in oduc ion o un egula ed axa will inc ease as he olume o
ade and a el inc eases. The a e o in oduc ion o un egula ed axa is,
howe e , sensi i e o he in ensi eness o su ey ac i i ies and is likely o be
ela i ely un esponsi e o changes in ac ual in oduc ions.This is because
many acciden al in oduc ions can go unde ec ed o a long ime and a e
only disco e ed once a specialis su ey is unde aken (c . PSHB). Unless
pa hways a e iden i ied, p io i ised, and managed, po en ially ha m ul alien
axa will con inue o be acciden ally and illegally in oduced.
no change; inc ease; dec ease
17
Indica o T end
(con idence) Desi ed end Cu en s a us Ou look
3. Wi hin-
coun y pa hway
p ominence
No assessed No applicable In o ma ion was only ob ained o a ew
pa hways. Many pa hways a e likely playing
a socio-economic ole wi hin he coun y,
bu he ex en o his ole and how i has
changed since he i s epo is no known.
The e is no desi ed end o wi hin-coun y pa hway p ominence as i is a
unc ion o in e nal ade and anspo . Howe e , ends in hese pa hways
need o be acked o ensu e in e en ions a e in place whe e hey a e
needed. I his is no done ha m ul axa will con inue o sp ead, na i e axa
will be in oduced and possibly cause impac s in pa s o he coun y whe e
hey a e no na i e, and aluable asse s will be pu a isk.
4. Wi hin-coun y
dispe sal a es
No assessed
( o egula ed axa)
No applicable
( o un egula ed axa)
Na ional-scale da a has ye o be colla ed,
bu in o ma ion was a ailable o alien plan
axa in Sou h A ica’s na ional pa ks. Mos
alien plan s we e in en ionally in oduced o
na ional pa ks as o namen al plan s o we e
dispe sed by i e s and animals, and many
u ilised mul iple pa hways.
Inc eases in he olume o ade and a el will lead o inc eases in he
wi hin-coun y dispe sal a es o axa known o be in asi e, o ha a e
conside ed likely o become in asi e. The sp ead o egula ed in asi e axa is
o pa icula conce n, and while o he axa migh also sp ead, i is no clea
whe he his should be a conce n. Unless pa hways ha acili a e he wi hin-
coun y dispe sal o egula ed axa a e iden i ied, p io i ised, and managed,
he sp ead o hese axa will inc ease, and so he e will be inc eases in bo h
he a e o expansion o cu en ly in asi e axa, and in he likelihood ha
alien axa will ind a sui able pa o he coun y in which o become in asi e.
High le el
indica o
A. Ra e o
un egula ed
in oduc ion o
new species
(Low)
Be ween 2010 and 2019 app oxima ely 3
new axa we e in oduced pe yea ei he
acciden ally o in en ionally bu illegally. This
was lowe han he es ima ed a e du ing
he p e ious decade (~ 5 pe yea ).
Despi e he appa en ecen decline in in oduc ions, oppo uni ies o
he in oduc ion o alien species a e expec ed o inc ease as he olume
o ade and a el inc eases. Whe he his will esul in he in oduc ion o
mo e in asi e species will depend on he deg ee o which key pa hways
a e iden i ied and p io i ised o managemen . Imp o emen s o inspec ion,
managemen , and incu sion esponse a bo de would s eng hen Sou h
A ica’s biosecu i y.
no change; inc ease; dec ease
18
whi e ga den snail (Theba pisana) - C. G i i hs
19
3
SPECIES Key indings:
• The numbe o alien species in Sou h A ica has inc eased
om 1637 o 1880. A no able new in asi e species ha is
p edic ed o ha e massi e impac s is he polyphagous sho
hole bo e (PSHB).
• The impac s o 215 in asi e alien species ha e been o mally
assessed, se en o hese we e ound o cause majo o
massi e en i onmen al impac s, and one was ound o
cause majo socio-economic impac s. Impac assessmen s
a e needed o he o he alien species bu in many cases
he e is a lack o eliable da a.
• A na ional egis y o alien species will help cla i y
which species a e legally in he coun y, consolida e
in o ma ion on he s a us o in asi e species, and p o ide
an impo an e e ence esou ce o he biodi e si y and
b oade communi y. This second epo ep esen s a majo
s ep owa ds his, in pa icula by imp o ing how da a
a e p esen ed, how changes a e acked, and ensu ing
in o ma ion is p esen ed in a manne consis en wi h
in e na ional bes -p ac ice.
Key gaps (sha ed wi h Chap e 4: Si es):
• Da a on he dis ibu ion and abundance o alien species need
o be collec ed, colla ed, and in eg a ed in o na ional and
global da abases o acili a e he planning o in e en ions.
• The sys ema ic quan i ica ion o he impac s o biological
in asions would: acili a e he p io i isa ion o in e en ions
a ge ing pa icula species and pa icula si es; p o ide
he jus i ica ion o go e nmen in es men o con ol
biological in asions; and p o ide impo an backg ound o
communica e he issue o socie y.
Au ho s:
Tsungai A. Zengeya,
John R. Wilson
Con ibu ing Au ho s:
Ka elyn Faulkne ,
Lesley Hende son,
Nonkazimulo Mdidimba,
Siyasanga Miza,
Musa Mlambo,
Xoliswa Ndeleni,
T udy Paap,
Tama a Robinson,
Pie e Win e
Common myna (Ac ido he es is is) - R. Taylo
26
Indica o T end
(con idence)
Desi ed
end Cu en s a us Ou look
7. Abundance
o alien species
No assessed No new da a we e a ailable on he abundance o alien species
Some explo a o y wo k has been ini ia ed o es ima e he
abundance o alien plan species using emo e sensing, bu he e
a e s ill e y ew eliable da a sou ces.
Unde s anding ends in abundance is impo an i he e ec i eness o
managemen in e en ions a e o be moni o ed, and he magni ude
o u u e impac s p edic ed.
8. Impac o
alien species (Medium)
215 species ha e been assessed using an e idence-based
amewo k, and 7 species ha e been epo ed o cause majo o
massi e impac s using EICAT and 1 using SEICAT. Howe e , he e
was no eliable da a o he majo i y o he assessed species.
This ep esen s a shi om expe -based assessmen s o impac
o alien species o e idence-based assessmen s.
This emains a majo gap whe e de ailed esea ch is needed. Unless
he impac s o in asi e species can be quan i ied, a emp s o egula e
hem will emain con en ious in many cases.
Head-line
indica o
B. Numbe o
in asi e species
ha ha e majo
impac s
No assessed In he i s epo , 107 alien species we e iden i ied by expe s as
pa icula ly damaging. A p ocess is unde way o o mally assess
all in asi e species using he IUCN’s EICAT scheme. So a 215
species ha e been assessed, and eigh ound o cause majo o
massi e impac s ( i e ish, wo g asses, and one mammal species).
Howe e in many cases he e was a lack o eliable da a.
The numbe o alien species eco ded o ha e majo o massi e
nega i e impac s will inc ease as mo e species a e o mally assessed.
The o mal assessmen o he impac o alien species p o ides he
a ionale o egula ion and managemen , can imp o e compliance
and implemen a ion o in e en ion measu es, and assis o esol e
con lic s. Howe e , impac assessmen s a e hampe ed by a lack o
eliable da a o mos species. I his si ua ion pe sis s, egula ions will
con inue o be ulne able o legal challenges.
I is e y di icul o con ol in asi e species wi h majo impac s in a
way ha will educe such impac s o mode a e o mino , bu his has
a guably been achie ed by biological con ol o o e 30 in asi e axa.
On-going in es men in biological con ol will likely esul in mo e
such successes. I alien species ha cu en ly ha e mode a e o mino
impac s a e p e en ed om inc easing in abundance and ex en o
he poin whe e hey ha e majo impac s o , whe e easible, such
species a e e adica ed om Sou h A ica, hen signi ican e u ns on
in es men may also be made.
no change; inc ease; dec ease

27
4
SITES
Key indings:
• In asi e species ichness is highes in he Fynbos,
Sa anna, and G assland biomes (251, 241, and 230
species, espec i ely) and lowes in he Dese (9 species)
and Fo es (10 species) biomes. Es ima ed inc eases in
species ichness ange om 2 o 78 in indi idual biomes.
The Agulhas ma ine eco egion has he mos in asi e
species ollowed by he Sou he n Benguela and Na al
eco egions (41, 39, and 25 species, espec i ely).
• Rela i e abundance o in asi e plan s has been es ima ed
o some p o ec ed a eas. In asion in Sou h A ica’s
Na ional Pa ks we e ound o be mino o mode a e.
