Academic Edi o s: Jung Bin In and
Sung-Hoon Pa k
Recei ed: 18 Sep embe 2025
Re ised: 28 Oc obe 2025
Accep ed: 2 No embe 2025
Published: 5 No embe 2025
Ci a ion: Rac-Rumijowska, O.;
Ma kowski, P.; Rauch, K.;
Sucho ska-Wo´zniak, P.; Dziedzic, A.
De elopmen o Composi e
The mocouple Ma e ials Using
PEDOT:PSS and Bi2Te3 o Wea ables
The mopiles. Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ma18215046
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
De elopmen o Composi e The mocouple Ma e ials Using
PEDOT:PSS and Bi2Te3 o Wea ables The mopiles
Olga Rac-Rumijowska 1,* , Pio Ma kowski 1, Ka ol Rauch 2, Pa ycja Sucho ska-Wo´zniak 1
and And zej Dziedzic 1
1Facul y o Elec onics, Pho onics and Mic osys ems, W ocław Uni e si y o Science and Technology,
Wyb ze˙
ze Wyspia´nskiego 27, 50-370 W ocław, Poland; pio .ma kowski@pw .edu.pl (P.M.);
pa ycja.sucho ska-wozniak@pw .edu.pl (P.S.-W.); and zej.dziedzic@pw .edu.pl (A.D.)
2Facul y o Fundamen al P oblems o Technology, W ocław Uni e si y o Science and Technology, Wyb ze˙
ze
Wyspia´nskiego 27, 50-370 W ocław, Poland; ka ol. auch@pw .edu.pl
*Co espondence: olga. ac- umijowska@pw .edu.pl
Abs ac
This pape p esen s esul s on he p epa a ion o he moelec ic composi e ma e ials o
lexible and wea able elec onics applica ions. Composi e ma e ials in he o m o pas es
o sc een p in ing o s encil p in ing we e made om a mix u e o PEDOT:PSS pas e and
Bi
2
Te
3
powde . The pas es showed good adhesion bo h o polyimide oil (Kap on) and
polyes e ab ic subs a es. Depending on he composi ion and he subs a e used, he
pas es had a shee esis ance o 26–264
Ω
/sq, a Seebeck coe icien o 14–45
µ
V/K and a
powe ac o o 0.05–0.8
µ
W/mK
2
. The ob ained pas es enabled he ab ica ion o ex ile
he mopiles using Ag and PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
ma e ials o bo h a ms. The ou pu ol age
o he ob ained he mopiles on ex ile and oil subs a es was 6–8 mV a a empe a u e
g adien o 100
◦
C, and he ou pu powe was 0.01–0.12
µ
W. Ene gy ha es ing om he
human–ambien empe a u e g adien using he de eloped gene a o s yielded p omising
esul s, wi h ou pu ol ages a ound 0.3 mV.
Keywo ds: he mocouple; sc een-p in ing; wea able elec onics; PEDOT:PSS; bismu h
ellu ide (Bi2Te3); wea able he mopile; seebeck e ec
1. In oduc ion
Recen ly, he e has been a huge de elopmen in wea able elec onics, which is based
on p oducing a ious ypes o elec onic componen s in a o m ha can be wo n on he
body o a ached o clo hing. These componen s ha e applica ions in medicine, spo s,
mili a y o e e yday li e. Thei pu pose is he non-in asi e and con inuous moni o ing o
such pa ame e s as body empe a u e, sleep apnoea o s ess le els [
1
–
3
] in, o example, he
elde ly, he sick o in an s. In he con ex o an ageing popula ion and a sho age o ca e s a ,
he impo ance o wea able senso s o moni o ing i al signs should be highligh ed [4].
Howe e , despi e he huge in e es in wea able elec onics, which also has an economic
ansla ion—a ma ke alue o USD 120.54 billion in 2023 [
5
]—and applica ion po en ial
in a ious a eas o li e (spo s, heal h, mili a y), he e a e s ill many unsol ed scien i ic
and echnological p oblems. The majo i y o comme cially a ailable wea ables a e s ill
based on ex e nal accesso ies such as wa ches, w is bands and b acele s, a he han on he
p oduc ion o ex ile elec onic componen s. This is because he c ea ion o s able, lexible,
wea able and com o able elec ical connec ions is s ill an unsol ed p oblem. In addi ion,
he e is a p oblem wi h s anda d elec onics echnology— he powe supply, which, despi e
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma18215046
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 2 o 18
he minia u iza ion o de ices and hei powe consump ion, equi es he ins alla ion o
ba e ies o echa geable ba e ies whose weigh and size a exceed ha o he de ice i sel .
