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Mapping U ban Food and Nu i ion Insecu i y: A Spa ial Index o Ba celona
Wo king Pape , July 2025
Au ho s: Ga cia-Sie a, Ma a¹; C uz, I ene²; And eu, Ma a²; LaRo a-Aguile a, Ma ia José;3 Ana
Mo agues-Faus;3 Domene, Elena²
¹ Epidemiology and Public Heal h A ea, FISABIO – Public Heal h, Valencia, Spain.
² Ins i u Me òpoli, Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona, Ba celona, Spain.
3 Facul y o Economics and Business, Uni e si y o Ba celona, Spain.
P ojec Name: FOOD4GOOD—Add essing Food Insecu i y and Sus ainabili y Challenges o Build
Heal h, P ospe ous Socie ies and Regene a e he En i onmen (PID2021-125013NA-I00)
Wo king Pape Se ies: FISABIO – Epidemiology and Public Heal h A ea
WP Numbe and Da e: WP1 – No embe 2025
Acknowledgemen s: This esea ch was unded by he p ojec FOOD4GOOD – Add essing Food
Insecu i y and Sus ainabili y Challenges o Build Heal h, P ospe ous Socie ies and Regene a e he
En i onmen (PID2021-125013NA-I00), inanced by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by he
FEDER, Eu opean Union. The au ho s would also like o acknowledge he suppo o he FOOD4GOOD
conso ium.
Abs ac
Despi e g owing a en ion o sus ainable ood sys ems, ood insecu i y is s ill unde -add essed in Eu opean
ci ies, o en sidelined in u ban policy agendas and cons ained by limi ed concep ual and spa ial
amewo ks. The aim o his s udy is o de elop a Food Insecu i y Vulne abili y Index (FIVI) wi h a spa ial
ounda ion, es ima ed a he census ac le el, using a model ha balances simplici y wi h s ong
explana o y powe . The selec ed indica o s span he six dimensions o ood secu i y and nu i ion as de ined
by HLPE (2020) — a ailabili y, access, u ilisa ion, s abili y, sus ainabili y, and agency — and a e spa ially
ope a ionalised and adap ed o he con ex o a Medi e anean Eu opean u ban a ea, speci ically Ba celona.
A gene alised linea model (GLM) wi h a quasi-binomial dis ibu ion was used, accoun ing o ze o-
in la ion in he dependen a iable — he p e alence o childhood obesi y among boys aged 0 o 12 yea s
(%). This p oxy o malnu i ion was selec ed due o he high-quali y da a sys ema ically collec ed du ing
scheduled paedia ic check-ups. The model includes socioeconomic and ood en i onmen p edic o s, i ed
using da a om Ba celona and p ojec ed o Mad id using an equi alen da ase and he es ima ed
coe icien s. Key p edic o s include a lowe income, a younge popula ion p o ile, and g ea e access o
o ganic ood ou le s, all signi ican ly associa ed wi h educed ulne abili y. In con as , highe o e
abs en ion—used as a p oxy o agency—was posi i ely associa ed wi h ulne abili y. These indings
unde sco e he ele ance o socioeconomic s a us, agency, and ood access in shaping ood insecu i y isk.
The esul ing ho spo and coldspo mapping based on he index enhances unde s anding o ood insecu i y
dynamics and hei links o e i o ial, socio-economic, ecological, and heal h ac o s, o e ing aluable
insigh s o local-le el planning and he moni o ing o a ge ed in e en ions.
Keywo ds
Food insecu i y; syn he ic index; ho spo mapping; Ba celona; Mad id.
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1. In oduc ion
Despi e inc easing a en ion o sus ainable and heal hy ood sys ems, ood insecu i y emains a la gely
o e looked issue in Eu opean ci ies (Ga a , 2020; Long e al., 2020; Penne & Goedemé, 2021). Food
insecu i y may appea o e e exclusi ely o de eloping coun ies, bu mode a e and se e e ood insecu i y
le els ha e also a ec ed almos 9% o he popula ion in Eu ope and No h Ame ica, and could e en each
alues o 10–15% in speci ic egions (Ca illo-Ál a ez e al., 2021; FAO 2020, 2021). This is pa icula ly
e iden in Medi e anean con ex s, whe e he pe sis ence o malnu i ion, die - ela ed diseases, and unequal
access o heal hy ood en i onmen s is equen ly unde es ima ed (Mo agues-Faus & Magaña-González,
2022; Ma che i & Secondi, 2022). Food insecu i y—unde s ood as inconsis en access o adequa e and
nu i ious ood—ac s as a key d i e o malnu i ion, including unde nu i ion, o e weigh , obesi y, and
mic onu ien de iciencies.
Recen da a om Medi e anean coun ies show ha ood insecu i y is a om ma ginal. In I aly, 22.3%
o he popula ion is a isk o ood po e y o ood insecu i y, wi h egional dispa i ies anging om 14.6%
in Umb ia o 29.6% in Ab uzzo (Ma che i & Secondi, 2022). In G eece, he 2020 Income and Li ing
Condi ions Su ey (SILC) epo ed ha 13.2% o he popula ion wo ied abou no ha ing enough ood,
12.8% could no main ain a heal hy and nu i ious die , and 6.2% we e o ced o skip meals (Hellenic
S a is ical Au ho i y, 2021). In Spain, he i s na ionally ep esen a i e su ey using he Food Insecu i y
Expe ience Scale (FIES) ound ha 13.3% o households (2.5 million) expe ienced ood insecu i y in 2021
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic (Mo agues-Faus & Magaña-González, 2022). Food insecu i y was mos
p e alen among households wi h lowe socioeconomic s a us, economic di icul ies, and p eca ious
employmen , and was o en associa ed wi h ch onic illness o disabili y wi hin he household.
In Ca alonia, he 2024 Heal h Su ey epo ed ha 2.6% o he popula ion could no a o d a meal wi h
mea , ish, chicken, o a ege a ian equi alen e e y wo days, wi h p e alence ising sha ply among hose
wi h only p ima y educa ion (8.0%) o in lowe social classes (4.1%) (Schia ino & Medina, 2025). The
mos ecen da a on malnu i ion indica e ha 33.8% o boys and 28.4% o gi ls aged 2–17 we e a ec ed
by obesi y, o e weigh , o unde weigh (IDESCAT, 2025). Simul aneously, ood p ice anomalies ha e
su ged since he pandemic, wi h b ead, ce eals, and o he ood i ems exceeding €126 in 2023, compa ed o
le els below €100 p io o 2020 (IDESCAT, 2025).