Howe e , he eliabili y o hese es ima es is low and
ine scale sys ema ic su eys ha e eco ded subs an ially
di e en es ima es. Should he c i e ia o managemen
plans be amended by he DFF E o include a simple
s anda dised moni o ing p o ocol, hen i should be
possible o ack hese alues o e ime.
• In asions cause majo impac s h ough biodi e si y loss,
educing wa e esou ces, educing he p oduc i i y o
angelands, and by exace ba ing i es. Fo example, annual
su ace wa e uno has been educed by be ween 1 and
321 m³ pe p ima y ca chmen , and ca ying capaci y
has been educed by 19 000 la ge li es ock uni s in he
g assland biome.
Key gaps (sha ed wi h Chap e 3: Species):
• Da a on he dis ibu ion and abundance o alien species
need o be collec ed, colla ed, and in eg a ed in o
na ional and global da abases o acili a e he planning
o in e en ions.
• The sys ema ic quan i ica ion o he impac s o
biological in asions would: acili a e he p io i isa ion o
in e en ions a ge ing pa icula species and pa icula
si es; p o ide he jus i ica ion o go e nmen in es men
o con ol biological in asions; and p o ide impo an
backg ound o communica e he issue o socie y.
Au ho s:
Tsungai A. Zengeya,
Ka elyn T. Faulkne ,
Tendamudzimu Munyai,
B ian W. an Wilgen,
John R. Wilson
Con ibu ing Au ho s:
Johan Baa d,
Nicholas Cole,
Nicola J. an Wilgen
clea ing o mesqui e (P oposis sp.) in he No he n Cape- J. Ba na d
28
9. Alien species ichness
10. Rela i e in asi e abundance
11. Impac o in asions
SITES
HIGH LEVEL
C E
majo impac s om in asions
4.1. Alien species ichness
The alien species epo ed om Sou h A ica in his second epo a e dis ibu ed ac oss he coun y, wi h
mos b oad-scale adminis a i e uni s and biogeog aphical egions being in aded by a a ie y o species
(Table 4.1). The eco ded in asi e species ichness has inc eased by 0–4.5% in indi idual p o inces, wi h he
highes in asi e species ichness s ill in Mpumalanga, while he No he n Cape s ill has he lowes ichness
(Table 4.1A). In asi e species ichness is highes in he Fynbos, Sa anna, and G assland biomes and lowes
in he Dese and Fo es biomes (Table 4.1B). Only 2 o he 22 wa e managemen a eas ha e no eco ded
in asi e animal species, bu he o he wa e managemen a eas only ha e a mos 4 species eco ded (Table
4.1C). 56 in asi e species ha e been eco ded in Sou h A ica’s ma ine eco egions, wi h he highes ichness
being eco ded in he Agulhas and Sou he n Benguela eco egions. To da e, no in asi e species ha e been
eco ded o sho e o in he ocean a ound he P ince Edwa d Islands (Table 4.1D).
Table 4.1. In asi e species ichness in Sou h A ica o di e en b oad-scale adminis a i e uni s and
biogeog aphical egions. The es ima es o change a e made wi h low con idence because mos epo ed
inc eases a ise om he o mal eco ding o species ha ha e p obably been p esen o some ime. Da a a e
Sou h A ican eco ds a ailable om GBIF (h ps://www.gbi .o g/) and he Sou he n A ican Plan In ade s
A las (SAPIA) o con inen al Sou h A ica, om Robinson e al. (2020) o ma ine eco- egions, and om
G e e e al. (2020) o he P ince Edwa d Islands. NA = no assessed. See Supplemen a y Tables S4.1–4.3 o
mo e de ails, Appendix 1 o he da a sou ces, and Appendix 2 o he ull species lis .
A) In asi e e es ial species and in asi e eshwa e plan species ichness pe p o ince.
P o ince / Region End o 2016 End o 2019 Change
Eas e n Cape 142 148 +6
F ee S a e 85 88 +3
Gau eng 131 133 +2
KwaZulu-Na al 182 184 +2
Limpopo 103 106 +3
Mpumalanga 204 210 +6
No he n Cape 64 64 0
No h Wes 81 81 0
Wes e n Cape 178 186 +8
P ince Edwa d Islands NA 35 NA
Indica o s co e ed in his chap e :
29
B) In asi e e es ial species and in asi e eshwa e plan species ichness pe biome.
Biome End o 2016 End o 2019 Change
Albany Thicke 86 108 +22
Dese 7 9 +2
Fynbos 173 251 +78
Fo es 7 10 +3
G assland 177 230 +53
Indian Ocean Coas al Bel 127 156 +29
Nama-Ka oo 61 76 +15
Sa anna 197 241 +44
Succulen Ka oo 47 55 +8
C) In asi e eshwa e animal species ichness pe wa e managemen a ea.
Wa e managemen a ea End o 2019
A-Limpopo 4
B-Oli an s No h 2
C-Vaal 2
D-O ange 3
E-Oli an s Wes 2
F-Bu els 0
G-Be g 3
H-B eede 1
J-Gou i z 1
K-K om 2
L-Gam oos 2
M-Swa kops 2
N-Sundays 1
P-Bushmans 0
Q-G ea Fish 2
R-Keiskamma 2
S-Kei 4
T-Mzim ubu 2
U-Mkomazi 2
V-Tugela 4
W-M olozi 3
X-Koma i 4
30
D) Ma ine in asi e species ichness pe ma ine eco egion.
Ma ine eco egion End o 2019
Agulhas 41
Delagoa 8
Na al 25
P ince Edwa d Island ma ine (o sho e) 0
Sou heas A lan ic (o sho e) 0
Sou he n Benguela 39
Sou hwes Indian (o sho e) 0
Da a a a ine -spa ial scale a e a ailable o in asi e bi d and plan species [one qua e -deg ee g id cell
(qdgc) is 630–710 km² a he la i udes o Sou h A ica]. Reco ded in asi e bi d species ichness appea s
o be highes a ound majo u ban cen es (Figu e 4.1A). This is likely because mos alien bi d species a e
commensal wi h humans, mos we e i s in oduced o u ban cen es, and because o g ea e sampling
a ound u ban a eas. The e ha e been ew changes in in asi e bi d species ichness a his scale wi h 15
qdgcs showing an inc ease in one bi d species and 1 qdgc showing an inc ease in wo species (Figu e 4.1B).
In asi e plan species ichness is simila ly high a ound u ban a eas (Figu e 4.1C). Pa s o he coun y ha e
shown no able inc eases in in asi e plan species ichness (Figu e 4.1D), howe e hese inc eases a e a di ec
esul o a dedica ed oad-side su ey om P e o ia h ough he F ee-S a e o he sou he n Cape ha was
conduc ed in Ma ch 2018 as pa o he SAPIA p ojec (Hende son 2018). This sugges s ha cu en pa e ns
o in asi e plan ichness a e s ill highly sensi i e o sampling e o . Da a on in asi e species ichness o
o he axonomic g oups ha e no been upda ed since he i s epo .
31
A) In asi e bi d species ichness B) Changes in in asi e bi d species ichness
D) Changes in in asi e plan species ichness
C) In asi e plan species ichness
Figu e 4.1. In asi e bi d and plan species ichness in Sou h A ica a he scale o a qua e -deg ee g id-cell as o Decembe 2019. Changes a e shown o he pe iod 2017–
2019. See Figu e S4.1 o mo e de ails. Reliable spa ial es ima es o ichness we e no a ailable o all alien species, al hough alien species ichness has been documen ed o
some u ban a eas (Box 4.1) and o some p o ec ed a eas (see sec ion 4.2).

32
4.2. Rela i e in asi e abundance
The dis ibu ion and co e o in asi e plan s ha e been es ima ed o some p o ec ed a eas¹ (e.g. Baa d
& K aaij 2019; Cheney e al. 2018; an Wilgen e al. 2016; an Wilgen & He bs 2017). Es ima es o ela i e
abundance we e p o ided by Cape Na u e and Ezem elo KwaZulu-Na al Wildli e o all o hei p o ec ed
a eas o he i s epo (see Box 5.2 and Figu e A1.9 in SANBI and CIB 2018). These es ima es we e no
upda ed o he second epo . Howe e , es ima es o ela i e abundance o he second epo we e
p o ided by he Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks. While no p o ec ed a eas a e cu en ly domina ed by in asi e
plan s (Table 4.2), se e al impo an in asions a e appa en . Fo example, pa s o he Ga den Rou e Na ional
Pa k a e domina ed by in asi e plan s al hough o e all he pa k is only mode a ely in aded. The eliabili y
o such es ima es is, howe e , ques ionable, as ine-scale sys ema ic su eys can p oduce es ima es ha a e
subs an ially di e en om da ase s used o planning alien plan con ol ope a ions (Cheney e al. 2018).