On he o he hand, i is ex emely impo an o ocus a en ion on he de elopmen o no el
ideas o wea able powe supply and ene gy ha es ing [
6
,
7
], which would allow wea able
de ices o be powe ed by ene gy ha es ed om he en i onmen .
One o he physical e ec s ha make i possible o powe elec ical ci cui s wi h ex-
ac ed ene gy a e he mocouples and he mopiles based on he Seebeck e ec . The mopiles
a e assemblies o he mocouples which a e elec ically connec ed in se ies and he mally
connec ed in pa allel. This means ha he he moelec ic o ce gene a ed by he single
he mocouple is mul iplied by he numbe o junc ions used. The mocouples a e widely
and comme cially used bo h as highly sensi i e (20–50
µ
V/K) empe a u e senso s [
8
] and
as componen o powe gene a o s o space p obes and o he applica ions [
9
,
10
]. Due
o he p oli e a ion o po able elec onics, he e is g ea in e es in he manu ac u e o
po able he mocouples [1].
A he mocouple is an elemen o an elec ic ci cui consis ing o wo di e en ma-
e ials (mainly conduc o s and/o semiconduc o s wi h di e en alues o he Seebeck
coe icien —
αA
,
αB
[V/K]) and using he Seebeck e ec occu ing a hei con ac . Due o
he empe a u e di e ence be ween he junc ions (measu ing and e e ence, so-called cold
and ho ends o he he mocouple—T
1
, T
2
[K]), a po en ial di e ence (elec omo i e o ce) is
c ea ed, called he moelec ic o ce—E
T
[V],
p opo ional o he empe a u e di e ence (1)
.
The mocouples a e connec ed elec ically in se ies (n—numbe o he mocouples) in he -
mopiles o inc ease he ol age gene a ed EOUT [V] (2).
ET=(αA−αB)(T1−T2)(1)
EOUT =n·ET(2)
The sui abili y o ma e ials o he moelec ic componen s, especially ol age gene a-
o s, is assessed on he basis o he he moelec ic powe ac o PF [W·m−1·K−2] (3).
PF =α2·σ(3)
I implies ha ma e ials mus ha e bo h a high elec ical conduc i i y (
σ
) [S
·
m
−1
] and
a high Seebeck coe icien (
α
). These alues a e dependen on each o he , as bo h depend on
he amoun and mobili y o he ca ie s. Fo his eason, an inc ease in one always esul s in
a dec ease in he o he . These pa ame e s a e also co ela ed wi h he he mal conduc i i y
o he ma e ial
λ
, which is he sum o he elec on (
λ
e) and phonon (
λ
) componen s. In
o de o educe
λ
, dopan s ha dis up (de ec ) he c ys al la ice a e in oduced in o he
ma e ial. As a esul , he phonon componen dec eases wi hou changing he elec on
componen . This is c ucial because a change in he elec on componen would equally
a ec he elec ical conduc i i y. On he o he hand, phonon in e ac ions a e one o he
ac o s de e mining he magni ude o he Seebeck coe icien .
A mo e accu a e pa ame e o de e mining a ma e ial’s abili y o gene a e a he -
moelec ic ol age is he Z- alue ( igu e o me i ) [K
−1
] (4), which combines he h ee
mos impo an pa ame e s cha ac e izing he moelec ic ma e ials—Seebeck coe icien
α
,
elec ical conduc i i y σand he mal conduc i i y λ[11].
Z=α2·σ
λ(4)
Fo empe a u e senso s, he mos impo an he Seebeck coe icien o bo h ma e ials
used o he mocouple a ms (and hei di e ence), while o he moelec ic gene a o s i
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 3 o 18
is impo an o de e mine he he moelec ic powe ac o PF and dimensionless igu e-
o -me i Z alues, om which i ollows ha ma e ials mus ha e bo h high elec ical
conduc i i y (
σ
) [S
·
m
−1
], high Seebeck coe icien (
α
) and low he mal conduc i i y (
λ
)
[W
·
m
−1·
Km
−1
] o be good he moelec ic ma e ials. Due o he low conduc i i y, when
hea ing one end o he he mocouple, he o he end emains cold. This helps gene a e a
la ge empe a u e g adien and hus a g ea e he moelec ic o ce.