These igu es, while illus a i e, poin o deepe s uc u al issues. Recen e iews ha e emphasized ha
ood insecu i y is shaped by he in e play o s uc u al, spa ial, and social ac o s, and ha many exis ing
indica o s ail o cap u e i s ull scope (Righe ini & Bo din, 2023). Global assessmen s al eady sugges ha
he wo ld is o ack o achie e Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 2 (“Ze o Hunge ”) by 2030, as he
p e alence o ood insecu i y con inues o ise e en in high-income egions (FAO e al., 2024). In weal hy
coun ies, ood insecu i y does no s em om ood sca ci y, bu om deepening inequali ies and inc easing
ba ie s o a o ding heal hy die s, d i en by po e y, job p eca i y, and he ising cos o li ing (Schia ino
& Medina, 2025). These condi ions ha e uelled new o ms o dep i a ion, isible in he g owing eliance
on ood assis ance and cha i able ood dis ibu ion (Ca ahe & Fu ey, 2018). In Eu ope, a ound 21% o he
popula ion (94.6 million people) we e a isk o po e y o social exclusion in 2023 (Eu os a , 2024). Such
igu es e lec a pa adox o abundance: while ood a ailabili y is no a s uc u al p oblem, unequal access
o heal hy and a o dable ood has become a majo de e minan o die - ela ed inequali ies.
U ban a eas a e whe e hese inequali ies and ba ie s o ood access a e mos e iden . O e h ee-qua e s
o he wo ld’s ood-insecu e popula ion now li e in ci ies (Ba e sby e al, 2024), ye u ban ood insecu i y
emains sys ema ically unde explo ed. Food insecu i y is now measu ed a mul iple le els—indi idual,
household, na ional, egional, and global—bu ew ins umen s exis o analysing i a he u ban scale,
whe e dispa i ies a e widening, o en e lec ed in g owing inequali ies in heal h due o malnu i ion. Such
inequali ies a e pa ly media ed by he cha ac e is ics o local ood en i onmen s, which shape people’s
e e yday oppo uni ies o access, a o d, and consume heal hy oods, hus ampli ying he e ec s o income
and social disad an age. E idence consis en ly shows ha low-income and acial o e hnic mino i y
communi ies end o li e in poo e -quali y ood en i onmen s, whe e heal hy op ions a e sca ce and cheap,
unheal hy oods a e mo e accessible, exace ba ing bo h ood insecu i y and nu i ion- ela ed heal h
inequali ies (La son e al., 2009; Walke e al., 2010; Odoms-Young e al., 2024).
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This complexi y— oo ed in he mul idimensional and con ex -speci ic na u e o ood insecu i y—demands
no only a solid concep ual ounda ion bu also obus and adap able measu emen ools. This ein o ces
he need o spa ially sensi i e and locally adap ed app oaches ha e lec he li ed eali ies o u ban
popula ions. In esponse o his need, ou wo k ocuses on he de elopmen o a Food Insecu i y
Vulne abili y Index (FIVI) ha is bo h pa simonious and spa ially g ounded. We depa om he HLPE’s
(2020) ex ended de ini ion o ood secu i y, which encompasses six dimensions—a ailabili y, access,
u ilisa ion, s abili y, agency, and sus ainabili y—and ope a ionalise hese in o spa ially-based indica o s.
D awing on he insigh s o La Ro a-Aguile a & Mo agues-Faus’s (2025) adap a ion o he HLPE
amewo k o u ban con ex s, he aim is o cons uc a composi e index ha is simple and allows o he
localisa ion and moni o ing o ood insecu i y in u ban se ings.
The emainde o his wo king pape is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews he heo e ical amewo k
and s a e o he a . Sec ion 3 de ails he me hodological app oach o cons uc ing a new ood insecu i y
index using da a om he u ban a ea o Ba celona, including indica o selec ion, model de elopmen , and
spa ial mapping o ho spo s and coldspo s. Sec ion 4 p esen s he esul s and he exe cise o p ojec ing he
index on o a second u ban a ea. Finally, Sec ion 5 discusses he indings, implica ions, and limi a ions o
he s udy.
2. Backg ound and Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1 Concep ualising and Measu ing Food Insecu i y
Due o he mul idimensional and con ex -speci ic na u e o ood insecu i y—especially in u ban se ings—
unde s anding and add essing i equi es no only a solid concep ual ounda ion bu also obus and
adap able measu emen ools. The concep o ood insecu i y has e ol ed since i was i s unde s ood as
he me e absence o hunge , and so ha e he app oaches used o measu e i . The mos ex ended de ini ion
o ood secu i y e e s o “a si ua ion ha exis s when all people, a all imes, ha e physical, social and
economic access o su icien , sa e and nu i ious ood ha mee s hei die a y needs and ood p e e ences
o an ac i e and heal hy li e” (FAO, 2000:26). As de ined by he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO)
and he High Le el Panel o Expe s on Food Secu i y and Nu i ion (HLPE), i encompasses six
dimensions: a ailabili y, access, u iliza ion, s abili y, agency, and sus ainabili y HLPE (2020).
A ailabili y e e s o he su icien supply o sa e, cul u ally app op ia e ood h ough domes ic p oduc ion
o impo s p ima ily measu ed a na ional o egional le els. A he EU le el, o ins ance, he Eu opean
Food Secu i y C isis P epa edness and Response Mechanism (EFSCM) moni o s ood supply and secu i y
in imes o c isis. I acks ends in key indica o s, ex e nal ale s, and p o ides a quali a i e assessmen o
he EU ag i- ood sec o . All EU Membe S a es bene i om his mechanism wi hin he amewo k o he
common ma ke . As such, hese dimensions a e o limi ed ele ance when measu ing ulne abili y o ood
insecu i y a he local o u ban scale.
Food access conce ns indi iduals’ o households’ physical and inancial abili y o ob ain adequa e ood
wi hou comp omising o he basic needs, ensu ing inclusion o ulne able g oups. U iliza ion in ol es
adequa e die s, clean wa e , sani a ion, and heal hca e o achie e nu i ional well-being. S abili y e lec s
he abili y o main ain consis en access o ood despi e shocks o cyclical e en s. Sus ainabili y ela es o
ood sys ems ha p o ec en i onmen al, social, and economic esou ces o u u e gene a ions. Finally,
agency highligh s people’s capaci y o pa icipa e in decisions a ec ing hei ood secu i y, suppo ed by
app op ia e policies and ins i u ions. Toge he , hese dimensions o e a comp ehensi e amewo k o
add essing he complex na u e o ood insecu i y (FAO, 2021; WFP, 2020).
