Academic Edi o : Ludmila
B. Boino ich
Recei ed: 29 July 2025
Re ised: 15 Augus 2025
Accep ed: 17 Augus 2025
Published: 19 Augus 2025
Ci a ion: No ák, D.; ˇ
Reháˇcko á, L.;
No ák, V.; Ma ýsek, D.; Peike o á, P.
In luence o B2O3on Reac i e and
Non-Reac i e We ing Beha io o
CaO-SiO2-MgO-Al2O3-B2O3Sys em.
Coa ings 2025,15, 967. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/coa ings15080967
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
In luence o B2O3on Reac i e and Non-Reac i e We ing
Beha io o CaO-SiO2-MgO-Al2O3-B2O3Sys em
Dalibo No ák 1,*, Lenka ˇ
Reháˇcko á 1, Vlas imil No ák 1, Dalibo Ma ýsek 2and Pa lína Peike o á 3
1Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 15,
708 00 Os a a-Po uba, Czech Republic; lenka. [email p o ec ed] (L. ˇ
R.); [email p o ec ed] (V.N.)
2Facul y o Mining and Geology, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 15,
708 00 Os a a-Po uba, Czech Republic; dalibo [email p o ec ed]
3Nano echnology Cen e, CEET, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 15/2172,
708 00 Os a a-Po uba, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: dalibo [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Bo on oxide is in oduced in o slag as a lux, signi ican ly lowe ing he liquidus empe a-
u e; howe e , his ad an age is accompanied by se e al undesi able consequences. This
s udy aims o e alua e he impac o bo on oxide addi ion on he we ing eac i i y o he
CaO-SiO
2
-MgO-Al
2
O
3
-B
2
O
3
slag sys em, pa icula ly on pla inum and g aphi e subs a es,
which a e commonly u ilized o we abili y in es iga ions o such sys ems. The slag
sys em was modi ied o inco po a e a ying concen a ions o B
2
O
3
, eaching up o
30 w %
,
wi h he addi ion o his oxide a he expense o CaO and SiO
2
in a cons an a io, while
he con en s o Al
2
O
3
and MgO emained unchanged. High- empe a u e we abili y es s
we e conduc ed a empe a u es up o 1550
◦
C unde a low o high-pu i y a gon a mo-
sphe e (99.9999%). Fo he pla inum subs a e, he esul s indica ed non- eac i e we ing,
cha ac e ized by a dec ease in we ing angles wi h inc easing empe a u e and bo on oxide
con en . Con e sely, o he g aphi e subs a e, he na u e o we ing a ied, esul ing
in ei he eac i e o non- eac i e beha io depending on he B
2
O
3
con en . Following
he high- empe a u e expe imen s, addi ional analyses we e pe o med using scanning
elec on mic oscopy (SEM) and ene gy-dispe si e spec ome y (EDS). Fu he mo e, he
powde ed oxide sys ems unde wen cha ac e iza ion h ough Fou ie ans o m in a ed
spec oscopy (FTIR) and X- ay powde di ac ion (XRPD).
Keywo ds: slag; eac i e we ing; bo on oxide; liquidus empe a u e; we ing angle; sessile
d op me hod
1. In oduc ion
Bo oaluminosilica e oxide sys ems a e u ilized in di e se applica ions, no ably in
li hium ba e y p oduc ion as sealing glasses, hea - esis an ma e ials, and o nuclea
was e immobiliza ion [
1
–
3
]. They se e essen ial oles in liquid c ys al display subs a es
and he glass ibe indus y, pa icula ly wi h E-glass ibe s ha ea u e ele a ed bo on
oxide con en and supe io dielec ic p ope ies [
4
–
7
]. Key pe o mance a ibu es include
a o able chemical and mechanical p ope ies, a low he mal expansion coe icien , and
a high s ain poin [
8
–
10
]. The CaO–SiO
2
–MgO–Al
2
O
3
–B
2
O
3
oxide sys em is also ex en-
si ely employed in s eelmaking due o i s cus omizable p ope ies. This sys em p o ides
p ecise con ol o e c ucial ac o s such as mel ing beha io , iscosi y, c ys alliza ion, and
chemical du abili y, he eby p o ing in aluable o applica ions in con inuous cas ing, lux
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/coa ings15080967
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 2 o 20
design, and he de elopmen o a ious ma e ials, including glass-ce amics and sus ainable
al e na i es. Wi hin his sys em, B
2
O
3
unc ions as a pi o al lux, signi ican ly educing
bo h he mel ing poin and iscosi y by dis up ing he silica e ne wo k and enhancing
he glass- o ming capabili y [
11
–
13
]. Howe e , he in luence o B
2
O
3
is bo h complex
and concen a ion-dependen . While limi ed addi ions o B
2
O
3
can imp o e mel ing be-
ha io and o e all p ocessabili y, excessi e quan i ies may comp omise desul u iza ion
e ec i eness by dec easing slag basici y, and hey can a iably impac MgO solubili y.