None heless ca e ully conside ed b oad-scale es ima es o ela i e abundance epea ed o e ime would
allow ends o be acked wi h a mode a e le el o con idence in u u e epo s. Achie ing consis ency
in acking ela i e abundance in p o ec ed a eas could be acili a ed by he inclusion o a s anda dised
moni o ing p o ocol in he c i e ia o he p epa a ion o managemen plans de eloped by he DFF E in
e ms o he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions.
Table 4.2. Es ima es o ela i e in asi e abundance in Sou h A ica’s p o ec ed a eas based on pe cen age
plan co e . Alien- ee means ha no alien species a e eco ded in he p o ec ed a ea.
Rela i e in asi e
abundance
Numbe o Cape
Na u e’s p o ec ed a eas
( i s epo )
Numbe o Ezem elo
KwaZulu-Na al Wildli e’s
p o ec ed a eas
( i s epo )
Numbe o SANPa k’s
p o ec ed a eas
(second epo )
Alien- ee 0 1 0
Mino <2% 19 59 14
Mode a e 2–10% 4 39 2
Ex ensi e 10–50% 1 22 0
Dominan >50% 0 0 0
1Sou h A ica has an ex ensi e ne wo k o p o ec ed a eas, which a e ei he Na ional Pa ks (managed by Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks) o p o incial
ese es (managed by he p o incial depa men s esponsible o en i onmen al conse a ion in each o he nine p o inces)
a sec ion o he Ga den Rou e Na ional Pa k showing a dominan in asion by alien Pinus species - B. an Wilgen
33
4.3. Impac o in asions
The esul s o se e al s udies ha assessed he impac s o biological in asions a a numbe o scales ha e been
published since he i s epo (Table 4.3). These s udies s eng hen he e idence base o quan i ying he
magni ude o impac s, bu o e all le els o con idence in hese es ima es emain low. This is because se e al
o he s udies a e based on models in which assump ions ha e had o be made ha we e acknowledged
o be enuous, and esul s s ill ha e o be ex apola ed om small scales (e.g. se e al hec a es) o la ge
scales (e.g. p o inces, biomes o wa e managemen a eas). The impac s a pa icula si es a e, howe e ,
inc easingly well unde s ood (e.g. u ban a eas, Box 4.1).
Table 4.3. Findings o esea ch s udies published in he pe iod 2017–2019 wi h compa isons o indica o
alues om he i s epo whe e ele an .
A ec ed
sec o
Value in he i s epo Value in he second
epo
Di e ence Re e ence
Biodi e si y Mode a e impac s on
biodi e si y in ac ness o
Sou h A ica
Majo impac s on
biodi e si y o e 10–50ha
Scales di e , so no
compa able
Mos e e
al. 2017
Biodi e si y No assessed All majo axonomic
g oups ha e species
di ec ly h ea ened by
in asions acco ding o
Red Lis assessmen s.
In asi e species a e he
leading p essu e on na i e
amphibians and eshwa e
ishes. In asi e species we e
he p ima y d i e o some
species, especially plan s
and bu e lies, being lis ed
in highe ca ego ies o
h ea .
No applicable SANBI
2019 (The
Na ional
Biodi e si y
Assessmen )
Soil No assessed Mode a e impac s h ough
soil nu ien en ichmen
ollowing in asion o e
10–50ha
No applicable Nsikani e al.
2017, 2018
Fi e se e i y No assessed Majo impac s on i e
se e i y o e ~10 qdgcs
No applicable K aaij e al.
2018
Wa e uno Annual Su ace wa e
uno educed by 1–321
million m3 pe p ima y
ca chmen
Annual Su ace wa e uno
educed by 1.15–2.11, and
7.98 million m3 o wo
ca chmen s
No change P es on e al.
2018
Rangeland
ca ying
capaci y
Reduc ion in ca ying
capaci y o 19000 la ge
li es ock uni s in he
g assland biome
Reduc ion in ca ying
capaci y o 75% ( om 5 o
1.25 la ge li es ock uni s on
10ha)
Scales di e , so no
compa able
Yapi e al.
2018
Mone a y
alue o
impac s on
si es
Annual losses o
ZAR 5 864 million and
ZAR 337 million o wa e
esou ces and li es ock
p oduc ion espec i ely o
Sou h A ica
Losses ha e ne p esen
alue (NPV) o ZAR34
and 1.9 billion o wa e
esou ces and li es ock
p oduc ion espec i ely o
Sou h A ica
Annual losses
epo ed in he i s
epo would ha e
o be con e ed o
NPV (6% discoun
a e o e 25 yea s)
o be able o
compa e es ima es.
S a o d e
al. 2017
34
U ban in asions
Box 4.1
In asions in u ban a eas a e pa icula ly no ewo hy bo h gi en he legal equi emen o municipali ies
o epo on biological in asions, and as u ban a eas a e o en he ini ial si es o in oduc ions om
which in asions sp ead (McLean e al. 2017; Padayachee e al. 2017).
The e has been signi ican esea ch on u ban in asions since he i s epo , wi h he publica ion o
a special issue o he jou nal Biological In asions in Decembe 2017 (Gae ne e al. 2017a; h ps://
link.sp inge .com/jou nal/10530/19/12/page/1), and he de elopmen o he Global U ban Biological
In asions Conso ium o which Sou h A ica is a pa (h ps://cubes-labs.com/gubic/).
P o ocols o mapping alien plan s in owns (McLean e al. 2018) and iden i ying si es o con ingency
planning (Padayachee e al. 2019) ha e been de eloped; a amewo k has been p oposed o unde s and
he u ban-na u al g adien as a il e o in asions (Holmes e al. 2018); and decision suppo ools o
assis wi h managemen planning (Gae ne e al. 2017b) and p io i isa ion ha e been de eloped
(Po gie e e al. 2018).
Mo eo e , we now ha e a be e unde s anding o he ole o u ban a eas as ho spo s and sen inel si es
o in asions (Paap e al. 2017), and o bo h pe cei ed and ealised impac s (Po gie e e al. 2018, 2019a,
2019b, 2020). The e ha e also been signi ican in es men s in con ol ope a ions (in pa icula by he
Ci y o Cape Town and eThekwini) ocusing on bo h plan s and animals (Da ies e al. 2020).
Made ia ine (An ede a co di olia) - N. Cole
35
4.4. T ends in si e indica o s
Indica o T end
(con idence)
Desi ed
end Cu en s a us Ou look
9. Alien
species
ichness (Low)
In asi e bi d and plan species ichness emain high a ound majo u ban
cen es wi h minimal changes excep o some appa en changes ha
a e p obably due o localised sampling e o s. In asi e species ichness
in ma ine eco egions was assessed o he i s ime and he highes
in asi e species ichness was eco ded in he Agulhas (41 alien species),
Sou he n Benguela (39 species), and Na al (25 species) eco egions.
The de elopmen o a obus and eliable moni o ing me hodology
should be seen as a p io i y, because in he absence o eliable
in o ma ion on species ichness and ela i e abundance, nei he he
magni ude o impac s no he e ec i eness o managemen can be
p ope ly assessed.
10. Rela i e
in asi e
abundance
No assessed The e a e no coun y-wide es ima es o he ela i e abundance o
in asi e species, bu es ima es o in asi e plan s in p o ec ed a eas
managed by he Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks indica e in asions a e
mino o mode a e. Howe e , he eliabili y o hese es ima es is low, as
some ine scale sys ema ic su eys ha e eco ded subs an ially di e en
es ima es.
Achie ing consis ency in acking ela i e abundance in p o ec ed
a eas could be acili a ed by he inclusion o a s anda dised moni o ing
p o ocol in he c i e ia o he p epa a ion o managemen plans
which we e de eloped by he DFF E in e ms o he A&IS egula ions.
I is expec ed ha exis ing in asions will densi y unless managed. The
cos s o con ol and he impac s caused o en inc ease d ama ically
wi h he le el o in asion.
11. Impac o
in asions
No assessed Se e al s udies ha e explo ed he impac o in asions a pa icula si es
since 2017, bu hese we e ei he done using di e en app oaches o
we e done a di e en scales and a e he e o e unsui able o d awing
obus gene al conclusions. Howe e , i is clea ha alien species
con inue o cause majo impac s h ough biodi e si y loss, educ ions in
wa e esou ces, and educ ions in angeland p oduc i i y. In addi ion,
alien species exace ba e i es and al e impo an ecosys em unc ions
such as nu ien dynamics.
Impac s a e likely o inc ease as in asi e species con inue o sp ead,
and as con ol e o s a e scaled back in esponse o iscal cons ain s.
This unde sco es he impo ance o e- ocussing con ol e o s on
ag eed p io i y si es, and aking s eps o imp o e con ol e ec i eness.