The s abili y dimension poses challenges when applied o ci y-scale analysis wi hin a Eu opean con ex .
Howe e , in line wi h he ex ended de ini ion o ood secu i y, i should also e lec he abili y o main ain
access o adequa e ood a he household le el, pa icula ly du ing pe iods o economic o in la iona y
c isis. E en s such as ising unemploymen o he inc easing cos o li ing can comp omise ood secu i y,
e en when ood is physically a ailable (Balis e i, 2016). In such si ua ions, ensu ing a s able ood supply
o ulne able popula ions o en depends on in e en ions ha bu e he impac o educed pu chasing
powe , such as ood assis ance se ices (Loops a & Ta asuk, 2015). We he e o e p opose ha his
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dimension o s abili y should also include he use o ood aid p og ammes —such as ood ouche s, walle
ca ds, school meal schemes, soup ki chens, ood banks, o pan ies. These mechanisms help secu e
con inued household access o adequa e nu i ion when inancial shocks unde mine people’s abili y o
a o d ood. As G acia-A naiz (2022) sugges s, he up ake o ood assis ance can se e as a p oxy indica o
o ulne abili y o ood insecu i y, signalling unme needs and dis up ions in ood access du ing economic
s ess.
While ood secu i y is o en add essed a na ional o global le els, i s six dimensions—a ailabili y,
u iliza ion, s abili y, sus ainabili y, agency, and access—can also be meaning ully in e p e ed a he local
scale. A ailabili y and u iliza ion a e shaped by local in as uc u e, se ices, and supply chains, while
s abili y can be e lec ed in he p esence o ood assis ance p og ams ha bu e economic shocks.
Sus ainabili y and agency a e inc easingly embedded in municipal ood s a egies and pa icipa o y
go e nance. Access is a guably he dimension mos ele an a he local scale, as i is di ec ly shaped by
he spa ial dis ibu ion, a o dabili y, and a ailabili y o ood ou le s in a gi en e i o y. Local ood
en i onmen s—unde s ood as he physical and economic condi ions ha de e mine whe e, how, and wha
ood is a ailable—play a cen al ole in shaping die a y oppo uni ies and cons ain s.
The ood en i onmen includes he oods a ailable o people in hei daily li e, and ac o s such as
nu i ional quali y, sa e y, p ice, con enience, labelling and p omo ion o hese oods (Downs e al. 2020).
Food en i onmen s can ha e a signi ican in luence on bo h access o and consump ion o nu i ious,
adequa e, and a o dable oods by indi iduals. Consequen ly, hey may a ec he quali y o people’s die s,
nu i ion s a us, and heal h ou comes (Wang e al., 2022; Eskanda i e al. 2022; Swinbu n e al., 2013; Caspi
e al. 2012; Engle -S inge e al. 2014). Food en i onmen s shape pa e ns o ood acquisi ion and
consump ion, di ec ly a ec ing access o heal hy and a o dable oods, and po en ially al e ing he quali y
o hei use. Some ecen esea ch ein o ces he connec ion be ween ood secu i y and ood en i onmen .
E idence om pe i-u ban Flande s (Inaç e al., 2024) showed ha pe cei ed a ailabili y and a o dabili y
o ui and ege ables, neighbou hood social cohesion, and housing condi ions signi ican ly in luence he
odds o expe iencing ood insecu i y. Findings om he US highligh how unde - esou ced ood
en i onmen s disp opo iona ely a ec low-income and acial/e hnic mino i y popula ions, con ibu ing o
highe a es o ood insecu i y and die - ela ed ch onic diseases such as obesi y, diabe es, and
ca dio ascula condi ions (Odoms-Young e al., 2024). Sys ema ic e iews u he ein o ce his
associa ion, unde sco ing he ole o he local ood en i onmen in shaping ood insecu i y ou comes.
Households expe iencing ood insecu i y end o ha e g ea e exposu e o unheal hy ood op ions, ely mo e
equen ly on con enience s o es and small e aile s o ood pu chases, and epo limi ed access o esh
and nu i ious oods such as ui s and ege ables (Beze a e al., 2024).
Despi e a g owing body o e idence, he e emains a signi ican gap in he a ailabili y o spa ially g ounded
indices—based on seconda y da a— ha can localize and moni o ood insecu i y in u ban a eas. Exis ing
ools o en ail o cap u e he complex, mul i-dimensional na u e o ood insecu i y as i mani es s ac oss
di e en u ban con ex s. Ye such indices a e essen ial o iden i ying ulne able neighbou hoods,
in o ming place-based in e en ions, and guiding esou ce alloca ion in municipal/u ban ood policies. To
add ess his gap, we p opose he de elopmen o a Food Insecu i y Vulne abili y Index (FIVI), designed o
cap u e he spa ial dimensions o ood insecu i y a he local scale h ough a pa simonious se o indica o s.
This s udy builds on a p e ious analy ical amewo k g ounded on he HLPE’s six‐dimensional app oach
applied o he case o Ba celona (LaRo a‐Aguile a e al. 2025), and ou lined in Table 1.
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Table 1. Concep ual amewo k o measu ing ood insecu i y in u ban a eas, including p oposed dimensions, a ibu es, and indica o s.
Dimension A ibu e Indica o
A ailabili y:
Ha ing a quan i y and quali y o ood su icien o sa is y he die a y needs o indi iduals,
ee om ad e se subs ances and accep able wi hin a gi en cul u e, supplied h ough
domes ic p oduc ion o impo s.
Su iciency Heal hy ood a ailabili y
Access:
Ha ing pe sonal o household inancial means o acqui e ood o an adequa e die a a le el
o ensu e ha sa is ac ion o o he basic needs a e no h ea ened o comp omised; and ha
adequa e ood is accessible o e e yone, including ulne able indi iduals and g oups.
Economic
access
Income
Social access
Fo eign
You h
Physical access
Heal hy ood access
S abili y:
Ha ing he abili y o ensu e ood secu i y in he e en o sudden shocks (e.g. an economic,
heal h, con lic o
clima ic c isis) o cyclical e en s (e.g. seasonal ood insecu i y).