Speci ically, in high-basici y slags, B
2
O
3
can enhance MgO solubili y, whe eas unde di e -
en condi ions, i may hinde i [
14
–
17
]. Cu en esea ch e o s a e ocused on deepening
he unde s anding o he he mophysical and s uc u al oles o B
2
O
3
, acili a ing he
op imiza ion o i s pe o mance in indus ial applica ions [18–21].
The we abili y o g aphi e by mol en slags is a subjec o in es iga ion due o i s
signi ican implica ions in me allu gical p ocesses, pa icula ly wi hin blas u naces. The
injec ion o pul e ized coal as a pa ial subs i u e o me allu gical coke can esul in
incomple e combus ion, leading o he accumula ion o unbu n cha wi hin he u nace
en i onmen . An in-dep h unde s anding o he we abili y o g aphi e by mol en slag is
essen ial o e ec i e p edic ion and con ol o unbu n cha consump ion. This knowledge
plays a c i ical ole in in luencing he e iciency and s abili y o blas u nace ope a ions,
ul ima ely con ibu ing o enhanced o e all p oduc i i y [
22
–
26
]. O he easons include
es ing he co osion and dissolu ion o g aphi e, which se es as a e ac o y lining in blas
u naces, and he in e ac ion be ween slag and ca bonaceous ma e ials, which can cause
slag oaming and he o ma ion o gases ha may dis up u nace ope a ions [
22
,
24
,
25
,
27
].
Pla inum is equen ly selec ed as a subs a e in expe imen al s udies due o i s high
mel ing poin and ela i ely ine cha ac e is ics compa ed o o he me als, such as i on
o nickel. These p ope ies enable esea che s o in es iga e he we ing beha io o slags
wi h minimal o absen chemical eac i i y. This is essen ial o elucida ing he pu ely
physical aspec s o we ing and adhesion, as well as o accu a ely de e mining he in insic
su ace ension o mol en slag, ee om he con ounding in luences o signi ican in e acial
eac ions [27–29].
G aphi e exhibi s ela i ely poo we abili y when exposed o mol en slags, a ibu ed
o he weak an de Waals o ces p esen a he solid–liquid in e ace [
30
]. Howe e , his
we abili y is enhanced a ele a ed empe a u es, p ima ily due o in e acial chemical
eac ions, such as slag educ ion and ca bide o ma ion [
31
]. No ably, esea ch indica es
ha ce ain slag sys ems, pa icula ly hose comp ising CaO-SiO
2
-Al
2
O
3
-MgO wi h i on
oxides, can signi ican ly educe he con ac angle o below 90
◦
o e ime as he i on
oxide con en and empe a u e inc ease [
22
,
24
–
26
]. In addi ion, explo a ion o CaO-SiO
2
-
Al
2
O
3
-FeO-MgO slag sys ems has e ealed ha he ini ial concen a ions o Fe and Mg
oxides in luence he we ing beha io by acili a ing oxide pene a ion and educ ion a
he g aphi e in e ace [
32
]. Addi ional examples conce ning he we abili y o g aphi e
subs a es wi h a ious oxide sys ems can be e e enced in he li e a u e [33,34].
In con as , pla inum gene ally demons a es good we abili y wi h slags, especially a
ele a ed empe a u es, whe e he we ing angles end o dec ease. Fo ins ance, CaO-SiO
2
-
Al
2
O
3
slag exhibi s signi ican ly imp o ed we abili y on pla inum compa ed o MnO-SiO
2
slag, wi h empe a u e enhancing he we ing p ocess. In he con ex o he CaO-based
sys em, ac o s such as oxygen deso p ion and in e acial eac ions—occu ing wi hou he
dissolu ion o silicon—con ibu e o he dynamic we ing beha io accompanied by bubble
o ma ion [
18
]. Fu he in es iga ions ha e indica ed ha oxide educ ion and manganese
dissolu ion a he me al–oxide in e ace enhance we abili y. Howe e , disc epancies in
he mal expansion be ween pla inum and slag esul in sepa a ion du ing he cooling
p ocess [
17
,
19
]. These indings unde sco e he signi icance o bo h chemical in e ac ions
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 3 o 20
and empe a u e-dependen phenomena in de e mining he we abili y o pla inum in he
p esence o complex oxide sys ems.