Resea ch in o he ab ica ion o he mopiles in e ms o sensing p ope ies and ol age
gene a ion ocuses on modi ying he ma e ials o he he mocouple a ms a e made [
12
–
17
]
( ype o ma e ial, size, dopan ) o modi ying hei s uc u e ( he mopiles, 3D s uc u es,
geome y) [
18
]. In con as , he majo i y o he mopiles a e s ill made on igid subs a es
(ce amic, silicon). Rela i ely ew epo s deal wi h he ab ica ion o he mocouples on
lexible subs a es, in pa icula on ex ile subs a es. Mos ex ile he mocouples epo ed
in he li e a u e a e based on he wea ing o me al wi es and ib es in o he s uc u e o
ex iles, which educes hei lexibili y [
19
,
20
] and causes discom o in use [
21
]. Many
ex ile he mocouples a e cha ac e ized by signi ican d i and luc ua ion o he gene -
a ed ol age [22].
Mos publica ions in he ield o ex ile he mocouples p esen p elimina y esul s
conce ning he cha ac e iza ion o he he moelec ic ma e ials hemsel es on ab ics, he
p epa a ion o he mocouples and possibly hei applica ion as empe a u e senso s [
23
].
Bu he mocouples and he mopiles, on he o he hand, ha e he po en ial o be used
in ex iles no only as empe a u e senso s bu also as he moelec ic gene a o s. When
inco po a ed in o clo hing, hey can be used o p o ide he ol age and powe equi ed
by po able elec onic de ices. This is possible because he e a e a eas on he human body
wi h a na u al empe a u e g adien caused by he use o elec onics [
24
]. Mo eo e , i is
possible o exploi he empe a u e di e ence be ween he human body and he clo hing.
By using sui able he moelec ic ma e ials, i is possible o ob ain he mocouples wi h an
ou pu powe ha can be used in ene gy gene a o s on oil subs a es. Zhuo Cao e al. [
25
]
in es iga ed he possibili y o ab ica ing he mocouples om ellu ium-an imony (Sb
2
Te
3
)
combined wi h (Bi
1.8
Te
3.2
) ia sil e pas e o undoped ellu ium-an imony, all samples
ab ica ed on lexible Kap on oil. The esul ing he mocouples ga e a signal o a ew mV
wi h a empe a u e change o abou 10
◦
C [
26
] and abou six imes he esponse o n- ype
doped Bi
2
Te
3
combined wi h p- ype Sb
2
Te
3
[
27
]. In con as , analogous li e a u e epo s
on ex ile subs a es a e s ill lacking.
One echnique ha makes i possible o c ea e conduc i e elemen s on ex iles ha do
no equi e he inco po a ion o me al wi es and ya ns is sc een o s encil p in ing. Sc een
p in ing is a me hod known and used o ab ic modi ica ion al eady in he Song Dynas y
in China (960–1279 AD). Fo many yea s i was used only o gi e colou s o p in s o ab ics.
Howe e , a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y i began o be used in a comple ely new a ea—
elec onics, o he p oduc ion o hick laye s. Wi h he de elopmen o p in ed elec onics
i was possible o ob ain hick laye s no only on he mally esis an ce amics subs a es,
bu also hanks o he use o polyme pas es on lexible subs a es. In ecen yea s he sc een
p in ing me hod o conduc i e laye s on ex ile subs a es is in es iga ed and applied o
wea able elec onics [
28
,
29
]. Howe e , his equi es he de elopmen o new composi e
ma e ials (pas es) ha allow o he e ec i e applica ion o p in s and a he same ime
ha e su icien elec ical (o he moelec ic) p ope ies. Composi e ma e ials, such as sc een
p in ing pas es, consis o wo phases— he unc ional phase ( he ma e ial ha impa s
he inal elec ical p ope ies in he o m o nano- and/o mic o-powde s) and he ca ie
( he polyme ic ma e ial ha binds he pa icles o he unc ional phase oge he , allowing
p in ing and adhesion o he subs a e). Fo all he moelec ic pa ame e s, i is impo an
o conside he ole and in luence o bo h componen s o he pas e, as bulk ma e ials ha e
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 4 o 18
di e en p ope ies o composi es (pas es) [
30
]. In conduc i e composi e ma e ials, e en
when he pe cola ion h eshold is exceeded, he e is always he phenomenon o cu en
unnelling h ough he hin polyme laye su ounding he conduc i e pa icles. Fo his
eason, e en when he pe cola ion h eshold is exceeded, he elec ical conduc i i y o he
composi e is always 2–4 o de s o magni ude lowe han he conduc i i y o he unc ional
ma e ial used [
31
,
32
], and analogous beha iou can be obse ed o he o he pa ame e s
ele an o he moelec ic p ope ies—Seebeck coe icien and he mal conduc i i y.