Food aid
School meal p og am
Food aid p og am
U iliza ion:
Ha ing an adequa e die , clean wa e , sani a ion and heal h ca e o each a s a e o nu i ional
well-being whe e all physiological needs a e me
Adequa e die
P e alence o s un ing among child en unde 5 y
P e alence o malnu i ion among child en unde 5 y
(was ing and o e weigh )
P e alence o anaemia in women 15-49 y by p egnancy
s a us
Agency:
Indi iduals o g oups ha ing he capaci y o ac independen ly o make choices abou wha
hey ea , he oods hey p oduce, how ha ood is p oduced, p ocessed, and dis ibu ed, and
o engage in policy p ocesses ha shape ood sys ems. The p o ec ion o agency equi es
socio-poli ical sys ems ha uphold go e nance s uc u es ha enable he achie emen o
ood secu i y and nu i ion o all.
Capaci y o ac Vo e abs en ion (p oxy o poli ical pa icipa ion)
Sus ainabili y:
Food sys em p ac ices ha con ibu e o long- e m egene a ion o na u al, social and
economic sys ems, ensu ing he ood needs o he p esen gene a ions a e me wi hou
comp omising he ood needs o u u e gene a ions.
Sus ainabili y O ganic ood access
Sou ce: Adap ed om HLPE (2020) de ini ion o ood secu i y encompassing six dimensions, and ex ended wi h insigh s om LaRo a‐Aguile a e al. (2025).
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2.2 Ra ionale o a Spa ial, Localised Food Insecu i y Index
Al hough ood insecu i y has been widely s udied, spa ially g ounded indices ha allow o ine-g ained
analysis a he subna ional o u ban scale emain ela i ely a e. The majo i y o exis ing ools ely on so-
called expe ience-based ood insecu i y scales, such as he FAO’s Food Insecu i y Expe ience Scale (FIES)
o he USDA ood insecu i y scales, which a e based on household- o indi idual-le el su eys (Ca illo-
Al a ez e al., 2021; Balla d e al., 2014; Balis e i, 2016). A he global le el, he FIES ep esen s an
impo an ad ance in psychome ically alida ed measu emen (Balla d e al., 2014), bu i s eliance on
su eys and na ional-le el esolu ion limi s i s u ili y o u ban and neighbou hood-le el analysis.
Mo eo e , as Balla d e al. (2014) no e, he FIES p o ides a aluable ool o ad ancing knowledge on he
ela ionship be ween he li ed expe ience o ood insecu i y and indica o s o malnu i ion. Howe e , i is
no i sel a measu e o malnu i ion and canno de ec nu i ional de iciencies o obesi y, making i
unsui able o assessing nu i ion-speci ic ou comes o ood secu i y policies o p og ammes. These
limi a ions highligh he need o app oaches capable o cap u ing he spa ial he e ogenei y o ood
insecu i y wi hin u ban a eas.
A a mo e concep ual le el, ecen e iews o ood secu i y indices (Manikas e al., 2023; Al-Ansa i e al.,
2025) highligh he impo ance o in eg a ing complemen a y indica o s ha e lec mul iple dimensions o
ood secu i y (a ailabili y, access, u ilisa ion, s abili y), while a guing ha expe ience-based indica o s a e
especially sui ed o apid assessmen s bu insu icien o s uc u al o spa ial analyses. A u he challenge
o hese indices s ems om po en ial biases in anking, which show p o ound di e gences ac oss ools (Al-
Ansa i e al., 2025). Poudel and Gopina h (2021) compa ed ou pu s om se e al global ood secu i y
indica o s— om FAO, UNDP, IFPRI, and USDA—be ween 1991 and 2018, and ound majo a ia ions
in p e alence es ima es. They p o ide u he e idence ha mac o-s uc u al d i e s—such as GDP g ow h,
li e acy, u banisa ion, and in e ne access—play di e en ia ed oles depending on income le els,
ein o cing he need o con ex -sensi i e ools ha can be applied a mul iple scales, including he u ban.
Simila ly, in a ecen scoping e iew o indi idual- and household-le el measu es o ood insecu i y in
high-income coun ies, Ca illo-Al a ez e al. (2021) iden i ied 23 di e en ins umen s and highligh ed
ecu ing co ela es o ood insecu i y—sociodemog aphics, heal h, social s esso s, and en i onmen al
ac o s—along wi h pe sis en inequali ies by gende , ace, and geog aphy. While aluable, hese
app oaches all sho o p o iding s anda dised, eplicable, and alida ed indices ha cap u e he
mul idimensional and s uc u al d i e s o ood insecu i y ac oss di e se u ban con ex s. Toge he , hese
indings unde sco e he absence o spa ially explici , compa able, and scalable ools o assessing ood
insecu i y in ci ies.
A he u ban le el, Odoms-Young e al. (2024) a gue ha unde - esou ced neighbou hood ood
en i onmen s disp opo iona ely a ec low-income and mino i y popula ions, and call o mo ing beyond
indi idual and household d i e s o add ess b oade s uc u al de e minan s—such as neighbou hood
condi ions, sys emic po e y, and policy-le el in luences. They emphasise he need o con ex -sensi i e
ools ha cap u e hese mul ile el d i e s o u ban ood insecu i y and suppo equi y-o ien ed
in e en ions. U ban ood en i onmen indices, such as he Re ail Food En i onmen Index and i s
modi ica ions, a e widely used in heal h s udies (Odoms-Young e al., 2024), bu hey cap u e only he
dis ibu ion o ood ou le s a he han ood insecu i y i sel , and hey lack s anda dised, alida ed links o
ood insecu i y ou comes. Se e al e o s illus a e bo h p og ess and limi a ions. Local go e nmen s and
esea ch ins i u ions in he U.S., UK, and Canada ha e c ea ed neighbou hood- o municipali y-le el
indices (e.g., To on o Food S a egy; Feeding Ame ica’s coun y-le el es ima es). Howe e , hese
ins umen s o en ely on p op ie a y o su ey-based da a, lack me hodological anspa ency, and a e a ely
eplicable beyond hei o iginal con ex (Loops a & Ta asuk, 2015). Simila ly, he USDA Food Access
Resea ch A las employs seconda y da a o map low-income, low-access census ac s, bu i p o ides only
indi ec measu es o po en ial access a he han ac ual ood insecu i y expe iences. These limi a ions
highligh he oppo uni y o de elop a anspa en , eplicable, and spa ially sensi i e ool ha can ope a e
a ine u ban scales.