High-le el
indica o
C. Ex en o
a ea ha
su e s majo
impac s om
in asions
No assessed Biological in asions con inue o cause majo impac s on bo h u al
and u ban communi ies by, amongs o he hings, educing Sou h
A ica’s wa e esou ces, deg ading pas u eland, and exace ba ing i es.
Biological in asions con inue o con ibu e o biodi e si y loss and
ecosys em change.
I con ol e o s ocus on p io i y si es (e.g. si es ha p o ide wa e
o Cape Town’s dams) hen he e will be signi ican e u ns on
in es men . Howe e , wi hou ag eemen on p io i ies, he e is a
subs an ial isk ha con ol could emain ine ec i e, and he a ea ha
su e s om majo impac s will con inue o g ow.
Es ima es o he ull magni ude o impac s equi e mo e accu a e
assessmen s o he ex en o in asions. This, in u n, equi es
e ec i e mapping o he a eas in aded and moni o ing o sp ead.
Such moni o ing is cu en ly lacking, and wi hou which e ec i e
p io i isa ion is no possible.
no change; inc ease; dec ease
42
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11
2011/12
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
2016/17
2017/18
2018/19
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Money spen
(ZAR millions)
Financial yea
Figu e 5.1. The amoun o money spen (unadjus ed o in la ion) by he DFF E’s Na u al Resou ce
Managemen p og ammes on biological in asions in Sou h A ica. Da a a e om annual epo s as
summa ised on he si e h ps://si es.google.com/si e/w wplanning downloaded Decembe 2019; he
inancial yea is om 1 Ap il o 31 Ma ch.
5.2. Inpu – money spen
The DFF E’s Na u al Resou ce Managemen p og ammes con inue o spend a signi ican amoun o money
on con olling biological in asions, well o e a billion ZAR pe yea (Figu e 5.1). Howe e , while he absolu e
annual spending by DFF E has s ayed ai ly cons an o e he pe iod 2012–2019, in eal e ms his ep esen s
a decline. The expendi u e is, howe e , an unde es ima e, as i does no ake in o accoun unds alloca ed
o he con ol o in asi e species by, o example, o he go e nmen depa men s, na ional and p o incial
conse a ion bodies, me os and municipali ies, NGOs, and he p i a e sec o .
Wi h espec o spending on indi idual species, in o ma ion supplied by a ange o implemen ing agencies
indica ed ha a leas 237 in asi e species we e a ge ed o managemen (Table 5.1, o ull de ails see Tables
S5.6 and S5.9). The spending pe species is highly skewed – 45% o he money was spen on con olling
black wa le (Acacia mea nsii), and 77.2% o all money spen was di ec ed a only en species (Figu e 5.2).

43
Table 5.1. Spending by selec ed o ganisa ions on he managemen o in asi e species in Sou h A ica in
2018 and 2019. No e ha he same species can be a ge ed by se e al agencies (i.e. he o al numbe o
species a ge ed in Sou h A ica is no he sum o he hi d column). These cos s will gene ally include some
o e heads, hough i is no clea i his is ull cos accoun ing.
O ganisa ion Money spen
(ZAR)
Numbe o
species
No es
DFF E Na u al Resou ce
Managemen (NRM)
p og ammes
662012 652 108 The alue includes he o al expended by Wo king
o Wa e on con ac s o implemen ing agen s,
plus 30% o co e o e heads.
Sou h A ican Na ional
Pa ks
180 535 11 The species ea ed a e addi ional o hose unded
by W W in Na ional Pa ks.
CapeNa u e 4 093 214 21 The species ea ed a e addi ional o hose unded
by W W in CapeNa u e`s p o ec ed a eas.
Ag icul u al Resea ch
Council and he Cen e
o Biological Con ol a
Rhodes Uni e si y
111133 897 68 Funding o biological con ol esea ch and
implemen a ion p o ided by NRM
SANBI 20170000 63 In es men o assess he easibili y o e adica ion
and a emp e adica ion p o ided by NRM
BioSecu i y.
Figu e 5.2. The amoun o money spen in 2018 and 2019 by he DFF E on con olling indi idual in asi e
plan axa. The e a e 227 o he axa.
Lan ana cama a
A undo donax
Pa henium hys e opho us
P osopis spp.
Caesalpinia decape ala
Acacia cyclops
Acacia dealba a
Campuloclinium mac ocephalum
Acacia saligna
Acacia mea nsii
Money spen in 2018 and 2019 (millions o ZAR)
0 100 200 300
O he axa
44
5.3. Inpu – planning co e age
The e has been no change o he p opo ion o pa hways o in oduc ion wi h managemen plans in place
~ (80%). The e has been no a emp o p io i ise pa hways o managemen , and consequen ly no o mal
managemen plans o pa hways ha e been de eloped by he DFF E. Al hough ballas wa e managemen
plans ha e been d a ed o some Sou h A ican po s, hey appea no o ha e been implemen ed (Cali z
2012). In o de o manage he species ha a e anspo ed on he hulls o ships, he T ansne Po s Au ho i y
plans o in oduce in-wa e hull cleaning, howe e , i appea s ha his has no ye been pu in o p ac ice.
See Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.7 o mo e de ails.
As highligh ed in he i s epo , sec ion 75(5) o NEM:BA empowe s he Minis e o es ablish a body o
co-o dina e species-speci ic managemen plans, bu no e idence was ound ha such a body had been
es ablished. No species ha e dedica ed managemen plans in place. Those lis ed in he i s epo o
pompom weed (Campuloclinium mac ocephalum) and pa henium weed (Pa henium hys e opho us), and
o axa in he gene a Acacia and P osopis, and in he amily Cac aceae a e ye o be o mally app o ed.
Species-speci ic e adica ion managemen plans ha e been p epa ed o some species (Table S5.6), bu none
ha e ye been o mally app o ed, hough i is no clea wha he p ocess o his is. In addi ion, he quali y
o he plans has no ye been assessed. A de ailed plan o he e adica ion o house mouse (Mus musculus)
om Ma ion Island has also ecen ly been de eloped (P es on e al. 2019).
Since he i s epo , 25 new si e managemen plans co e ing 648 294 hec a es ha e been submi ed,
inc easing he p opo ion o si es co e ed by managemen plans o 4.5% o he coun y (Table S5.8).
Plans o he Malo i D akensbe g Conse a ion and De elopmen A ea (312 105 hec a es¹), Bu alo Ci y
Me opoli an Municipali y (250 000 hec a es), and uMdoni Local Municipali y (23 800 hec a es) cons i u e
he la ges addi ions. Th ee si e managemen plans we e submi ed by p i a e landowne s, wo o which
we e submi ed pu suan o he issuing o p e-di ec i es on he ele an landowne s.
The si e managemen plans we e assessed using he guidelines ou lined in he i s epo (see sec ion 7.4
in SANBI and CIB 2018). The majo i y (84%) o he new plans we e assessed as pa ially adequa e. Th ee
plans we e ound o be adequa e and one was inadequa e. Mos si e managemen plans iden i ied he
alien plan species ha we e p esen , de ailed gene al measu es ha can be aken o hei con ol, and
desc ibed in aded si es. Howe e , ew o he plans linked he measu es o a speci ic ime ame and budge
o e iewed he e icacy o p e ious con ol e o s.
5.4. Ou pu – pa hways ea ed
Since he i s epo he e has been no change o he p opo ion o pa hways equi ing managemen ha
a e being managed (77%). Inspec ion ope a ions by he DFF E a OR Tambo In e na ional Ai po ha e
been expanded and now co e a g ea e numbe o loca ions including he passenge e minals, ca go
e minal, and mail cen e. En i onmen al managemen inspec o s use he ‘Li escanne ’ applica ion o assis
wi h iden i ying species a po s o en y, and in cases whe e he inspec o canno iden i y he axon, a DNA
analysis (pe o med o -si e a a labo a o y) is used o assess whe he he e is compliance. This analysis can
ake some ime and in ins ances o compliance he impo ed specimens a e only eleased o hei owne
once he esul s a e e u ned. This also leads o a delay in seizu es and a es s. Howe e , a new ool, he lab-
in-a-box, which was ecen ly de eloped, migh in u u e enable inspec o s o pe o m a DNA analysis a he
po o en y, and educe he ime equi ed o assess compliance. Du ing he 2017/2018 and 2018/2019
inancial yea s he DALRRD inspec ed mo e han 180 000 animal and plan p oduc impo pe mi s, and 3
658 animal and plan impo s. Addi ionally, o e 12 000 plan impo samples we e es ed o qua an ine
pes s by Plan Inspec ion Se ices. See Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.8 o u he de ails.
1The Malo i D akensbe g Conse a ion and De elopmen A ea (312 105 hec a es) is he ans on ie conse a ion a ea ha s addles he no heas e n
bo de be ween Leso ho and Sou h A ica. The co e age o he si e managemen plan epo ed he e only e lec s he ex en o which he si e
managemen plan co e s he Sou h A ican pa .