The objec i e o his s udy was o in es iga e he e ec o bo on oxide on he we abil-
i y cha ac e is ics and in e ac ion in ensi y o he CaO-SiO
2
-MgO-Al
2
O
3
-B
2
O
3
oxide sys em
when in con ac wi h pla inum and g aphi e subs a es. To achie e his, high- empe a u e
we abili y es s we e conduc ed, ollowed by a comp ehensi e cha ac e iza ion o he
phase in e ace u ilizing Scanning Elec on Mic oscopy coupled wi h Ene gy Dispe si e
Spec oscopy (SEM/EDS) o elucida e he mic os uc u al changes, while Fou ie T ans-
o m In a ed Spec oscopy (FTIR) and X- ay Di ac ion (XRD) echniques we e employed
o assess he phase composi ion and c ys allog aphic ea u es o he oxide sys em. To he
bes o ou knowledge, his wo k p o ides new insigh s in o he we abili y o pla inum and
g aphi e subs a es by a mol en oxide sys em ha closely esembles indus ial slag, speci i-
cally inco po a ing a a iable bo on oxide con en anging om 0 o 30 w %. This wo k
may con ibu e o he op imiza ion o p ocesses in indus ies ela ed o glass p oduc ion
and me allu gical applica ions.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. P epa a ion o he Samples
The in es iga ion ocused on he oxide sys em cha ac e ized by he composi ion
o CaO-SiO
2
-MgO-Al
2
O
3
-B
2
O
3
, which inco po a ed a ying amoun s o bo on oxide,
speci ically anging om 0 o 30 w % ac oss ou dis inc sample ypes (samples 1–4).
These samples we e es ed o high- empe a u e we abili y on wo di e en subs a e
ma e ials: g aphi e, as de ailed in Table 1, and pla inum pla es. The p epa a ion o he oxide
sys ems was conduc ed using high-pu i y chemicals in powde o m, wi h a minimum
pu i y le el o 96.5%. The sou ces o hese chemicals included calcium oxide (CaO),
silicon oxide (SiO
2
), and aluminium oxide (Al
2
O
3
), which we e ob ained om Lach:ne
(Lach-Ne , s. .o., Ne a o ice, Czech Republic), bo on oxide (B
2
O
3
) sou ced om Al a
Aesa (Al a Aesa GmbH, Ka ls uhe, Ge many), and magnesium oxide (MgO) pu chased
om Mach chemikálie (Mach chemikálie, s. .o., Os a a-H ušo , Czech Republic). The
indi idual sample weigh s we e calcula ed while main aining a cons an basici y a io
o 1.4 (as p esen ed in Table 2). Following he weigh de e mina ion, he pu e oxides
we e me iculously blended, g ound using a Re sch PM 100 labo a o y mill (Re sch GmbH,
Haan, Ge many), and emixed o achie e consis en homogeniza ion o he composi e
oxide sys em. P io o he high- empe a u e we abili y es s, app oxima ely 0.7 g o he
composi e sample was accu a ely weighed and subsequen ly comp essed in o able s wi h
a diame e o 14 mm. To ensu e he in eg i y o he es esul s, he su aces o he subs a es
we e ho oughly cleansed o any con aminan s using ace one immedia ely be o e he
expe imen al p ocedu es commenced.
Table 1. De ails abou he physical p ope ies o he g aphi e pla es used.
P ope ies Value Uni
Bulk densi y 1.78 g·cm−3
Resis i i y 16 µΩ·m
Flexu al s eng h 52 MPa
Comp essi e s eng h 110 MPa
The mal conduc i i y 82 W·(m·K)−1
Coe icien o he mal
expansion (20–200 ◦C) 510−6K−1
Ha dness 66 sho e ha dness scale
Po osi y 14 %
Ash con en 50 ppm
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 4 o 20
Table 2. Chemical composi ion o he CaO-SiO2-MgO-Al2O3-B2O3slag sys em in w %.
Sample CaO SiO2MgO Al2O3B2O3
1 42.8 37.7 10 9.5 0
2 39.9 35.6 10 9.5 5
3 34.0 31.5 10 9.5 15
4 25.3 25.2 10 9.5 30
2.2. De e mina ion o Liquidus Tempe a u es
The de e mina ion o liquidus empe a u es is c ucial in unde s anding he he mody-
namic beha io o ma e ials. This s udy employed wo dis inc me hodologies o achie e
accu a e measu emen s: he heological me hod and he op ical me hod. The heological
app oach was conduc ed using a high- empe a u e heome e , speci ically he An on Paa
FRS 1600 model, manu ac u ed by An on Paa GmbH, loca ed in G az, Aus ia. This de ice
was ins umen al in moni o ing he e ical spindle’s posi ion as i in e ac ed wi h he
sample su ace unde a ying he mal condi ions. The heome e ’s se up enables p ecise
acking o ma e ial low beha io as he empe a u e inc eases, he eby acili a ing he
iden i ica ion o he liquidus poin . Fo a comp ehensi e o e iew o he ins umen a-
ion, including he speci ic hea ing scheme employed du ing he expe imen s, eade s
a e di ec ed o he de ailed desc ip ion p o ided in A icle [
35
]. In conjunc ion wi h he
heological me hod, he op ical me hod was implemen ed o pe o m high- empe a u e
we abili y es s. This me hod in ol ed ca e ul obse a ion o he al e a ions in he sample’s
silhoue e as i was subjec ed o inc eased empe a u es. Th ough hese obse a ions, i
was possible o asce ain when he sample eached an op imal shape, allowing o he
de e mina ion o su ace and in e phase p ope ies, as epo ed in [36–38].