Gi en he g owing awa eness o he spa ial dimensions o ood insecu i y, his sec ion makes he case o
a new, con ex -sensi i e, and expo able index. I highligh s he need o a pa simonious model ailo ed o
u ban se ings and unde sco es he added alue o spa ial analysis—pa icula ly ho spo and coldspo
mapping— o unde s anding e i o ial dispa i ies and in o ming place-based policy esponses. To add ess
Page 7 o 24
hese limi a ions, his s udy de elops he Food Insecu i y Vulne abili y Index (FIVI), a spa ially g ounded
pa simonious ool designed o loca e popula ions expe iencing ch onic ood insecu i y. The FIVI assesses
i e o he six dimensions o ood secu i y (access, s abili y, u ilisa ion, agency, and sus ainabili y) and
enables he iden i ica ion o a eas o high incidence (ho spo s) wi hin u ban se ings. The no ion o
pa simonious he e e e s o a model ha cap u es he complexi y o ood insecu i y wi h a minimal ye
su icien numbe o a iables, acili a ing i s applica ion ac oss di e se u ban con ex s. By in eg a ing
indica o s om mul iple domains—socioeconomic, heal h, and ood en i onmen — he FIVI p o ides a
con ex ually sensi i e and expo able amewo k ha cap u es he spa ial pa e ns o ood insecu i y a he
census ac le el. I he e o e se es as a aluable ool o u ban policy and planning, allowing local
go e nmen s o iden i y ulne able a eas, moni o changes o e ime, and design a ge ed in e en ions o
ensu e equi able access o adequa e and nu i ious ood.
3. Me hodology
3.1 Va iable selec ion
Selec ed indica o s spanned demog aphic, socioeconomic, heal h, and ood en i onmen domains,
consis en wi h he six dimensions —a ailabili y, access, u iliza ion, s abili y, sus ainabili y, and agency—
included in he de ini ion o ood secu i y and nu i ion (HLPE, 2020). Ini ially, some 20 indica o s we e
ex ac ed om on a ho ough li e a u e e iew conduc ed du ing he las imes e o 2023 (Table 2). F om
his long lis , a ound 12 indica o s we e collec ed in ca og aphic o ma and assessed o s a is ical
sui abili y (Table 1). The inal FIVI, howe e , is a cu a ed index composed o six p edic o s—household
income, o eign popula ion, young popula ion (16–29 yea s), o e abs en ion, a ailabili y o heal hy ood
ou le s, and a ailabili y o o ganic ood ou le s—wi h he dependen a iable de ined as he p e alence o
obesi y in boys aged 0–12, exp essed as a p opo ion. We p io i ised long- e m, p e e ably annually upda ed
indica o s a ailable o Spain a he census ac le el, o hose ha could be eadily cons uc ed. Va iable
selec ion in ol ed co ela ion analysis and mul icollinea i y es ing using he Va iance In la ion Fac o
(VIF), accep ing p edic o s wi h VIF alues below 5 o ensu e obus ness.
Page 8 o 24
Table 2. Main indica o s iden i ied om li e a u e e iew o measu ing ood insecu i y in u ban a eas.
Risk Fac o
Indica o s selec ed om li e a u e e iew
Re e ences
Da a a ailabili y
Food en i onmen
P esence o communi y ga dens & ood coops D isdelle e al. (2020); Mo gan (2020); Taylo & A d (2015);
Wes bu y e al.
(
2021
)
Yes
Access o o ganic ood (densi y o p oximi y o o ganic ood s o es)
Downs e al. (2020); Wang e al. (2019); Eskanda i e al. (2022); Swinbu n
e al. (2013); Caspi e al. (2012); Engle -S inge e al. (2014); Tu ne e al.
(
2020
)
Yes
To al access o ood (densi y o
p oximi y o ood s o es)
Yes
Po e y
Household income
Mo agues-Faus & Magaña-González (2022)-Spain; Lei z (2018)-US;
Ga a (2020)-Eu ope
Yes
Po e y a e
Yes
Popula ion ecei ing social bene i s
No
High housing cos s ( esiden ial
ulne abili y
)
Housing a o dabili y Lei z (2018)-USA; Ga a (2020)-Eu ope Yes
Unemploymen o unde employmen Unemploymen a e Mo agues-Faus & Magaña-González (2022)-Spain; Lei z (2018)-US;
Ga a (2020)
-
Eu ope
Yes
Limi ed access o
a o dable ood
A o dabili y o heal hy ood op ions
No
Inadequa e social suppo
Access o school meal p og ams
Lei z (2018)
-
US; Ga a (2020)
-
Eu ope
Yes
A ailabili y o use o ood assis ance p og ams
Yes
Educa ion le el Educa ion le el o school d op -ou Mo agues-Faus and Magaña-González (2022)-Spain; Lei z (2018)-US;
Ga a (2020)
-
Eu ope
No
Social and cul u al inequali ies ( acial
and e hnic mino i ies, immig an s,
indi iduals wi h disabili ies)
Elde ly popula ion Lei z (2018)-US; Ga a (2020)-Eu ope
Ga cía e al.
(2020)
-
Ba celona; Lee & F ongillo (2001)
Yes
Fo eign popula ion (immig a ion)
Mo agues
-
Faus and Magaña
-
González (2022)
-
Spain
Yes
Gende (head o household)
Mo agues
-
Faus and Magaña
-
González (2022)
-
Spain
No
Homeless popula ion
Yes
Poli ical pa icipa ion
Olabiyi, O. M. (2020)
Yes
Heal h condi ions
P e alence o men al diso de s in he gene al popula ion
Coleman-Jensen e al. (2013); Mo agues-Faus and Magaña-González
(2022)-Spain; Eskanda i e al. (2022); Swinbu n e al. (2013);
Caspi e al.
(
2012
)
Yes
P e alence o s un ing among child en unde 5 y
NLIS (WHO, 2017; 2019)
Yes
P e alence o malnu i ion among child en unde 5 y (was ing and
o e weigh )
NLIS (WHO, 2017; 2019) Yes
P e alence o anaemia in women 15
-
49 y by p egnancy s a us
NLIS (WHO, 2017; 2019)
Yes
Page 9 o 24
Da a we e e ie ed a scale o he census ac o selec ed indica o s. The ci y o Ba celona has some 1.6
million inhabi an s and was adminis a i ely di ided in o 1,067 census ac s in 2021/22, each comp ising
app oxima ely 1,500 indi iduals. The e e ence pe iod o he analysis is 2021–2023; speci ically, heal h
da a om 2023 we e used o minimize he e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., dis up ions o egula
check-ups). All a iables we e ha monised o 2021/22 census ac s. Indica o s we e selec ed o ensu e da a
gene ali y and homogenei y ac oss Ba celona while maximizing e i o ial de ail o cap u e in e nal
a ia ions wi hin he ci y.