The li e a u e p o ides examples o he moelec ic ma e ials o wea able elec on-
ics applica ions. Lu e al. ab ica ed composi e ilms made o PEDOT:PSS on a ny-
lon memb ane [
33
], Song e al. laye ed nanos uc u e PEDOT:PSS/SWCNTs [
34
], Liu
e al. PEDOT:PSS/silicon dioxide nanopa icles composi e ilms [
35
] and Ra hi e al.
PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
/ educed g aphene oxide e na y composi e ilms [
36
]. The a icle
p esen s he p ope ies o he he moelec ic sc een-p in ed ilms based on bismu h ellu ide
( unc ional phase), while he conduc i e polyme PEDOT:PSS, which is also cha ac e ized
by good he moelec ic p ope ies, was used as he ca ie phase. The pas es we e applied
o ex ile (polyes e —PES) and polyimide oil (Kap on) subs a es. In o de o make a
second he mocouple a m, analogous p in s we e made om a comme cial sil e -based
conduc i e pas e. The ob ained pas es enabled he ab ica ion o ex ile he mopiles using
Ag/PEDOT:PSS/Bi2Te3ma e ials.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Raw Ma e ials and Pas e P epa a ion
The sil e he mocouple a m is made o conduc i e DuPon PE874 sc een p in ing
pas e om he In exa se ies in ended o lexible subs a es, including ex ile.
To p epa e he pas e o he second a m o he he mocouple 325 mesh powde o
bismu h ellu ide Bi
2
Te
3
99.99% ace me al base (Sigma Ald ich, S . Louis, MO, USA) and
Poly(3,4-e hylenedioxy hiophene)-poly(s y ene sul ona e) (PEDOT:PSS) 5.0 w .%, conduc-
i e sc een p in able ink (Sigma Ald ich) was used.
Pas es con aining a mix u e o bismu h ellu ide powde and PEDOT:PSS pas e we e
p epa ed by mixing hem in a mo a un il a homogeneous consis ency was ob ained
(app oxima ely 5 min). The weigh a io o he componen s in he indi idual samples is
p esen ed in Table 1. The scheme o ob aining he ma e ials is shown in Figu e 1.
Table 1. Composi ion o he ecei ed pas es.
Weigh Ra io o PEDOT:PSS/Bi2Te3
Sample Desc ip ion
Concen a ion
PEDOT:PSS w .%
Concen a ion
Bi2Te3w .%
100:0 100 0
90:10 90 10
80:20 80 20
70:30 70 30
60:40 60 40
30:70 30 70
Figu e 1. Schema ic diag am o ob aining ma e ials.
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 5 o 18
Polyimide oil DuPon ™ (Wilming on, DE, USA) Kap on ( hickness 125
µ
m) and
polyes e ab ic ( hickness 150
µ
m) no. 205509/AN/BS PES 100% om Mi anda Limi ed
liabili y company (Tu ek, Poland) we e used as a subs a es.
2.2. P in ing P ocedu e
All p in s we e made on polyimide oil and polyes e ab ic subs a es wi h dimensions
o 100
×
150 mm
2
. Fi s , es samples we e p in ed om each pas e—5 ec angula s ips o
28
×
3.5 mm
2
(8 squa es), hen he mopiles consis ing o i e he mocouples we e made
om one o ob ained pas es (Figu e 2), in which he elec ical con ac s and one o he
he mocouple a ms we e made om sil e pas e and he o he om PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
pas e. The ilms om PE874 pas e we e sc een-p in ed wi h he aid o semi-au oma ic
sc een p in e Unip in Go3V (PBT WORKS, Rožno pod Radhoš ˇem, Czech Republic). A
200 mesh s ainless sc een was used o make he p in s, on which a pho osensi i e emulsion
( hickness 30
µ
m) wi h a pa e n was applied. PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
pas es we e applied
using he s encil p in ing me hod. The s encil was made o 0.25 mm hickness PET oil
known unde he ade name Melinex (Selmex company, Plewiska, Poland). Based on ou
p e ious s udies [
37
], ou p in s on ab ic subs a es and wo p in s on oil we e made,
in o de o op imally co e he su ace. A e p in ing, all laye s we e cu ed o 15 min
a 130
◦
C a a well- en ila ed d ye Binde FED-56 (Binde Gmbh, Tu lingen, Ge many)
acco ding o da a shee o used ma e ials. The elec ical connec ions o he ab ic we e
made using 10.5 mm snaps (Figu e 2c). The lowe pa o he snap was a ached o he
ab ic using a lea he wo k p ess, and he in e io o he snap was illed wi h PE874 pas e.