2.3. High-Tempe a u e We abili y Tes
The expe imen al de e mina ion o we ing angles a he in e ace be ween oxide
mel s and a ious subs a es was conduc ed u ilizing a sessile d op me hod wi hin a
high- empe a u e obse a ion esis ance u nace, speci ically he CLASIC model p o ided
by CLASIC CZ, s. .o., loca ed in ˇ
Re nice, Czech Republic. De ailed desc ip ions o he
appa a us and me hodology ha e been p e iously documen ed in he li e a u e [
39
]. The
empe a u e ange o sampling was selec ed be ween a empe a u e close o he liquidus
empe a u e, as de e mined heologically based on no mal o ce measu emen s, and a
maximum empe a u e o 1550
◦
C. The oxide sys em was o med in o a compac able ,
which was subsequen ly posi ioned wi hin he u nace on ei he a polished g aphi e o
pla inum subs a e. The u nace was he me ically sealed and e acua ed o an app oxima e
p essu e o 1 Pa, ollowed by a lushing p ocess wi h high-pu i y A gon gas (99.9999%)
o c ea e an ine a mosphe e conduci e o expe imen a ion. The sys em was subjec ed
o a con olled hea ing a e se a 5
◦
C pe minu e. This a e was deemed app op ia e,
gi en he speci ic a angemen o he u nace and he dimensions o he sample, which
ensu ed uni o m hea ing h oughou he expe imen . Du ing he he mal loading phase,
he empe a u e was con inuously moni o ed using a P -13% Rh/P he mocouple s a e-
gically placed nea he sample o p o ide accu a e empe a u e eadings. Du ing he
high- empe a u e we abili y assessmen s, he silhoue es o mel ed oxide d ople s we e
me iculously cap u ed using a Canon EOS 550D digi al came a wi h high esolu ion. The
analysis o he we ing angles was pe o med using he Axisymme ic D op Shape Analysis
(ADSA) me hod. This echnique in ol es i ing he p o iles o he d ople o a Laplacian
cu e h ough a nonlinea eg ession p ocedu e, as documen ed in he a icle [40].
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 5 o 20
2.4. SEM, EDS, FTIR, and XRD Me hods
A comp ehensi e examina ion o he in e ac ion be ween he oxide sys em and he
co esponding subs a e was conduc ed u ilizing scanning elec on mic oscopy (SEM),
ene gy-dispe si e X- ay spec oscopy (EDS), and X- ay di ac ion (XRD) analyses. The
subs a e su ace was cha ac e ized using a Quan a 650 ield-emission gun (FEG) elec on
mic oscope (The mo Fishe Scien i ic, Wal ham, MA, USA), which was equipped wi h
an ene gy-dispe si e de ec o (EDS, EDAX Elec Plus). The mic oscopy was pe o med
unde speci ic ope a ional pa ame e s: an accele a ing ol age o 20 kV, a cu en ange o
8–10 nA
, a beam diame e o 4 mm, and in a high acuum en i onmen . I is no ewo hy
ha he samples we e analyzed wi hou any me allic coa ing.
Fou ie - ans o m in a ed (FTIR) spec oscopy was conduc ed u ilizing a Nicole
6700 FT-IR spec ome e (The mo Fishe Scien i ic, Wal ham, MA, USA) o in es iga e
molecula ib a ions in he mid-in a ed spec al egion, speci ically be ween 400 and
4000 cm
−1
. Fo he pu pose o his s udy, howe e , only he spec al ange om 400 o
1800 cm
−1
is p esen ed in he accompanying images, as his in e al encompasses he
mos signi ican abso p ion bands ele an o ou analysis. The spec al esolu ion o
he measu emen s was me iculously se a 4 cm
−1
, ensu ing a de ailed ep esen a ion o
he spec al ea u es. A o al o 32 scans we e pe o med o enhance he signal- o-noise
a io, he eby inc easing he eliabili y o he ob ained spec a. The A enua ed To al
Re lec ance (ATR) echnique was employed, u ilizing a diamond c ys al, known o i s
obus ness and low abso p ion in he in a ed ange, which acili a es high-quali y spec al
acquisi ion. Following da a collec ion, he spec a unde wen ea men using ATR and
baseline co ec ion wi h OMNIC so wa e ( e . 9.12). Following his ini ial p ocessing, he
spec a we e no malized o s anda dize he in ensi y o he abso p ion bands, allowing o
mo e s aigh o wa d compa isons among he samples. Finally, i ing o he spec a was
pe o med using he O igin so wa e ( e . 9.8).