45
5.5. Ou pu – species ea ed
Wi hou o mal species-speci ic plans in place, i is no possible o e alua e he deg ee o which managemen
is a ge ing he species ha need o be ea ed. O he 556 lis ed in asi e axa, 189 axa (34%) we e subjec ed
o some o m o managemen in 2018 and 2019. By compa ison, 136 axa (24%) we e epo ed o be subjec
o egula managemen in he i s epo (Table 5.2, see Table S5.9 o a ull lis ). I is possible ha , o some
axa, he need o u he managemen in e en ions migh ha e been assessed and deemed o be no
needed.
Table 5.2. Numbe o axa¹ ha we e subjec ed o managemen in e en ions, by egula o y o o he
ca ego y. NA = no applicable. See Supplemen a y Table S5.9 o a ull lis .
Regula o y
o o he
ca ego y
Desc ip ion Numbe o
species o
axa a ge ed
Numbe o
species o
axa lis ed
1a Taxa ha a e a ge s o e adica ion 38 52
1b Taxa ha mus be con olled 98 248
2Taxa whe e cul i a ion, owne ship and ade a e allowed
subjec o he issuing o a pe mi , and ha mus be
con olled in he absence o a pe mi
17 75
3Taxa ha a e subjec o exemp ions, bu ha canno be
u he aded o p opaga ed, and o he wise mus be
con olled
6 44
Con ex -
speci ic
Taxa ha a e lis ed in di e en ca ego ies depending on he
a ea o ecosys em in which hey a e ound
30 137
P ohibi ed Taxa ha a e assumed o no ye be in he coun y, and o
which a pe mi may no be issued
1 560
SUSPECT Ac onym o ‘Species Unde Su eillance o Possible E adica ion
o Con ainmen Ta ge ing’, no lis ed in he egula ions
21 NA
Unlis ed
alien species
Alien axa ha a e no lis ed in he egula ions 23 NA
Unlis ed
ex alimi al
species
Taxa na i e o a pa o Sou h A ica ha ha e been
ansloca ed ou side o hei na u al dis ibu ion ange, bu
ha a e no lis ed in he egula ions
3 NA
A numbe o new species-speci ic con ol in e en ions ha e been epo ed (Table 5.3). The applica ion o
ea men s o emo e in asi e eshwa e ishes has been e y p omising, and he e a e se e al no able
success s o ies whe e na i e biodi e si y has eco e ed wi hin a ew yea s o ea men . These p ojec s
in ol ed a ange o s akeholde s and igo ous moni o ing o assess whe he he e was any ad e se impac
o he ea men . This sugges s ha his echnique is iable in Sou h A ica.
Fou new biological con ol agen s o in asi e plan s we e eleased in Sou h A ica du ing 2017–2019 and
h ee we e eleased in 2016 ha we e no epo ed on in he i s epo (Table S5.10). These we e eleased
agains he ollowing a ge s: Bailey’s wa le (Acacia baileyana) and g een wa le (A. decu ens) [also a acks
sil e wa le (A. dealba a) and pea l acacia (A. podaly ii olia)], Madei a ine (An ede a co di olia), dense wa e
weed (Ege ia densa), lan ana (Lan ana cama a), Aus alian albizia (Pa ase ian hes lophan ha), Mexican
sun lowe (Ti honia di e si olia), and whi e- lowe ed wande ing Jew (T adescan ia luminensis). No new
biological con ol agen s we e eleased agains in asi e animals o ungi.
1In some cases, a genus o amily may be egula ed ins ead o a species
46
Table 5.3. In asi e axa o which managemen in e en ions we e ini ia ed in he pe iod 2017–2019, o o which in o ma ion no inco po a ed in he i s epo was
ob ained. See Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.2 o de ini ions o he legal lis ing ca ego ies o he NEM:BA A&IS Regula ions. The ‘ex en o ea men ’ is he deg ee
o which popula ions equi ing managemen a e being managed and he ‘quali y o ea men ’ is based on an assessmen o he quali y o in e en ion in e ms o bes
p ac ice as ou lined in indica o 16, species ea ed. The ‘e ec i eness o ea men ’ and he ‘ad e se impac s o ea men ’ a e sco ed as pe indica o 19, e ec i eness o
species ea men s. See he indica o ac shee s supplemen a y o Wilson e al. (2018) o de ails.
Scien i ic
name
Ve nacula
name
Regula o y
ca ego y
Ex en o
ea men
Quali y o
ea men
E ec i eness
o ea men
Ad e se
impac s o
ea men
No es Sou ce
Anas
pla y hynchos
malla d 2 Pa ial Adequa e E ec i e No eco ded Localised emo als o indi iduals a e aking place a
some si es. Managemen goals a e no igh ly de ined,
so ha he le el o success canno be assessed.
Da ies e al.
2020
Aus alian
Acacia species
wa les 1b (A. saligna,
A. cyclops, A.
longi olia); 2
(A. mea nsii)
Pa ial Pa ially
adequa e
E ec i e Minimal Models based on da a om Table Moun ain Na ional
Pa k clea ly demons a e ha he goal o achie ing
long- e m con ol will no be achie ed unless he
e iciency o con ol p ojec s is imp o ed.
Cheney e
al. 2018
Ca cinus maenas Eu opean
sho e c ab
1b Pa ial Adequa e Ine ec i e Minimal A managemen ial subs an ially educed he
popula ion o c abs in one o he in aded ha bou s,
howe e he popula ion quickly ebounded once
managemen ceased and so managemen would
need o be sus ained. Na ion-wide e adica ion
was conside ed no o be easible. As he bene i s
o managemen a e unclea and cu en ly he
likelihood o sp ead and impac appea low, i was
ecommended ha no u he con ol be employed
a his s age. The aps caugh o he o ganisms as
well as he in ended a ge (c abs). The majo i y o
his byca ch was eleased appa en ly unha med once
he aps we e inspec ed, al hough some co mo an s
we e caugh in he aps and d owned.
Mabin e al.
2017, 2020
Cla ias
ga iepinus
sha p oo h
ca ish
No egula ed Pa ial Pa ially
adequa e
Ine ec i e Minimal The a emp a ex i pa ion om one dam was no
success ul.
Da ies e al.
2020
47
Scien i ic
name
Ve nacula
name
Regula o y
ca ego y
Ex en o
ea men
Quali y o
ea men
E ec i eness
o ea men
Ad e se
impac s o
ea men
No es Sou ce
Co us splendens house c ow 1a Subs an ial Pa ially
adequa e
Pa ially
e ec i e
Minimal A emp s o ex i pa e he species om wo ci ies ha e
made good p og ess, bu ex i pa ion has no ye been
achie ed in ei he case. Con ol p og ammes ha e no
been con inuous and con ol becomes much mo e
di icul when numbe s a e low (bo h as he c ows
lea n quickly and as hey change beha iou a low
densi ies). The species is now p esen in wo mo e
coas al ci ies whe e managemen p ojec s ha e no
ye been ini ia ed. The likelihood o e-colonisa ion has
no been assessed, and so i is unclea i e adica ion is
a easible goal.
Da ies e al.
2020
Cyp inus ca pio common
ca p
Con ex -
speci ic
Pa ial Inadequa e Ine ec i e No known The a emp a ex i pa ion om one we land was no
success ul.
Da ies e al.
2020
Mic op e us
punc ula us
spo ed bass Con ex -
speci ic
Pa ial Adequa e Pe manen Majo bu
ansien ;
~ ull
eco e y is
appa en
wi hin a ew
yea s.
The species was success ully ex i pa ed om one
s e ch o i e . Fish we e cap u ed by chasing hem
in o gill ne s o by ca ching hem wi h hand ne s.
The emainde we e emo ed using spea guns, seine
ne s, and by back-pack elec o ishing. Th ee yea s
a e he ex i pa ion, na i e ie y ed in (Pseudoba bus
phlege hon) and Cape galaxias (Galaxias zeb a us)
we e obse ed in pools whe e hey had been absen
du ing he bass in asion.
an de
Wal e al.
2019
Onco hynchus
mykiss
ainbow
ou
No egula ed Pa ial Inadequa e Ine ec i e Majo bu
ansien
The a emp a ex i pa ion om one s e ch o i e
was no success ul.
Shel on e
al. 2017
P ocamba us
cla kii
ed swamp
c ay ish
P ohibi ed Pa ial Inadequa e Ine ec i e No known The a emp a ex i pa ion om one dam was no
success ul.
Nunes e al.
2017b
Sal inia moles a Ka iba weed 1b Comple e Adequa e E ec i e None Upda e on e ec i eness o biological con ol
(comple e o subs an ial con ol was achie ed a
di e en si es).
Ma in e al.