A e c imping, he s uc u e was d ied (15 min, 130
◦
C). The uppe pa o he snap was
connec ed o he wi e by solde ing.
(a) (b) (c)
Figu e 2. Schema ic diag am (a), pho og aphy (b) and elec ical connec ion (c) o he he mopile
(g ey colou —sil e pas e; black colou —PEDOT:PSS/Bi2Te3pas e).
2.3. Cha ac e iza ion
The mo phology o Bi
2
Te
3
powde by Scanning Elec on Mic oscope (SEM) (Hi achi
SU6600, Tokyo, Japan) when as he mo phology o p in ed and cu ed ilms was in es iga ed
using Leica DM4500 B LED op ical mic oscope (We zla , Ge many) and mo phology. The
ilm hickness o he p in s was de e mined using a Keyence VHX 7000 digi al mic oscope
(Keyence In e na ional, Mechelen, Belgium), which allows 3D measu emen s o he objec s
and he calcula ion o i s heigh p o iles, as well as elec onic mic ome e gauge.
Elec ical conduc i i y was measu ed using he Ossila Fou -Poin P obe Sys em
(She ield, UK) wi h Ossila Shee Resis ance so wa e Ossila Shee Resis ance . 2.1.1. The
bench uses ou p obes lying in a line a equal in e als and made o he same me al alloy.
The con ac poin s ace he subs a e gi ing he possibili y o cu en low h ough he
blades. The inne elec odes a e designed o measu e he po en ial di e ence a ising in
he ma e ial. As a esul o he cu en I lowing h ough he ilm, a po en ial dis ibu ion
Uis o med in he ilm, which is s ic ly dependen on he esis i i y o he ma e ial and
he geome y o he sample. I is he e o e impo an o keep he measu emen loca ion
and he geome ical dimensions o he sample cons an . The di ec measu and is he
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 6 o 18
su ace esis ance Rexp essed by Fo mula (5), while he esis i i y o a ilm o hickness d
is de e mined by Fo mula (6):
R=U
I[Ω], (5)
ϱ=KU
Id[Ω·m], (6)
whe e Kis he co ec ion ac o . I is ela ed o he geome y o he subs a e and he
dimensions o he measu ing head and is calcula ed heo e ically. In he case o he p esen
measu emen s, K= 0.61.
Tempe a u e coe icien o Resis ance (TCR) was calcula ed using Fo mula (7). Re-
sis ance measu emen s we e ca ied ou using Keysigh Technologies 34461A mul ime e
(Keysigh Technologies, San a Rosa, Cali o nia, Uni ed S a es) by echnical me hod. The
samples we e hea ed o 125
◦
C on a hea ing pla e o ou own manu ac u e, in inc emen s
o 5 ◦C.
HTCR =R(125 ◦C)−R(25 ◦C)×106
R(25 ◦C)×100 [ppm/K], (7)
whe e R(125
◦
C)— esis ance a 125
◦
C; R(25
◦
C)— esis ance a 25
◦
C; and HTCR—Ho
Tempe a u e Coe icien o Resis ance.
The de e mina ion o he Seebeck coe icien o he es ed ma e ials was ca ied ou
using an au oma ed se -up (Figu e 3a) [
38
,
39
]. I consis s o wo coppe blocks ac ing as a
hea e (HOT) and a hea sink (COLD), h ee ol me e s, p obes and measu ing wi es made