Socioeconomic and demog aphic da a—household income, p opo ion o o eign popula ion, and
p opo ion o young esiden s (aged 16–29)—we e e ie ed om he Spanish Na ional Ins i u e o
S a is ics (INE). The income indica o co esponds o he household income median, based on he 2022
edi ion o he A las de Dis ibución de Ren a de los Hoga es (INE, 2022). The o eign popula ion indica o
is de ined as he pe cen age o esiden s o igina ing om low- o middle-income coun ies, acco ding o
Wo ld Bank classi ica ions, using da a om he Minis e io del In e io , 2021 and Es adís ica del Pad ón
Con inuo a 1 de ene o de 2020, INE. Vo e abs en ion da a we e ob ained om municipal s a is ical o ices,
in u n based on he Minis e io del In e io (2020), and e e ing o he 2019 municipal elec ions o bo h
Ba celona and Mad id Ci y Councils. In Spain, o eign esiden s can o e in municipal elec ions i hey a e
ci izens o coun ies ha g an ecip ocal o ing igh s o Spania ds h ough a ea y.1 Addi ionally, all EU
ci izens esiding in Spain who mee he same equi emen s as Spanish o e s and o mally decla e hei
in en ion o o e a e also eligible o pa icipa e in local elec ions.
The indica o s on ood access include wo a iables: Heal hyFA and O ganicFA. The Heal hyFA (Heal hy
Food Access) indica o cap u es he p esence o heal hy ood ou le s pe census ac , including g oce y
shops (bu che s, ishmonge s, ui and ege able shops, and o ganic s o es), o ganic supe ma ke s, and
gene al supe ma ke s which migh o migh no o e o ganic p oduce. The O ganicFA (O ganic Food
Access) indica o e e s speci ically o he a ailabili y o specialised o ganic shops, o ganic supe ma ke s,
ood coope a i es and g oups. Da a on ood ou le s o Ba celona we e ob ained om he Census o g ound-
loo comme cial p emises in he ci y o Ba celona (Ba celona Ci y Council, 2022). Fo Mad id, da a we e
sou ced om he Census o P emises and Ac i i ies (Mad id Ci y Council, as o Sep embe 2023), excep
o o ganic ood ou le s, which we e e ie ed om he Mapping o Al e na i e Food Ne wo ks (MAE –
Mad id Ag oecológico, 2024). The classi ica ion o ood e ail ou le s was based on an adap a ion o p io
wo k by Ga cia e al. (2020) and Ga cia-Sie a e al. (2021) in Ba celona, and Bilal e al. (2018) and Díez
e al. (2019) in Mad id. Using he oppo uni ies p o ided by each ci y’s e ail census, a ha monised
classi ica ion sys em was c ea ed o enable compa abili y ac oss bo h u ban oodscapes. This is u he
desc ibed in he Supplemen a y In o ma ion SI.2.
Finally, heal h indica o s, used as dependen a iable, we e based on hose om he WHO Nu i ion
Landscape In o ma ion Sys em (NLIS) (WHO, 2017; 2019), and which u he coincide wi h he
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG) Indica o s o SDG2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and
imp o ed nu i ion, and speci ically hose om 2.2. These indica o s we e e ie ed om he In o ma ion
Sys em o Resea ch in P ima y Ca e (SIDIAP; www.sidiap.o g) om Ca alonia, Spain (Bolíba e al.,
2012). The SIDIAP da abase is a la ge pseudo-anonymised da abase comp ising he elec onic heal h
eco ds om p ima y ca e isi s collec ed since 2005 in cen es managed by he Ca alan Heal h Ins i u e. I
co e s app oxima ely 5.5 million indi iduals, ep esen ing a ound 74% o he popula ion o Ca alonia.
SIDIAP includes indi idual-le el demog aphic in o ma ion, clinical a iables, immunisa ions, e e als o
specialis s, p esc ip ions and dispensa ion eco ds, sick lea e his o y, and any acu e o ch onic heal h
condi ions eco ded du ing p ima y ca e isi s. This s udy was app o ed by he e hics commi ee o he
Jo di Gol i Gu ina Ins i u e o Resea ch in P ima y Ca e (IDIAPJGol: 23/238-P).
Heal h indica o s included:
P e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia in women o ep oduc i e age (15-49 yea s), by age and
p egnancy s a us (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
P e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia and se e e anaemia in child en aged 6-59 mon hs (unde 5
yea s), by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
1 These cu en ly include Boli ia, Cape Ve de, Chile, Colombia, Sou h Ko ea, Ecuado , Iceland, No way,
New Zealand, Pa aguay, Pe u, he Uni ed Kingdom, and T inidad and Tobago.
Page 16 o 24
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h ps://doi.o g/10.4060/ca9692en
Page 20 o 24
Supplemen a y In o ma ion
SI.1. Heal h indica o s in a nu shell.
P e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia:
Indica o o p e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia in women o ep oduc i e age (15-49 yea s),
by age and p egnancy s a us (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Indica o o p e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia and se e e anaemia in child en aged 6-59
mon hs (unde 5 yea s), by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
P e alence o malnu i ion:
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in child en unde 5 yea s – Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s wi h
s un ing, was ing, o e weigh , o unde weigh , by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in in school-age child en (6-12 yea s) – Popula ion aged
6-12 yea s wi h o e weigh and obesi y, by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in adul s aged 18-74 yea s – Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s
wi h unde weigh , o e weigh , and obesi y, by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Indica o Calcula ion No es:
Indica o o p e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia in women o ep oduc i e age (15-49 yea s), by
age and p egnancy s a us (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
De ini ion: Women o ep oduc i e age (15–49 yea s) wi h i on-de iciency anaemia by age and
p egnancy s a us (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Calcula ion o anaemia in women o ep oduc i e age (15-49 yea s), by p egnancy s a us:
(Numbe o women aged 15 o 49 yea s wi h a diagnos ic code o i on-de iciency anaemia DD50 OR
wi h a haemoglobin concen a ion <120 g/L o non-p egnan women and lac a ing women a sea le el,
AND <110 g/L o p egnan women a sea le el) / (Women aged 15−49 yea s assigned o he p ima y
ca e eam and who had haemoglobin concen a ion assessed du ing a speci ied pe iod) * 100.
Calcula ion a he scale o census ac om SIDIAP da a (n, % c ude and s anda dized):
SIDIAP da a: age (yea s), gende , p egnancy s a us (non-p egnan women, lac a ing women, p egnan
women), haemoglobin concen a ion in clinical analy ics, and diagnos ic code (CIM-10) o i on-
de iciency anaemia DD50 (la es yea wi h a ailable da a).
Te i o ial di ision: Ba celona’s census ac s.