2018

48
5.6. Ou pu – si es ea ed
A numbe o new si e-speci ic con ol in e en ions ha e been iden i ied (Table 5.4). In ela ion o p i a e
land, a pe son who is he owne o land on which a lis ed alien species occu s has a du y o ca e in ela ion o
hose species. They a e equi ed o no i y he compe en au ho i y o he occu ence o such in asi e species
on hei land; o ake s eps o con ol and e adica e he lis ed alien species and o p e en i om sp eading;
and o ake all he s eps equi ed o p e en o minimise ha m caused by he in asi e species o biodi e si y.
In e ms o egula ion 13 o he A&IS Regula ions, he Depa men is obliga ed o es ablish and main ain
egis e s o no i ica ions ecei ed om landowne s and di ec i es se ed on landowne s o non-compliance
wi h NEM:BA and he A&IS Regula ions and o p o ide he DFF E and SANBI wi h copies o hose egis e s.
SANBI has no been p o ided wi h any copies o such egis e s by he DFF E. I is he e o e unclea i any
no ices we e ecei ed om landowne s since he i s epo . Howe e , de ails o di ec i es and p e-di ec i es
issued in e ms o he A&IS Regula ions a e eco ded in he Depa men ’s o e all en i onmen al compliance
and en o cemen egis e s.
In o ma ion on he ull numbe o p e-compliance no ices, compliance no ices, p e-di ec i es o di ec i es
ha ha e been issued subsequen o hose epo ed in he i s epo we e no made a ailable (see
Table S5.11 o a p oposed o ma o p esen ing hese da a). The ype o p ope ies se ed wi h no ices
and di ec i es o es ic ed ac i i ies wi h lis ed alien and in asi e animal species we e mainly p i a e
landowne s and nu se ies (Table S5.12). En o cemen ac ion was also aken agains some o gans o s a e,
such as municipali ies, na ional depa men s, and managemen au ho i ies o p o ec ed a eas. O e he
pe iod 2017–2019, six non-compliance cases agains p i a e landowne s we e handed o e o he Na ional
P osecu ing Au ho i y (NPA) o c iminal p osecu ion (Table S5.12). The NPA has secu ed one c iminal
con ic ion (Box 5.2, see p.52), while he o he i e cases a e s ill pending.
5.7. Ou come – e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s
A he ime o he i s epo , he e ec i eness o pa hway ea men s could be es ima ed o 25 o he 44
pa hways, and o all bu one o hese pa hways he e ha e been no changes o hese es ima es. Howe e , o
mos pa hways (61%) managemen appea s o be ei he absen o ine ec i e. The e ec i eness o pa hway
ea men s can be es ima ed o he i s ime o se e al pa hways. Lis ed alien species a e being sold in
nu se ies (C onin e al. 2017) and as pa o he medicinal plan ade (By ne e al. 2017), and undocumen ed
bamboo species ha e been impo ed o a numbe o pu poses ela ed o he g een economy [e.g. o
bio uel and mine ehabili a ion (Cana an e al. 2019)]. Fu he mo e, o he inspec ions pe o med by he
DALRRD du ing he 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 inancial yea s, 47% o he animal and plan p oduc impo
pe mi s inspec ed we e non-complian due o in alid documen a ion, con amina ion o he de ec ion
o qua an ine pes s; 8% o he animal and plan impo s inspec ed we e qua an ined; and 62 qua an ine
pes in e cep ions we e eco ded by Plan Inspec ion Se ices [including E iophyidae Aculus schlec endali
and A. c . wagnoni), Pseudomonas sp., and Paenibacillus la ae]. The e o e, o he eigh pa hways o which
managemen e ec i eness could be assessed o he i s ime, managemen appea s o be ei he absen
o ine ec i e (Table S5.13). Addi ionally, u he esea ch in o he pe ade has highligh ed ha p ohibi ed
and egula ed species a e being sold (Nunes e al. 2017a; Nelu ule, 2018), which suppo s he assessmen
in he i s epo ha managemen o his pa hway is ei he absen o ine ec i e. See he Supplemen a y
Ma e ial sec ion S5.11 o mo e de ails.
49
Table 5.4. In aded si es o which managemen in e en ions ha e been ini ia ed and/o assessed in 2017–2019 o whe e in o ma ion om ea lie yea s has been ob ained.
Si e Pu pose Quali y o
ea men
E ec i eness
o ea men
Ad e se
impac s o
ea men
Managemen no es Sou ce
All Sou h
A ican
Na ional Pa ks
Assessmen o alien plan
da a, and i s use ulness o
suppo ing decision-making
Pa ially
adequa e
E ec i e Mino Mul iple goals, one ous epo ing equi emen s, and low-quali y
moni o ing da a hampe he abili y o make in o med (and adap i e)
managemen decisions.
Lo us 2013
Table
Moun ain
Na ional Pa k
Assessmen o impac o da a
accu acy on e iciency o
alien plan con ol
Pa ially
adequa e
E ec i e Mino Low-quali y da a used o in o m managemen led o poo ly-in o med
managemen decisions and inc eased cos s. Imp o ing da a quali y
would lead o cos -sa ings and mo e e ec i e managemen .
Cheney e al.
2018
Ca chmen s
o he Ci y o
Cape Town
To educe wa e loss om
in aded ca chmen a eas
Pa ially
adequa e
E ec i e Mino These p ojec s a e unded by wo NGOs (The Na u e Conse ancy and
WWF Sou h A ica), in collabo a ion wi h DFF E NRM p og ammes and
CapeNa u e. No da a a e ye a ailable on p og ess owa ds goals.
Box S5.1
Be g Ri e ,
Wes e n Cape
Assessmen o medium-
e m ege a ion eco e y
a e emo al o Eucalyp us
camaldulensis
Pa ially
adequa e
E ec i e Mino Na i e ege a ion was on a posi i e eco e y ajec o y ollowing
emo al o eucalyp s, bu he si e is a isk o e-in asion.
Ruwanza e
al. 2018
Paa de lei
and Die Oog
we land, Cape
Town
Ex i pa ion o ou species o
alien ish om he we lands
Adequa e E ec i e Majo , bu
ansien
In 2005, Paa de lei was ea ed by ae ial sp aying o Ro enone and
o e 35 ons o ish, mos ly common ca p (Cyp inus ca pio) we e
emo ed a e ea men . The ish ha e no been de ec ed since he
e mina ion o moni o ing in 2014, so he ope a ion appea s o ha e
succeeded. A Die Oog, Ro enone ea men was ini ia ed in 2005. This
success ully emo ed all he alien ish species and es o ed ecosys em
unc ioning. The ish ha e no been de ec ed since and he we land
is in a good condi ion and suppo s a numbe o na i e bi d and
amphibian species.
Da ies e al.
2020
Lou ens Ri e ,
Wes e n Cape
Ex i pa ion o h ee species o
alien ish om an o -s eam
dam
Adequa e E ec i e Majo , bu
ansien
An o -s eam dam in he Lou ens Ri e ca chmen was ea ed wi h
Ro enone in 2005 o emo e h ee alien ish species. Remo al o he
in asi e species allowed o he es ablishmen o a e uge popula ion
o na i e ish om he Lou ens Ri e . The ex i pa ion was success ul.
Da ies e al.
2020
50
5.8. Ou come – e ec i eness o species ea men s
Mos in asi e species a e subjec ed o mechanical and chemical con ol, bu because he ou comes a e
no moni o ed, essen ially he only in o ma ion a ailable on he e ec i eness o species ea men s is on
hose species a ge ed o e adica ion, o o biological con ol. No alien species has been o mally decla ed
as e adica ed du ing he pas h ee yea s ( an Wilgen e al. 2020c). The e a e 42 alien plan species lis ed as
ca ego y 1a o con inen al Sou h A ica, i.e. a e na ion-wide e adica ion a ge s. Howe e , only a ound a hi d
o hese species a e s ill he ocus o on-going con ol e o s aimed a e adica ion – many a e suspec ed o
be inapp op ia e a ge s o e adica ion (see Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S5.9). The misma ch be ween
legal s a us and easibili y o e adica ion highligh s he need o se e adica ion as he managemen goal
only once a o mal de ailed assessmen o e adica ion easibili y has been conduc ed. Such assessmen s
equi e in es men in delimi a ion and con ol ials. I is also clea ha he e is a subs an ial in asion deb in
he coun y – many alien plan s ha e only na u alised o in aded a ew si es, and he e a e likely o be many
ha a e s ill o be de ec ed – a signi ican numbe o hese new de ec ions a e likely o be sui able a ge s
o e adica ion. Sui able moni o ing da a a e no ou inely collec ed so i is di icul o judge whe he hese
e adica ion campaigns a e making app op ia e p og ess o wha , i any, emedial measu es a e needed.