The phase composi ion o oxide samples ollowing hei in e ac ion wi h g aphi e o
pla inum subs a es was analyzed using a B uke AXS D8 Ad ance X- ay di ac ome e
(B uke AXS GmbH, Ka ls uhe, Ge many). This appa a us, equipped wi h a LynxEye
posi ion-sensi i e silicon s ip de ec o , ope a ed unde he ollowing pa ame e s: CuK
α
adia ion wi h a Ni il e , a ol age o 40 kV, and a cu en o 40 mA. The analysis was
conduc ed in s ep mode wi h an angula inc emen o 0.014
◦
2
θ
, a o al du a ion o
25 s
pe
s ep, and an angula ange spanning om 5
◦
o 80
◦
2
θ
. The phase composi ion was assessed
u ilizing he Rie eld me hod, as implemen ed in he B uke Topas so wa e ( e sion 4.2).
Da a p ocessing was pe o med u ilizing B uke AXS Di ac and B uke EVA so wa e ( e .
4.2), while phase iden i ica ion was acili a ed h ough he PDF-2 da abase as p o ided by
he In e na ional Cen e o Di ac ion Da a.
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. De e mina ion o Liquidus Tempe a u es
De e mining he liquidus empe a u e o oxide mel s, pa icula ly hose encoun e ed
in slag, is o impo ance ac oss a ious indus ial applica ions, pa icula ly wi hin he ield
o me allu gy. This c i ical empe a u e p o ides essen ial insigh s ha acili a e enhanced
con ol du ing smel ing ope a ions. A ho ough unde s anding o he liquidus empe a u e
is ins umen al in op imizing ope a ional e iciency, egula ing slag iscosi y, and ine-
uning he chemical composi ion o he mel . Fu he mo e, knowledge o his empe a u e
aids in p edic ing phase ans o ma ions ha occu du ing me allu gical p ocesses, he eby
signi ican ly in luencing bo h he e iciency o p oduc ion and he o e all quali y o he
inal p oduc [41,42].
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 6 o 20
The inco po a ion o bo on oxide (B
2
O
3
) in o he oxide sys em se es a pi o al ole as a
lux, a ma e ial ha e ec i ely educes he mel ing poin o he mix u e. This cha ac e is ic
ende s B
2
O
3
an en i onmen ally iendly al e na i e o he adi ionally employed and
mo e oxic calcium luo ide [
43
,
44
]. In he e alua ion o mel ing empe a u es, as de ailed
in Sec ion 2.2, he indings a e summa ized in Table 3. No ably, i was obse ed ha he liq-
uidus empe a u e—de ined as he maximum empe a u e a which a he modynamic equi-
lib ium exis s be ween he glassy s a e and he p ima y c ys alline phase [
45
]—exhibi ed
a ma ked dec ease wi h an inc ease in he bo on oxide con en . Speci ically, he sample
wi h 30 w % B
2
O
3
demons a ed a educ ion in liquidus empe a u e o app oxima ely
420 ◦C
compa ed o he B
2
O
3
- ee sample. Se e al ac o s may con ibu e o his signi ican
dec ease. Among hem a e he inhe en ly low liquidus empe a u e o bo on oxide, he
o ma ion o eu ec ic mix u es wi h o he oxides, such as calcium oxide (CaO) and magne-
sium oxide (MgO) when combined wi h B
2
O
3
[
46
], and he ole o bo on oxide as a ne wo k
modi ie ha can al e he s uc u al p ope ies o he glass ma ix [
16
,
47
]. These ac o s
collec i ely enhance he mel ing beha io o he oxide sys em, unde sco ing he u ili y o
bo on oxide in glass/slag o mula ion p ocesses.
Table 3. De e mina ion o liquidus empe a u es in
◦
C using an An on Paa FRS 1600 heome e and
a CLASIC hea ing mic oscope.
Sample Rheome e Hea ing Mic oscope
1 1399 1400
2 1275 1278
3 1095 1096
4 977 980
The obse ed disc epancies be ween he liquidus empe a u es ob ained h ough op i-
cal and heological me hods can be a ibu ed o he di e ing de ini ions and c i e ia used
in each app oach. Speci ically, he liquidus empe a u e de i ed om op ical measu emen s
is de ined as he empe a u e a which he d ople a ains a pe ec geome ic shape. This
is essen ial o accu a ely assessing su ace and in e phase p ope ies, as highligh ed in
e e ences [
37
,
38
]. In con as , he heological me hod employs al e na i e amewo ks ha
could lead o a ia ions in he liquidus empe a u e eadings.