o a e e ence he moelec ic ma e ials. The hea e empe a u e is adjus able om oom
empe a u e o 220
◦
C. The hea sink empe a u e is s abilized o nea - oom empe a u e.
The subs a e wi h he es sample is placed on coppe blocks (Figu e 2a). Two measu ing
p obes (A and B) made o a e e ence he moelec ic ma e ials a e a ached o he ho
pa o he es ma e ial. These we e NiC (p obe A) and NiAl (p obe B). Toge he hey
o m a K- ype he mocouple. To p obes A and B measu ing wi es a e connec ed (A_wi e
and B_wi e), made o he same ma e ials. The A_wi e and B_wi e a e sho -ci cui ed a
a loca ion wi h a known e e ence empe a u e, T
REF
, o ming he cold junc ion o he
measu ing he mocouple. The ho junc ion is o med by he elec ical sho -ci cui o
p obes A and B h ough he ma e ial in es iga ed. I he con ac empe a u es o junc ions
p obe A/sample and p obe B/sample a e he same (i is me when he con ac s a e close
oge he ), hen he empe a u e a he junc ion p obe A/sample (T
HOT
) can be de e mined
e y accu a ely using he V
HOT
ol me e . Simila ly, he empe a u e o he junc ion p obe
A/sample on he COLD block (T
COLD
) is de e mined. A hi d ol me e (V
α
) measu es
he elec omo i e o ce (E
T_α
) gene a ed by a he mocouple consis ing o he in es iga ed
ma e ial and he he moelec ic ma e ial A (NiC ), wi h a known Seebeck coe icien (
αA
).
Hence, he Seebeck coe icien o he in es iga ed sample (
αsample
) can be de e mined using
Fo mula (8):
ET_α=αsample −αA
(THOT −TCOLD)(8)
The de e mina ion o he ou pu pa ame e s o he mopiles composed o i e he -
mocouples was pe o med on a simila se -up (Figu e 3b). To accu a ely de e mine he
empe a u es o he cold and ho sides o he he mopiles, p obes and measu ing wi es
made o he moelec ic e e ence ma e ials A and B (NiC and NiAl) we e used. They
we e moun ed on he a ms o he he mopiles, analogous o he measu emen s desc ibed
abo e. In addi ion, a mul ime e measu ing he gene a ed V
ET
ol age and he in e nal
esis ance R
i
was a ached o he con ac ields o he he mopile. The hea e was hea ed
om oom empe a u e o app oxima ely 125
◦
C, allowing he cha ac e is ics V
ET
= (T
HOT
),
Ri= (THOT) and POUT = (THOT) o be de e mined.
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 7 o 18
(a) (b)
Figu e 3. Schema ics o he se -ups used o measu e: (a) he Seebeck coe icien o he ma e ials;
(b) he ou pu pa ame e s o he he mopiles.
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Mo phology o Ma e ials
The mic os uc u e o he esul ing ilms was de e mined by op ical mic oscopy.
As a esul o p in ing he pas e ou imes on ex ile subs a es and wo imes on ilm
subs a es, ull su ace co e age was ob ained, bo h o ab ic and oil (Figu e 4b–h).
Howe e , in he case o p in ing on ab ic, he pas e pene a es almos he en i e dep h o
he ab ic. The p in ed su ace on he ab ic accu a ely ep oduced he s uc u e o he pu e
ab ic (Figu e 4a) o all sil e pas e (Figu e 4b), PEDOT:PSS pas e (Figu e 4c) and 70:30
PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
pas e (Figu e 4d,e). A pho og aph was also aken o an example o he
bonding a ea be ween he wo pas es (sil e and 70:30 PEDOT:PSS/Bi
2
Te
3
) (Figu e 4 ) o
show he good con ac be ween he pas es applied o he ex ile subs a e.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) ( )
(g) (h) (i)
Figu e 4. Mic os uc u e o he (a) clea su ace o ex iles; ex iles co e ed by (b) sil e pas e,
(c) PEDOT:PSS pas e
, (d,e) pas e con aining 70:30 PEDOT:PSS:Bi
2
Te
3
; ( ) bo de o p in om pas e
PEDOT:PSS and 70:30 PEDOT:PSS:Bi
2
Te
3
; (g,h) polyimide oil co e ed by pas e 70:30; (i) SEM image
o Bi2Te3powde .
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 8 o 18
SEM image (Figu e 4i) o Bi
2
Te
3
powde shows ha ma e ials is a powde o m wi h
a g ain size o 5–50
µ
m, hese pa icles a e isible in pas es con aining bismu h ellu ide
(Figu e 4d,e,g,h) ega dless o he ype o subs a e, in con as o he polyme ic PEDOT:PSS
pas e (Figu e 4c) o ming a uni o m, con inuous and hin ilm.