The biological con ol o in asi e plan species was assessed in he i s epo as being no ably success ul
o a small numbe o species. A u he s udy has con i med his assessmen o he in asi e aqua ic
plan Ka iba weed (Sal inia moles a) (Ma in e al. 2018: Table 5.3). These au ho s no ed ha he a e age
pe cen age co e o wa e bodies by S. moles a declined om 51–100% o 0–5% be ween 2003 and 2017.
Obse a ions sugges ed ha biological con ol o S. moles a was mos e ec i e a small si es and mo e
di icul a la ge and shaded si es, and ha in some cases epea eleases o he biological con ol agen
would be equi ed.
The biological con ol communi y in Sou h A ica conduc s a comp ehensi e e iew o he e ec i eness
o biological con ol o add essing in asi e plan s, a oughly 10-yea in e als. These e iews ha e been
conduc ed h ee imes, he mos ecen was published in 2011 (Mo an e al. 2011). The ou h e iew, which
will co e he pe iod 2011 o 2020, is cu en ly in p epa a ion, and is expec ed o be published in 2021.
5.9. Ou come – e ec i eness o si e ea men s
As o he i s epo he e ec i eness o si e ea men s has been e alua ed o a ew speci ic si es o p ojec s
(e.g. Table 5.4; Box 5.3, see p.53). In addi ion, limi ed in o ma ion on he e ec i eness o con ol ope a ions
was supplied by he DFF E NRM p og ammes. The in o ma ion a ailable was based on a sample o 1 130
managemen uni s (indi idual a eas on which alien plan clea ing con ac s we e awa ded be ween 1998
and 2018), d awn om 68 p ojec s ac oss all nine p o inces. The sample co e ed app oxima ely 217 000 ha,
o abou 5% o all managemen uni s in he coun y. Ini ial densi ies we e eco ded on each managemen
uni , which was hen subjec ed o ini ial clea ing and a a ying numbe o ollow-up clea ings (Figu e S5.3).
I is di icul o d aw obus conclusions om his, as he ou comes o he in e en ions a e no measu ed.
In addi ion, he assessmen is based on da a eco ds and no on assessmen s in he ield. I appea s ha
he ea men s a e mode a ely e ec i e in less han hal o he a eas ea ed, and ine ec i e in he es . In
addi ion, he a ea co e ed by he managemen uni s is only a p opo ion o he si e unde managemen ( o
example a p o ec ed a ea o ca chmen ), so no in o ma ion on a eas no co e ed by managemen uni s is
a ailable.
51
The p oposed lis ing o ainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss) and b own ou (Salmo u a)
as in asi e species in e ms o NEM:BA
The p oposed NEM:BA A&IS lis s published in Feb ua y 2018 included he addi ion o ainbow
ou (Onco hynchus mykiss) and b own ou (Salmo u a) as ca ego y 2 in asi e species, he
implica ion being ha a pe mi would be equi ed o conduc ing a es ic ed ac i i y in ol ing
hose species. The p oposed amendmen , howe e , mean ha pe mi s we e no equi ed o possess
ish, exe cise physical con ol o e hem, o ca ch and elease hem. None heless, he p oposal was
con en ious (see o ins ance S ephen Coan (2014) ‘T ou sa e o now’, The Wi ness [a ailable a
h ps://www.news24.com/news24/a chi es/wi ness/T ou -sa e- o -now-20150430, accessed on 6
Augus 2019]. The Fede a ion o Sou h A ican Fly ishe s (FOSAF) challenged he legal alidi y o he
no ice o in en ion o amend he in asi e species lis on p ocedu al g ounds. They eques ed he Cou
o, in e alia, decla e ha he no ice was unlaw ul and ha i be se aside on e iew.
The li iga ion ocussed on he public pa icipa ion p ocess ha was ollowed by he Minis e in
publishing he p oposed amendmen s, and no on he isks posed by he species hemsel es. The
DFF E ( he DEA a ha ime) had conduc ed e alua ions o he isk posed by hese species, and hese
we e published on he DFF E’s websi e du ing he public pa icipa ion p ocess¹. As o he end o June
2020, he li iga ion had no ye been inalised.
Box 5.1
1h ps://www.en i onmen .go .za/ex ensiononpubliccommen ing
ainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss) - Cape Na u e
58
e micula ed sail in ca ish (P e ygoplich hys disjunc i us) - R. Ka sing

59
6
GAPS
Key indings:
• The indica o s de eloped o his epo need o be es ed
and aligned o o he go e nmen epo ing p ocesses.
• The e is insu icien in o ma ion on how in asi e species
mo e and a e mo ed a ound Sou h A ica. A sys em o
ack wi hin-coun y dispe sal is equi ed i Sou h A ica is o
manage he sp ead o in asi e species.
• Da a on he dis ibu ion and abundance o alien species need
o be collec ed, colla ed, and in eg a ed in o na ional and
global da abases o acili a e he planning o in e en ions.
• The sys ema ic quan i ica ion o he impac s o biological
in asions is needed o acili a e he p io i isa ion o
in e en ions, p o ide a de ensible a ionale o unde pin
go e nmen in es men , and p o ide backg ound o e o s
o communica e he se e i y o he issue.
• A comp ehensi e policy, and a s a egy o implemen such
a policy, is needed o guide in e en ions on biological
in asions in Sou h A ica.
• The absence o o mal p og ammes o moni o he
e ec i eness o in e en ions in e ms o ou pu s and
ou comes means ha he e icacy o con ol canno be
demons a ed, con ol measu es canno be compa ed and
imp o ed, and i is no clea whe he p og ess is being made
o educe he nega i e impac s o in asions.
Au ho s:
John R. Wilson,
Ka elyn T. Faulkne ,
Tendamudzimu Munyai,
Ma hán Thea ,
B ian W. an Wilgen,
Tsungai A. Zengeya
se ing aps o Eu opean sho e c ab (Ca cinus maenas) as pa o a managemen ial - T. Robinson
60
6.1. P ocess o iden i ying gaps
In he i s epo , gaps a ec ing he abili y o epo on bo h biological in asions and on he e ec i eness
o in e en ions we e iden i ied and solu ions we e p oposed. Gaps we e iden i ied o each indica o , and
he p og ess o ill hese gaps is ou lined in Table S6.1. A ecen comp ehensi e o e iew o biological
in asions in Sou h A ica ( an Wilgen e al. 2020a) also highligh ed ac o s ha acili a e o hinde esea ch
and managemen . These a e summa ised in Table S6.2. Gaps we e also iden i ied du ing he p oduc ion and
e iew o his epo (see Supplemen a y Ma e ial sec ion S6). Based on hese sou ces six key gaps we e
iden i ied and a e discussed he e.
6.2. Indica o s – imp o ing how in asions a e measu ed and p o iding a link o o he epo s
While he heo y and amewo k behind he indica o s has been published (Wilson e al. 2018), he e has
been no explici es o indica o pe o mance. A me hod o mapping o aligning he indica o s used in his
epo ing p ocess o global ini ia i es on moni o ing and epo ing on biological in asions and o na ional
epo ing p ocesses on b oade opics (e.g. conse a ion o global change) is needed.
6.3. Pa hways – acking in asions ac oss Sou h A ica
In o ma ion on how and why alien species a e sp eading wi hin Sou h A ica needs o be colla ed and
e alua ed i impo an wi hin-coun y dispe sal pa hways a e o be iden i ied and managed. This will equi e
he de elopmen o a amewo k o ca ego ise such pa hways as he e a e subs an i e quan i a i e and
quali a i e di e ences be ween in oduc ions o he coun y and wi hin-coun y dispe sal (e.g. seeds o a
ho icul u al species migh be impo ed, sc eened on en y, and g own a a ew nu se ies; bu once in Sou h
A ica, ma u e plan s, cu lowe s, and packe s o seed migh be sen o shops all o e he coun y and sold
on o many di e en people). In o ma ion eco ded in he li e a u e and o he da a sou ces (e.g. pe mi s
issued o in e p o incial mo emen o alien species) will p o ide aluable da a, bu explici moni o ing
migh also be equi ed. Resea ch p ojec s ha ocus on speci ic g oups o pa s o he coun y [e.g. on plan s
in Sou h A ican Na ional Pa ks (Foxc o e al. 2019)] ha e p o ided some aluable in o ma ion, bu na ion-
wide s udies a e in he ea ly s ages.
moni o ing inged wa le (Acacia imb ia a) as pa o an e adica ion a emp - J. Wilson
61
Wi hou his in o ma ion he pa hways o dispe sal ha need o be managed canno be iden i ied, he
in e en ions equi ed o manage he wi hin-coun y mo emen o alien species canno be de e mined,
and he e ec i eness o he in e en ions ha a e cu en ly in place (e.g. p o incial pe mi ing sys ems
and es ic ions on he mo emen o ce ain plan s o p e en he sp ead o ag icul u al pes s) canno be
assessed. In he absence o such con ol, in asi e species, once es ablished in he coun y, will con inue o
sp ead apidly and impac s will inc ease.