3.2. Resul s o High-Tempe a u e We abili y Tes s
The in luence o bo on oxide con en , anging om 0 o 30 w %, on he we abili y
o pla inum and g aphi e subs a es was examined h ough high- empe a u e we abili y
es s conduc ed a empe a u es ex ending om he liquidus poin o he oxide sys em up
o 1550
◦
C. As depic ed in Figu e 1, he ela ionship be ween he a e age we ing angle and
empe a u e demons a es a non-mono onic end, wi h a no iceable educ ion in con ac
angle as empe a u e inc eases o all examined samples. Speci ically, when assessing
he we abili y on a g aphi e subs a e, non-we ing beha io —cha ac e ized by a con ac
angle exceeding 90 deg ees—was obse ed up o a ious c i ical empe a u es: 1520
◦
C
o sample 2, which con ained 5 w % B
2
O
3
; 1470
◦
C o sample 3 wi h 15 w % B
2
O
3
; and
1410
◦
C o sample 4, which had he highes bo on oxide concen a ion o 30 w %. Beyond
hese c i ical empe a u es, a ma ked dec ease in he con ac angle was eco ded, indica ing
a ansi ion om non-we ing o we ing beha io . The mos p onounced educ ion in
con ac angles—up o 103 deg ees—was iden i ied o sample 4, showcasing he signi ican
impac o maximum bo on oxide addi ion on we abili y. In he empe a u e ange whe e
we ing beha io was obse ed, he e was a g ea e sca e in he expe imen al esul s,
indica ing eac i e we ing. This ype o we ing in ol es chemical eac ions occu ing
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 7 o 20
a he in e ace be ween he liquid and he solid phase. Addi ionally, he a iabili y in
esul s can be a ibu ed o he he e ogenei y o he subs a e and he dynamic na u e o
he in e phase eac ions [
48
]. Con e sely, wi h espec o he pla inum subs a e, he esul s
indica ed ha he we ing angles emained consis en ly below 90 deg ees h oughou
he en i e empe a u e ange unde conside a ion. Fu he mo e, in bo h cases, a clea
end was obse ed whe ein we abili y inc eased as bo h empe a u e and bo on oxide
con en inc eased.
Figu e 1. A e age we ing angles o mol en oxide sys ems as a unc ion o empe a u e, we ing o
pla inum (A) and g aphi e (B) subs a es, empe a u e inc ease by 10
◦
C, e o ba s deno e s anda d
de ia ion.
The ela ionship be ween we ing angles (also known as con ac angles) and su ace
ensions is undamen ally desc ibed by Young’s equa ion. This equa ion delinea es he
equilib ium among in e acial ensions a he poin o con ac among liquid, solid, and gas
phases. We ing is de ined as he ex en o which a liquid sp eads upon a solid su ace, and
he we ing angle is quan i a i ely ep esen ed as he angle o med be ween he liquid–
apou in e ace and he solid su ace. Su ace ension, con e sely, is he physical p ope y
ha d i es liquid su aces o minimize hei a ea due o cohesi e o ces ac ing among liquid
molecules. Typically, a educ ion in su ace ension co ela es wi h a dec ease in he we ing
angle, sugges ing enhanced we abili y o he solid su ace. Con e sely, inc eased su ace
ension is associa ed wi h a la ge we ing angle, indica ing diminished we abili y [49].
In he con ex o mel s, bo on exhibi s a endency o mig a e p e e en ially o he
su ace, la gely a ibu ed o i s lowe su ace ene gy. This su ace mig a ion al e s he
composi ion a he liquid’s in e ace, which subsequen ly con ibu es o a educ ion in
bo h su ace ension and he we ing angle. I is unde s ood ha i equi es less ene gy o
a bo on a om o eside a he su ace compa ed o being si ua ed wi hin he bulk o he
liquid [
50
–
52
]. Addi ionally, bo on oxide plays a signi ican ole in modi ying he ne wo k
s uc u e o oxide mel s by p omo ing depolyme iza ion [
53
]. This depolyme iza ion
p ocess leads o a dec ease in iscosi y, which in u n acili a es lowe su ace ension and
we ing angles. The in oduc ion o B
2
O
3
dis up s he silica e ne wo k ha cha ac e is ically
domina es in hese mel s, he eby diminishing he in e molecula o ces ha a e p ima ily
esponsible o ele a ed su ace ension. Fu he mo e, bo on oxide o ms ela i ely weake
bonds when con as ed wi h he mo e obus silica e o aluminosilica e connec ions ound
in adi ional oxide composi ions. This weakening e ec u he con ibu es o he educ ion
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 8 o 20
in bo h su ace ension and we ing angles, ul ima ely enhancing he luidi y o he mel , as
elabo a ed in [54].
The obse ed p o iles o he es ed mol en oxide sys ems we ing pla inum and
g aphi e subs a es a e depic ed in Figu e 2. This illus a ion cap u es he al e a ions
in d ople mo phology and co esponding we ing angles a liquidus empe a u es and a
maximum eco ded empe a u e o 1550
◦
C. No ably, all solidi ied d ople s emained in
con ac wi h he subs a e su aces pos high- empe a u e we abili y expe imen s, excep
sample 1, which demons a ed a dis inc ailu e o emain in con ac . This phenomenon o
non-sepa a ion sugges s a obus adhesion mechanism among he es ed sys ems du ing
he cooling p ocess. A mo e p onounced adhesion was no ed in he in e ac ions wi h he
g aphi e subs a e, po en ially a ibu ed o he p ocess o eac i e we ing. The in ol e-
men o chemical eac ions a he phase in e ace du ing such in e ac ions may lead o he
o ma ion o speci ic chemical p oduc s, enhancing adhesion.