Indica o o p e alence o i on-de iciency anaemia and se e e anaemia in child en aged 6-59
mon hs (unde 5 yea s), by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
De ini ion: Child en aged 6−59 mon hs (unde 5 yea s) wi h i on-de iciency anaemia and se e e anaemia
by gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
Calcula ion o anaemia in child en aged 6-59 mon hs:
(Numbe o child en aged 6−59 mon hs wi h a haemoglobin concen a ion <110 g/L a sea le el) / (To al
numbe o child en aged 6−59 mon hs assigned o he p ima y ca e eam and who had haemoglobin
concen a ion assessed) * 100.
Page 21 o 24
Calcula ion a he scale o census ac om SIDIAP da a (n, % c ude and s anda dized):
SIDIAP da a: age (mon hs), gende , haemoglobin concen a ion in clinical analy ics, and diagnos ic
code (CIM-10) o i on-de iciency anaemia DD50 (la es yea wi h a ailable da a).
Disagg ega ion by gende . Te i o ial di ision: Ba celona’s census ac s.
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in child en unde 5 yea s – Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s
wi h s un ing, was ing, o e weigh , o unde weigh , by age and gende (n, % c ude and
s anda dized)
De ini ion: Child en aged 0-5 yea s wi h s un ing, was ing, o e weigh , o unde weigh by gende (n, %
c ude and s anda dized).
Calcula ion o s un ing (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s wi h s un ing acco ding o WHO
ables) / (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
Calcula ion o was ing/unde weigh (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s wi h was ing
acco ding o WHO ables) / (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
Calcula ion o o e weigh (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s wi h o e weigh acco ding o
WHO ables) / (Popula ion aged 0-5 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
In child en aged unde 5 yea s hese indica o s a e de ined as ollows:
s un ing – sex-speci ic heigh - o -age <-2 SD o he WHO Child g ow h s anda ds median;
was ing – sex-speci ic weigh - o -heigh <-2 SD o he WHO Child g ow h s anda ds median;
o e weigh – sex-speci ic weigh - o -heigh >+2 SD o he WHO Child g ow h s anda ds
median; and
unde weigh – sex-speci ic weigh - o -age <-2 SD o he WHO Child g ow h s anda ds median.
The WHO Child g ow h s anda ds can be ound o age g oups he e: WHO ables o he age g oups o
0-2 and 2-5 yea s.
No e: (*) Fo he pu poses o his s udy, an in e media e calcula ion o o e weigh (excluding obesi y)
is also included.
Calcula ion a he scale o census ac om SIDIAP da a (n, % c ude and s anda dized):
SIDIAP da a: age (mon hs), gende , weigh (in kilog ams), heigh (in me e s).
Disagg ega ion by gende . Te i o ial di ision: Ba celona’s census ac s.
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in in school-age child en (6-12 yea s) – Popula ion aged
6-12 yea s wi h o e weigh and obesi y, by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
De ini ion: Child en aged 6-12 yea s wi h o e weigh and obesi y (n, % c ude and s anda dized).
Calcula ion o o e weigh (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 6-12 yea s wi h o e weigh o obesi y
acco ding o WHO ables) / (Popula ion aged 6-12 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
Calcula ion o obesi y (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 6-12 yea s wi h obesi y acco ding o WHO
ables) / (Popula ion aged 6-12 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
In school-age child en and adolescen s aged 5–19 yea s hese indica o s a e de ined as ollows:
o e weigh – sex-speci ic BMI- o -age (equi alen o BMI 25 kg/m2 a 19 yea s) >+1 SD o
he WHO Child g ow h s anda ds median; and
Page 22 o 24
obesi y – sex-speci ic BMI- o -age (equi alen o BMI 30 kg/m2 a 19 yea s) >+2 SD o he
WHO Child g ow h s anda ds median.
In child en and adolescen s (5 o 19 yea s), BMI is age and sex-speci ic. The WHO Child g ow h
s anda ds o BMI- o -age (5-19 yea s) can be ound he e: WHO able o he age g oup o 5 o 19 yea s.
Calcula ion o Body Mass Index (BMI) = weigh (in kilog ams)/heigh 2 (in me e s).
No e: (*) Fo he pu poses o his s udy, an in e media e calcula ion o o e weigh (excluding obesi y)
is also included.
Calcula ion a he scale o census ac om SIDIAP da a (n, % c ude and s anda dized):
SIDIAP da a: age (mon hs), gende , weigh (in kilog ams), heigh (in me e s).
Disagg ega ion by gende . Te i o ial di ision: Ba celona’s census ac s.
Indica o s o p e alence o malnu i ion in adul s aged 18-74 yea s – Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s
wi h unde weigh , o e weigh , and obesi y, by age and gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized)
De ini ion: Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s wi h mode a e and se e e hinness, unde weigh , o e weigh ,
and obesi y by gende (n, % c ude and s anda dized).
Calcula ion o unde weigh (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s wi h a BMI < 18.5) /
(Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
*In e media e calcula ion o o e weigh : (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s wi h a BMI > 25 AND ≤ 30
ORo a diagnos ic code o abno mal weigh gain) / (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s assigned o p ima y
ca e) * 100.
Fo o e weigh in adul s, i will be conside ed ha he pa ien has a las alue o BMI (Body Mass Index)
>25 o he diagnos ic code (CIM-10) R63.5 abno mal weigh gain.
Calcula ion o obesi y: (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s wi h a BMI > 30 OR a diagnos ic code o obesi y)
/ (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
Fo obesi y in adul s, i will be conside ed ha he pa ien has a las alue o BMI (Body Mass Index)
>30 OR one o he ollowing diagnos ic codes (CIM-10): E66 obesi y, E66.0 obesi y seconda y o excess
calo ies, E66.1 d ug-induced obesi y, E66.2 ex eme obesi y wi h al eola hypo en ila ion, E66.8
mo bid obesi y (BMI > 40), E66.9 unspeci ied obesi y.
Calcula ion o o e weigh (WHO indica o ): (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s wi h o e weigh o obesi y)
/ (Popula ion aged 18-74 yea s assigned o p ima y ca e) * 100.
Calcula ion o Body Mass Index (BMI) = weigh (in kilog ams)/heigh 2 (in me e s).
The popula ion aged 75 yea s and olde does no ha e a clea e e ence alue, which is why hey a e
excluded om his analysis.
No e: (*) Fo he pu poses o his s udy, an in e media e calcula ion o o e weigh (excluding obesi y)
is also included.