6.4. Species & Si es – mapping in asions in space and o e ime
Va ious a lassing p ojec s a e eco ding alien species on an ongoing basis (e.g. he go e nmen - unded
Sou he n A ican Plan In ade s A las; and he Sou h A ican Na ional Bi d A las). Ensu ing he long- e m
sus ainabili y o hese is a p io i y. Much mo e s ill needs o be done o in eg a e hese da ase s wi h ci izen
science pla o ms, and o conside o he axa ha a e no cu en ly co e ed by a speci ic a lassing p ojec .
In e ms o de e mining he ex en o plan in asions a pa icula si es, some explo a o y wo k has been
ini ia ed on emo e sensing, and some gene al guidelines a e a ailable on he ypes o da a ha need o
be collec ed (e.g. Cheney e al. 2018). Howe e , he e a e s ill e y ew eliable da a sou ces on he ela i e
abundance (co e , biomass o popula ion size) o alien species a speci ic si es. A p ocess o sou ce and
in e p e da a om na ional and p o incial conse a ion agencies will be needed i change o e ime is o
be acked. Wi hou de ailed maps a na ional and local scales, es ima es o he impac o in asions will
emain c ude, i is no possible o app op ia ely p io i ise in e en ions ac oss si es, and he abili y o adap
in e en ions o espond mo e e icien ly o in asions be o e hey become widesp ead and damaging will
be limi ed.
6.5. Species & Si es – de e mining he impac s and cos s
Fo he go e nmen o con inue o in es subs an ial esou ces in managing biological in asions he bene i s
ha in e en ions b ing in alle ia ing he nega i e impac s caused o all sec o s o Sou h A ican socie y and
o he coun y’s unique biodi e si y mus be clea ly documen ed. Da a on impac s a e essen ial i con ol
measu es a e o be p io i ised and o ack he e ec i eness o in e en ions (e.g. in e ms o inc easing he
esilience o Sou h A ican ci ies, owns, and u al communi ies o d ough s and i es; ensu ing ag icul u al
sus ainabili y; and p o ec ing ou na u al capi al o u u e gene a ions).
The impac s o alien species p esen ed in his second epo a e based on assessmen s o a ailable da a
using in e na ional bes p ac ice (i.e. EICAT and SEICAT). This ep esen s a signi ican ad ance om he
assessmen s o impac in he i s epo ha we e based solely on expe opinion. This p ocess needs o be
comple ed.
A sys ema ic me hod o assessing he impac s o biological in asions a a si e is needed (i.e. he combined
impac s o all alien species p esen ). Such assessmen s will equi e di ec ed esea ch o es ima e he impac s
o biological in asions in economic and social e ms (De Lange & an Wilgen 2010; Shackle on e al. 2017;
Wi e al. 2019). Conside a ion should also be gi en o he alue o long- e m moni o ing o ack impac s
and how hey change in esponse o di e en in e en ions.
62
6.6. In e en ions – he need o an o e -a ching policy and s a egy
Sou h A ica does no cu en ly ha e a comp ehensi e o e a ching na ional go e nmen policy on biological
in asions. This ‘policy acuum’ has been lagged as an impo an ac o limi ing he e ec i eness o pas
e o s o con ol biological in asions (Lukey & Hall 2020). A comp ehensi e, e idence-based policy on
biological in asions would cla i y he go e nmen ’s posi ion, guide decision-make s when implemen ing
legisla ion, and assis he legisla u e when making and amending ele an laws. Such a policy would also
p o ide a ision o wha Sou h A ica aspi es o ega ding biological in asions (Wilson e al. 2020). I he
policy we e in place, i would p o ide a s uc u e o coo dina ion, a basis o s a egies and implemen a ion
plans, and guide moni o ing and epo ing by all a ec ed pa ies.
A be e unde s anding o Sou h A ica’s goals in espec o he managemen o biological in asions
is c i ical o de ising sho - and medium- e m implemen a ion plans, es ima ing he annual budge
equi ed o gi ing e ec o hose implemen a ion plans, and moni o ing and epo ing on he ul ilmen o
implemen a ion plans.
An addi ional consequence o he e being no comp ehensi e policy o s a egy add essing biological
in asions in Sou h A ica is ha he e is no o li le in e go e nmen al coo dina ion among en i onmen al
au ho i ies and o he o gans o s a e esponsible o biological in asions (e.g. he na ional depa men s
esponsible o he en i onmen , ag icul u e, wa e and heal h, anspo , and p o incial conse a ion
depa men s). These o gans o s a e a e esponsible o he adminis a ion o a ious Ac s ha deal wi h
he managemen o biological in asions, such as he Conse a ion o Ag icul u al Resou ces Ac , 1983;
Ag icul u al Pes s Ac , 1983; Animal Diseases Ac , 1984; and he Animal Heal h Ac , 2002. The e is, howe e ,
li le e idence ha hese o gans o s a e ha e aken s eps o ensu e ha he legisla ion hey adminis e a e
is aligned and ha moni o ing and en o cemen ac ions a e s eamlined o ensu e be e esul s. A a na ow
le el he lack o a policy poses a challenge o epo ing on he s a us o biological in asions, bu ul ima ely
i nega i ely impac s he e ec i eness o in e en ions.
6.7. In e en ions – measu ing he e ec i eness o in e en ions
Moni o ing o in e en ions in e ms o hei ou pu s and ou comes is essen ial i hei e ec i eness is o
be assessed and o managemen o imp o e by being adap i e. The e ec i eness o in e en ions canno
be assessed (and imp o ed) unless moni o ing and epo ing p o ides clea ly documen ed in o ma ion
ha is also made a ailable o sc u iny. Howe e , he e appea o be no long- e m plans o moni o ing
con ol in e en ions in e ms o how hey educe biological in asions and hei nega i e impac s, and i is
unclea how he collec ion and epo ing o accu a e moni o ing da a is incen i ised o penalised i i is no
o hcoming. Mo eo e , while he e a e se e al esea ch p ojec s designed o assess he impac o pa icula
policies, hese a e mos ly s ill in he ea ly s ages. A sys emic ocus on moni o ing and e alua ion ac oss
he boa d would help bo h o demons a e he impac o in e en ions and o inc ease he e icacy o he
in e en ions hemsel es. Good da a on moni o ing cos s money, bu is a p e equisi e o e ec i e adap i e
managemen , and, pa icula ly in he ligh o he judicious use o new echnologies, such moni o ing would
p o ide signi ican e u ns on in es men .
63
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The d a ing eam would like o hank he membe s o he Re e ence and Ad iso y Commi ee o hei
guidance and ad ice on he p ocess used o compile he epo , and o e iewing se e al d a s o he
epo . These we e Bob Scholes, Bonani Madikizela, Kay Mon gome y, Mooke sa Ramasodi, Michael B aack,
Pe e Lukey, and Una hi Nkosi Heshula. We hank Bob Scholes o his addi ional ole as e iew edi o o he
epo . Addi ional inpu s we e ecei ed om John Donaldson, Amanda D i e , Je ey Manuel, Ca ol Poole,
Seba aolo Rahlao, and And ew Skowno.
The ollowing indi iduals p o ided commen s o he i s o de d a o he s a us epo : Ad ian A ms ong,
La a A kinson, Michael B aack, Ch is ian Chimimba, Jenny Day, The esa F an z, Michelle G e e, Ma in
Hill, Dean Impson, Ian Ko ze, Siyasanga Miza, Li huwani Nnze u, Tama a Robinson, Jaspe Slingsby, Tony
Swemme , And ew Tu ne , And ew Wannenbu gh, and Cos as Zacha iades.
The second o de d a was e iewed by wo independen expe s om Sou h A ica (And ew Tu ne and
Ad ian A ms ong), and one in e na ional expe (Helen Roy). Addi ional commen s on he second o de
d a we e ecei ed om Nicola an Wilgen-B edenkamp, Ch is Gowo , Ma in Hill, Zanele Jele, Sab ina
Kumschick, Kha hu shelo Nelukalo, P iscilla S iglingh, Riaan an de Wal , Jan Hend ik Ven e , and Cos as
Zacha iades.
he s a us epo d a ing eam ( om le o igh he e, and he pho og aphs below): John Wilson, Ka elyn Faulkne , B ian an Wilgen,
Tsungai Zengeya, Xoliswa Ndeleni, Ma hán Thea , Tendamudzimu Munyai
Siyasanga Miza Monica Klaas

64
gu u al oad (Scle oph ys gu u alis) - N. Tel o d
65
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