Figu e 2. P o iles o d ople s o a mol en oxide sys em we ing pla inum (A–H) and g aphi e
(I–P) subs a es. The columns, a anged om le o igh , ep esen samples 1 h ough 4.
Con e sely, he ela i ely lowe adhesion obse ed wi h he pla inum subs a e sup-
po s he hypo hesis o non- eac i e we ing. This is u he co obo a ed by he na -
owe sca e o we ing angles eco ded on pla inum, in compa ison o hose obse ed on
g aphi e, which indica es a mo e uni o m we ing beha io [
55
]. Fu he mo e, pla inum,
being a noble me al, is no an icipa ed o unde go any signi ican chemical in e ac ion
wi h an oxide sys em wi hin a neu al a mosphe ic en i onmen [
56
]. These obse a ions
unde sco e he con as ing mechanisms o eac i e and non- eac i e we ing, as well as
he in ica e na u e o he we ing p ocess, which will be elabo a ed upon in subsequen
sec ions o his s udy.
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 9 o 20
3.3. Analysis o In e ac ion a he Phase In e ace
Following he high- empe a u e we abili y es s, samples 1 and 4, which included
hei espec i e pla inum and g aphi e subs a es, unde wen a de ailed se ies o anal-
yses using Scanning Elec on Mic oscopy wi h Ene gy Dispe si e X- ay Spec oscopy
(SEM/EDS), Fou ie T ans o m In a ed Spec oscopy (FTIR), and X- ay Di ac ion (XRD).
The p ima y ocus o hese analyses was o examine he in e ac ion a he phase in e aces
and o de e mine he p esence o absence o eac i e we ing phenomena.
SEM/EDS analyses we e conduc ed bo h om a op–down pe spec i e o he pla -
inum subs a e (Figu es 3and 4) and he g aphi e subs a e (Figu e 5). In addi ion, a
c oss-sec ional SEM/EDS examina ion was speci ically pe o med on sample 4, which
success ully achie ed we ing on he g aphi e subs a e (Figu e 6). This app oach was
pa icula ly necessa y, as in he o he expe imen al scena ios, he liquid d ople s eadily
de ached om he subs a es ollowing he comple ion o he we abili y es s, p ecluding
u he c oss-sec ional analysis. The esul s o SEM mic oanalysis a he ma ked poin s in
Figu es 4–6a e lis ed in Table 4.
Figu e 3. Top iew o pla inum subs a e a e high- empe a u e es s, sample 1 (A) and sample 4 (B).
Figu e 4. De ails o he pla inum subs a e iewed om abo e. A ea unde he d ople —sample 1 (A)
and sample 4 (B). A ea dis an om he d ople —sample 1 (C) and sample 4 (D).
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 16 o 20
The educ ion eac ion occu ing a he in e ace acili a es he sp eading and in il a-
ion o slag in o he g aphi e subs a e. Silicon, de i ed om he educed silica, has he
po en ial o pene a e deepe in o he g aphi e’s po ous s uc u e, possibly h ough gas-
phase anspo as SiO(g) [
74
,
75
,
79
]. I is wo h no ing ha he ex en o slag pene a ion
in o he e ac o y is closely co ela ed wi h he po e size o he e ac o y ma e ial. As po e
dimensions inc ease, he d i ing o ce o slag in il a ion in ensi ies signi ican ly, indica ing
a subs an ial pene a ion o slag in o he e ac o y medium. Ini ial slag pene a ion p i-
ma ily occu s h ough capilla y channels, which include open po es and mic oc acks [
80
].
The a e a which silica is educed is con ingen upon he silica ac i i y wi hin he slag as
well as he empe a u e condi ions. Gene ally, ele a ed silica ac i i y coupled wi h highe
empe a u es esul s in expedi ed eac ion a es and enhanced slag pene a ion in o he
g aphi e [74].
Fu he mo e, he in e ac ion be ween slag and g aphi e may engende he o ma ion o
no el phases a he in e ace, such as calcium silica es o alumina es [
81
–
84
]. Mo eo e , he
inco po a ion o B
2
O
3
signi ican ly a ec s he mel ing cha ac e is ics and iscosi y o slag
sys ems. Speci ically, he mel ing empe a u e o hese luxes dec eases wi h an inc ease in
B
2
O
3
con en , which subsequen ly a ec s he eac i i y and luidi y o he mol en slag in
con ac wi h g aphi e. This ela ionship is c ucial, as a educ ion in iscosi y a ele a ed
empe a u es can acili a e imp o ed in il a ion o he mol en ma e ial in o he po ous
s uc u e o g aphi e [54,85].