3.2. Film Thickness
De e mining he hickness o p in s in ypical hick ilms is ela i ely simple. Howe e ,
his is no he case o p in s made on ab ics. Due o he equi ed iscosi y o he sc een-
p in ing pas e o enable i o be applied o he subs a e, he pas e la gely pene a es he
highly abso ben ex ile subs a e. On he one hand, his phenomenon makes i possible o
ob ain ilms wi h high adhesion o he subs a e; on he o he hand, i makes i signi ican ly
mo e di icul o de e mine he hickness o he ilms, which is essen ial o de e mining he
elec ical pa ame e s o he ma e ial. The p o ilome ic measu emen s aken o he clean
(Figu e 5a) and pas e-coa ed ab ic (Figu e 5b) did no allow a clea measu emen o he
ilm hickness bu only showed ha he ab ic was smoo he a e p in ing. This is ela ed
o he comple e abso p ion o he pas e in o he ab ic, which is isible on he c oss-sec ion
o he p in (Figu e 5c). Fo his eason, i is no possible o sepa a e he hickness o he
p in om he hickness o he subs a e.
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 5. P o ilome y analysis o (a) unco e ed ex ile; (b) ex ile wi h p in ed sil e ilm; (c) op ical
mic oscope image o a c oss-sec ion o a sil e p in on ab ic; and (d) a e age dependence o p in
hickness on pas e composi ion.
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 9 o 18
Howe e , de e mining he esis i i y o he ma e ial is essen ial o de e mine he
quali y o he he moelec ic ma e ial. Fo his eason, i was decided o ake app oxima e
measu emen s o he p in ed hicknesses, which consis ed o measu ing he p in ed ilms
i e imes using an elec onic mic ome e sc ew. The hickness o he subs a e was hen
sub ac ed om he a e aged alue, espec i ely, 150
µ
m o he PES ab ic and 125
µ
m
o he polyimide ilm. The dependence o he a e age ilm hickness on he sample
composi ion (Figu e 4d) shows ha he ilms hickness inc eases sligh ly wi h he bismu h
ellu ide con en . This is ela ed o he inc easing densi y and iscosi y o he PEDOT:PSS
pas e when Bi
2
Te
3
powde is added o i . The a e age hickness o he laye s ob ained on
he ilm was 44
µ
m and, on he ab ic, 75
µ
m, which is ela ed o he applica ion o wo
p in s o pas e on he oil and ou p in s on he ab ic.
3.3. Elec ical Conduc i i y
The measu emen s o he shee esis ance showed ha he con en o conduc i e
polyme in he pas e has a dominan e ec on he conduc i i y o he ma e ial. The addi ion
o inc easing amoun s o semiconduc ing Bi
2
Te
3
signi ican ly inc eases he esis ance o
he pas e (Table 2) (Figu e 6a). Fu he mo e, all he pas es, i espec i e o he ype o
subs a e hey we e applied o, exhibi ed linea cu en - ol age cha ac e is ics, which is
indica i e o he elec onega i e na u e o he pas e conduc i i y (Figu e 6b). Sil e -based
PE 874 ilm has a shee esis ance o 0.22
Ω
/sq on PES ex iles subs a e and 0.12
Ω
/sq on
polyimide oil. The esis i i y is highe han decla ed by he manu ac u e , which is due o
he di e en hickness o he ac ual laye s made.
Table 2. Compa ison o esis ance pe shee R□and esis i i y.
Sample
Desc ip ion
Shee Resis ance
[Ω/sq]
Resis i i y
[Ω·m]
Film Thickness
[mm]
PES
Tex ile
Polyimide
Foil
PES
Tex ile
Polyimide
Foil
PES
Tex ile
Polyimide
Foil
100:0 26 33 0.0013 0.00039 0.051 0.012
90:10 23 38 0.0014 0.0017 0.062 0.043
80:20 62 47 0.0034 0.0018 0.056 0.037
70:30 63 65 0.0045 0.0022 0.071 0.034
60:40 152 152 0.014 0.0091 0.090 0.059
30:70 232 333 0.027 0.026 0.116 0.078
PE 874 0.22 0.12 0.00001 0.000005 0.045 0.040
(a) (b)
Figu e 6. (a) Change in pas e conduc i i y as a unc ion o bismu h ellu ide concen a ion.
(b) Cu en ol age cha ac e is ics o he ob ained pas es.
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 16 o 18
ing amoun s o he semiconduc ing bismu h ellu ide causes he esis ance o inc ease
inc easingly up o a alue o 264 Ω/sq.