Calcula ion a he scale o census ac om SIDIAP da a (n, % c ude and s anda dized):
SIDIAP da a: age (yea s), gende , weigh (in kilog ams), heigh (in me e s), diagnos ic code (CIM-10)
o abno mal weigh gain R63.5 (la es yea wi h a ailable da a) and diagnos ic codes (CIM-10) o
obesi y E66 (la es yea wi h a ailable da a).
Disagg ega ion by gende . Te i o ial di ision: Ba celona’s census ac s.
Page 23 o 24
SI.2. Socioeconomic and ood en i onmen indica o s.
Da a sou ces
The popula ion da a by single yea o age a he census ac le el, co esponding o he annual popula ion
census as o 1 Janua y 2022 and 1 Janua y 2023, we e ob ained om he Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e (INE).
The socioeconomic da a on household income (median) we e sou ced om he Household Income
Dis ibu ion A las (A las de dis ibución de en a de los hoga es) o he Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e (INE,
2021). The da a sou ces o he analysis o ood en i onmen s in Mad id and Ba celona a e de ailed below
in Tables 1.SI and 2.SI, espec i ely.
Table 2.SI. Da a sou ces o he analysis o ood en i onmen s in Ba celona.
Food en i onmen , Ba celona Sou ce Yea Scale
Food e ail ou le s Cens d'ac i i a s econòmiques en plan a
baixa de la ciu a de Ba celona
(Ajun amen de Ba celona, 2023)
2022 Coo d. UTM
O ganic ood ou le s Cens d'ac i i a s econòmiques en plan a
baixa de la ciu a de Ba celona
(Ajun amen de Ba celona, 2023)
2022 Coo d. UTM
Coope a i es and consume g oups
Ins i u Me opoli (p oducción p opia)
2019
Coo d. UTM
Communi y u ban ga dens Base de dades d’ho s u bans de
l’Ajun amen de Ba celona (Di ecció
d'Espais Ve ds i Biodi e si a Medi
Ambien i Se eis U bans ‒ Ecologia
U bana, Ajun amen de Ba celona, 2021)
2021 Coo d. UTM
Municipal u ban ga dens Base de dades d’ho s u bans de
l’Ajun amen de Ba celona (Di ecció
d'Espais Ve ds i Biodi e si a Medi
Ambien i Se eis U bans - Ecologia
U bana, Ajun amen de Ba celona, 2021)
2021 Coo d. UTM
Tabla 1.SI. Da a sou ces o he analysis o ood en i onmen s in Mad id.
Food en i onmen , Mad id Sou ce Yea Scale
Food e ail ou le s Censo de Locales y Ac i idades
(Ayun amien o de Mad id ‒ Da os
09.2023)
2023 Coo d. UTM
O ganic ood ou le s Censo de Locales y Ac i idades
(Ayun amien o de Mad id) ‒ Da os
09.2024; Mapeo Al e na i e Food
Ne wo ks (MAE ‒ Mad id
Ag oecológico)
2023 Coo d. UTM
Coope a i es and consume g oups Mapeo Al e na i e Food Ne wo ks
(MAE
‒
Mad id Ag oecológico)
2023 Coo d. UTM
Communi y u ban ga dens
Ayun amien o de Mad id
2023
Coo d. UTM
School ga dens
Ayun amien o de
Mad id
2023
Coo d. UTM
Municipal u ban ga dens
Ayun amien o de Mad id
2023
Coo d. UTM
Classi ica ion algo i hms o ood e ail ou le s
The classi ica ion o ood e ail ou le s is based on an adap a ion o p e ious wo k by Bilal e al. (2018) and
Díez e al. (2019) in Mad id, and by Ga cia e al. (2020) and Ga cia-Sie a e al. (2021) in Ba celona. A
compa able classi ica ion has been de eloped o he wo u ban oodscapes using he oppo uni ies
p o ided by each ci y’s census da a. The classi ica ion algo i hms o ood e ail ou le s in bo h ci ies a e
shown in Figu e 1A (Mad id) and Figu e 2A (Ba celona). The iden i ica ion o ou le s specialising in
o ganic ood is based on business codes [In Mad id: ID 472901 = He balis . In Ba celona: ID 2003000 =
He balis ], a lis o specialis supe ma ke s and majo chains (Ga cia-Sie a e al., 2021), and keywo ds —
such as eco, bio, egan, ege a, e c.
Page 24 o 24
Figu e 1.SI. Classi ica ion algo i hms o ood e ail ou le s in Mad id. Sou ce: Adap ed om Bilal e al.
(2018) and Díez e al. (2019). No es: Codes ID 561002 and ID 561007 a e ca ego ised as “Takeaway (e.g.,
small as - ood businesses o akeaway)” o “Fas Food (la ge chain)” in he i s case, and as “Ca é (e.g.,
sale o packaged ood, ho chocola e, ice c eam, e c.)” in he second case. Codes ID 472902 o 472904 (ice
c eam pa lou s) a e also included in his la e ca ego y.
Figu e 2.SI. Classi ica ion algo i hms o ood e ail ou le s in Ba celona. Sou ce: Adap ed om Ga cia-
Sie a e al. (2021).
Yes │No
47.11.03?
Yes │No Supe ma ke name? Yes │No
47.21? FRUITS & VEG
Yes │No 47.22? BUTCHERIES
47.23? FISHMONGERS
No 47.24? BAKERIES
Any 47.1 o 47.2 CNAE code
Any 47.1 ?
UNSPECIALIZED FOOD STORES Mo e han one 47.2?
SUPERMARKETS
CONVENIENCE STORES
SMALL GROCERS
SPECIALIZED STORES
OTHER SPECIALIZED
Codi_P incipal_Ac i i a
Codi = 1 'Ac iu'?
Codi = 1 'Come ç al de all'?
Codi_G up_Ac i i a
Codi = 1 'Quo idià alimen a i'?
Codi_Ac i i a _2022
1000020?
1003000?
1002000?
1005000?
1007000?
1006000?
Yes 1000030?
1400003? Yes 1000010Takeaway Fas Food
FOOD SERVICES
Peix i ma isc
Codi = 2 'Se eis'?
Codi_Sec o _Ac i i a
Codi_Ac i i a _2022
Ca n i Po c
Al es
Pla s p epa a s
SPECIALIZED STORES
UNSPECIALIZED FOOD STORES
Au ose ei / Supe me ca
F ui es i e du es
Pa, pas isse ia i làc ics
Ous i aus
Codi_G up_Ac i i a
Codi = 14 'Res au an s, ba s i ho els (Inclòs hos als, pensions i ondes)'