In conclusion, he in e play be ween CaO-SiO
2
-MgO-Al
2
O
3
-B
2
O
3
slag and g aphi e
is inhe en ly complex, cha ac e ized by eac ions ha modi y he slag’s composi ion,
mic os uc u e, and we ing p ope ies. Key ac o s in his in ica e p ocess include he
educ ion o silica by g aphi e, he subsequen o ma ion o new in e acial phases, and he
signi ican impac o bo on oxide on slag beha io .
4. Conclusions
This s udy in es iga es he impac o bo on oxide on he we abili y cha ac e is ics
o pla inum and g aphi e subs a es when in e ac ing wi h a CaO-SiO
2
-MgO-Al
2
O
3
-B
2
O
3
oxide sys em, while main aining a cons an basici y o 1.4 and a ying he B
2
O
3
con en .
Addi ionally, he in es iga ion assesses he ex en o in e ac ion a he phase in e ace
be ween he oxide sys em and he subs a es. The indings o his s udy can be summa ized
as ollows:
•
The inco po a ion o bo on oxide esul ed in a educ ion in con ac angles on bo h
pla inum and g aphi e subs a es. Fu he mo e, i was obse ed ha con ac angles
dec eased wi h an inc ease in empe a u e.
•
The indings om scanning elec on mic oscopy (SEM) mic oanalysis e ealed ha he
eac i e we ing o he g aphi e subs a e was in luenced by he concen a ion o bo on
oxide, wi h a ma ked inc ease in in ensi y co esponding o highe concen a ions o
bo on oxide. Con e sely, no e idence o eac i e we ing was obse ed in he case
o pla inum.
•
FTIR analysis con i med ha he addi ion o bo on oxide al e ed he s uc u al ne wo k
o he oxide sys em, weakening he in e molecula o ces a he su ace and esul ing
in a dec ease in he con ac angles.
•
The X- ay di ac ion (XRD) analysis esul s demons a ed he amo phous cha ac e is-
ics o all samples wi hin he oxide sys em. Qua z was iden i ied as he p edominan
c ys alline phase, accompanied by g aphi e in cases whe e he g aphi e subs a e
was we .
The indings o his esea ch complemen ou p e ious in es iga ions ocused on he
we ing o pla inum and g aphi e subs a es when in e ac ing wi h mul i-componen oxide
Coa ings 2025,15, 967 17 o 20
sys ems. Addi ionally, his s udy assesses he complexi ies o in e phase in e ac ions ha
occu wi hin hese sys ems. The implica ions o hese esul s a e pa icula ly ele an o he
me allu gical, ce amic, and glass indus ies, whe e expe imen al we ing da a a e essen ial
no only o p ocess con ol bu also o op imizing a ious indus ial ope a ions ha u ilize
oxide ma e ials.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, D.N. and L. ˇ
R.; me hodology, D.N., L. ˇ
R. and V.N.; so wa e,
D.N., L. ˇ
R. and V.N.; o mal analysis, D.N., L. ˇ
R. and V.N.; in es iga ion, D.N., L. ˇ
R., D.M. and P.P.;
esou ces, L. ˇ
R.; w i ing—o iginal d a , D.N., L. ˇ
R. and P.P.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, D.N., L. ˇ
R.
and V.N.; isualiza ion, D.N. and L. ˇ
R.; supe ision, D.N.; p ojec adminis a ion, L. ˇ
R.; unding
acquisi ion, D.N. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This a icle has been p oduced wi h he inancial suppo o he Eu opean Union unde
he REFRESH—Resea ch Excellence Fo REgion Sus ainabili y and High-Tech Indus ies p ojec
numbe CZ.10.03.01/00/22_003/0000048 ia he Ope a ional P og amme Jus T ansi ion. This pape
was also suppo ed by he p ojec No. CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004631 Ma e ials and echnologies
o sus ainable de elopmen wi hin he Jan Amos Komensky Ope a ional P og am inanced by
he Eu opean Union and om he s a e budge o he Czech Republic and by he s uden p ojec
SP2025/044.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable in ZENODO a
10.5281/zenodo.15837286, accessed on 8 July 2025.
Acknowledgmen s: We would also like o hank Michaela Topinko á o p epa ing he samples
and g inding.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Abb e ia ions
ADSA Axisymme ic D op Shape Analysis
ATR A enua ed To al Re lec ance
CA Calcium Alumina e
CA2 Calcium Dialumina e
CA6 Calcium Hexaalumina e
EDS Ene gy Dispe si e X- ay Spec oscopy
FWHM Full Wid h a Hal Maximum
FTIR Fou ie T ans o m In a ed Spec oscopy
NBO Non-B idging Oxygens
SEM Scanning Elec on Mic oscopy
XRD X-Ray Powde Di ac ion
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