The alue ha de e mines he sui abili y o he ma e ials o making he moelec ic
componen s om hem is he powe ac o combining he wo. In he case o he samples
ob ained, i s alue dec eases signi ican ly wi h he bismu h ellu ide con en o he pas e.
This indica es ha he p edominan signi icance in he moelec ic applica ions o he
ab ica ed pas es has he esis i i y and no hei Seebeck coe icien . Fo his eason,
u he wo k is planned o design ma e ials ha can be used in wea able elec onics, bu
wi h a highe PF alue. Such esul s can be achie ed, among o he s, by doping Bi
2
Te
3
wi h
an imony (Sb), which allows a Seebeck coe icien o 220
µ
V/K o be achie ed a oom
empe a u e [
48
], o by using mo e inely di ided bismu h ellu ide pa icles, which will
allow he ellu ide pa icles dis ibu ed in he polyme ma ix o exceed he pe cola ion
h eshold mo e quickly. This may inc ease he Seebeck coe icien o he pas e wi h a lowe
bismu h ellu ide con en in PEDOT:PSS, and wi hou a signi ican inc ease in esis ance. I
can also be impo an o doping pas es wi h ca bon nanopa icles, which signi ican ly al e
he Seebeck coe icien o ma e ials: doping wi h g aphene (
α
=
−
150
µ
V/K) [
49
], ca bon
nano ubes (α=−130 µV/K) [50], single wall ca bon nano ubes (α=−140 µV/K) [51].
Two ypes o he mopiles consis ing o i e he mocouples we e ab ica ed and cha -
ac e ized. In bo h, one a m was made om Ag-based pas e, and he o he om pu e PE-
DOT:PSS (cha ac e ized by he highes PF a io) o om 70:30-based pas e. The de e mined
Seebeck coe icien le el o Ag pas e was +1.5–+1.8
µ
V/K o PEDOT:PSS,
+14 µV/K
and o 70:30 +20–+21
µ
V/K (Figu e 7). This means ha he expec ed Seebeck coe icien
o whole he mopiles was abou 62
µ
V/K o PEDOT:PSS/Ag and abou 95
µ
V/K o
70:30/Ag, which coincides wi h he measu ed esul s (Figu e 9). The he mopiles we e
ab ica ed on bo h subs a es’ polyimide oil and ab ic. No signi ican di e ence in he
le el o gene a ed ou pu ol age was obse ed be ween he he mopiles on he di e en
subs a es. This was expec ed, as i was due o he peculia i ies o he Seebeck phenomenon,
which does no depend on he geome y o dimensions o he s uc u es. The bes ou pu
pe o mance was measu ed o PEDOT:PSS/Ag he mopile on he polyimide oil, which
gene a ed a ol age o 8 mV and a powe o 0.10
µ
W a a empe a u e g adien o
100 ◦C
along he s uc u e. Fo he ex ile subs a e, he same ou pu ol age was achie ed, bu
lowe powe (0.07
µ
W) due o highe in e nal esis ance. I s educ ion will be one o he
key objec i es o u he esea ch. The de eloped gene a o s demons a ed p omising
esul s, wi h a gene a ed ol age o app oxima ely 0.3 mV and ou pu powe anging om
3.7
×
10
−6
o 2.8
×
10
−4µ
W, depending on he s uc u e. This pe o mance makes hem
well-sui ed o wea able elec onics, enabling he powe ing o low-ene gy senso s, commu-
nica ion modules, o physiological moni o ing sys ems. Thei s able ope a ion and compac
o m ac o u he suppo seamless in eg a ion in o clo hing o wea able accesso ies.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, O.R.-R.; me hodology, O.R.-R. and P.M.; alida ion,
O.R.-R., P.M. and P.S.-W.; in es iga ion, O.R.-R., P.M. and K.R.; da a cu a ion, O.R.-R. and P.M.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, O.R.-R. and P.M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, P.S.-W. and A.D.;
isualiza ion, O.R.-R., P.M. and K.R. supe ision, A.D.; p ojec adminis a ion, O.R.-R.; unding
acquisi ion, A.D. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This wo k has been suppo ed by p ojec Minia u a no. DEC-2023/07/X/ST7/00027 i-
nanced by he Polish Na ional Science Cen e (NCN) and unding om s a u o y ac i i ies o W ocław
Uni e si y o Science and Technology (WUST) Facul y o Elec onics, Pho onics and Mic osys ems.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Ma e ials 2025,18, 5046 17 o 18
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in his s udy a e included in he
a icle. Fu he inqui ies can be di ec ed o he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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