In Sea ch o a Be e Li e?
Summa y Repo o he MIGWELL P ojec
5.5 Open access summa y epo
Ádám Néme h, Dá id Sümeghy, Bo bála Göncz,
Gyö gy Lengyel, Zsol Néme h, Lilla Tó h
2025
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This wo king pape was de eloped in he con ex o he p ojec MIGWELL – Well-being and
Mig a ion: he Hunga y – Aus ia Mig a ion Nexus
Wo k Package 5: ‘Dissemina ion’
MIGWELL is an FWF–NKFIH In e na ional Join P ojec . In Aus ia he p ojec is unded by he
Aus ian Science Fund. In Hunga y he p ojec has been implemen ed wi h he suppo p o ided by he
Na ional Resea ch, De elopmen and Inno a ion Fund (Minis y o Inno a ion and Technology o
Hunga y), inanced unde he ANN unding scheme.
P ojec code: I 5616 (in Aus ia), 139465 (in Hunga y)
P ojec du a ion: 01.02.2022 – 31.07.2025 (in Aus ia), 01.12.2021 – 31.05.2025 (in Hunga y)
P ojec Pa ne s:
Ins i u e o U ban and Regional Resea ch a he Aus ian Academy o Sciences
Cen e o Empi ical Social Resea ch a he Co inus Uni e si y o Budapes
Depa men o Finno-Ug ian S udies, Uni e si y o Vienna
Scien i ic Ad iso y Boa d:
Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Vienna
Hunga ian Demog aphic Resea ch Ins i u e
Hunga ian Cen al S a is ical O ice
MIGWELL’s websi e: LINK
MIGWELL’s ou pu s will be uploaded o: LINK
Inqui ies can be di ec ed o: Ins i u e o U ban and Regional Resea ch a he Aus ian Academy o
Sciences, [email p o ec ed].a o Cen e o Empi ical Social Resea ch a he Co inus Uni e si y o
Budapes , bo bala.goncz@uni-co inus.hu
Sugges ed ci a ion: Néme h, Á., Sümeghy, D., Göncz, B., Lengyel, Gy., Néme h, Zs. and Tó h, L.
(2025). In sea ch o a be e li e? Summa y Repo o he MIGWELL P ojec . MIGWELL Wo king
Pape s, No. 5.5. Open Access Summa y Repo . 15 p.
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The P ojec : In oducing MIGWELL - S uc u e, Me hodology, and
Theo e ical F amewo k
“Wha does happiness mean? Ob iously, a pe son is happy i hey a e con en . Because i
hey’ e no con en , hen hey’ e no happy. Bu o cou se, you ha e o se ce ain
bounda ies and s anda ds in o de o be happy. Because someone who always longs o
some hing hey’ll ne e be able o achie e in hei li e will ne e be happy o con en . Ye
a he same ime, people o en jus pass by he hings hey ha e achie ed...”
Woman, 45-60, Elde ly ca egi e , in AT
The co e idea o he MIGWELL p ojec was concei ed in 2018. The s a ing poin came om
leading esea che s who ook no ice o he OECD’s g owing calls and publica ions ad oca ing
o he measu emen o well-being, aiming o p o ide an al e na i e o GDP in policy-making
p ocesses. In pa allel, he numbe o Hunga ians li ing in Aus ia doubled wi hin ou yea s
p io o 2018. The gap be ween Aus ia and Hunga y is among he la ges wi hin he EU when
i comes o neighbou ing coun ies — no only in e ms o income, bu also in e ms o
subjec i e well-being. Some esea che s ha e e en coined he e m “I on Cu ain o
unhappiness” o desc ibe his phenomenon. Bu wha exac ly is subjec i e well-being?
Th oughou he p ojec , we ollowed he OECD’s Guidelines (2013) and applied measu emen
indica o s consis en wi h in e na ional su eys. We in e p e ed subjec i e well-being as an
umb ella concep , comp ising bo h hedonic (cogni i e and a ec i e) and eudaimonic
dimensions o well-being.
The ele ance o ou esea ch lies in he ac ha he Hunga y–Aus ia mig a ion axis emains
unde - esea ched despi e i s g owing impo ance. Fu he mo e, a e e iewing s udies om
a ound he wo ld, i becomes e iden ha he ela ionship be ween mig a ion and g ow h in
subjec i e well-being is a om clea -cu . The p ojec ’s inno a i e app oach lies in i s
analy ical amewo k, which examined his mig a ion nexus h ough he lens o subjec i e well-
being. We explo ed causal ela ionships be ween mig a ion and subjec i e well-being (using
ins umen al a iables, e ospec i e e alua ions, and p opensi y sco e ma ching), o e ing
insigh s ha go beyond he associa i e indings o ea lie Eu opean s udies.
Ou wo main esea ch di ec ions we e, i s ly, o in es iga e how subjec i e well-being
in luences he in en ions o emig a e om Hunga y, and secondly, o assess how he subjec i e
well-being o Hunga ian mig an s changed as a esul o eloca ing o Aus ia. Thanks o he
applica ion o OECD s anda ds, ou p ima y da a a e compa able wi h p e ious su eys such
as EU-SILC and he Hunga ian Mic ocensus, p o iding an almos comple e and accu a e
pic u e o he li ing condi ions o a s ill unde -analysed g oup: Hunga ians li ing in Aus ia
(Al hough S a is ics Aus ia conduc s su eys on immig an popula ions, Hunga ians a e no
speci ically a ge ed in hose assessmen s).
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MIGWELL an o a o al o h ee and a hal yea s, om Feb ua y 2022 o July 2025, and
in ol ed h ee ins i u ions: he Ins i u e o U ban and Regional Resea ch a he Aus ian
Academy o Sciences, he Cen e o Empi ical Social Resea ch a Co inus Uni e si y o
Budapes , and he Depa men o Finno-Ug ian S udies a he Uni e si y o Vienna. In addi ion,
an in e na ional scien i ic ad iso y boa d suppo ed he p ojec . The esea ch was made possible
h ough unding om he Na ional Resea ch, De elopmen and Inno a ion O ice o Hunga y
and he Aus ian Science Fund.
The p ojec employed bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e app oaches. On he quali a i e side, we
conduc ed en na a i e in e iews, en cogni i e in e iews, i e expe in e iews, and wo
policy-make in e iews on bo h he Hunga ian and Aus ian sides, as well as a join ound able
discussion. The quan i a i e analysis was based on seconda y analysis o exis ing da a om
EU-SILC and he 2016 Hunga ian Mic ocensus, as well as a ep esen a i e su ey o 1,000
people in Hunga y, a supplemen a y su ey in ol ing 375 indi iduals wi h mig a ion
in en ions, and a snowball sample-based su ey o 310 Hunga ian mig an s in Aus ia (who
ha e spen a leas one yea in Aus ia).
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The Con ex : Mig a ion Nexus and Well-Being Gap be ween Aus ia and
Hunga y
“I usually say, i someone can’ ind wo k he e in Aus ia, i ’s because
hey don’ wan o wo k — because he e a e jobs a ailable.”
Man, 45-60, House ca e ake , in AT
Since Aus ia’s ull labou ma ke opening o Hunga y in 2011, he numbe o Hunga ians
li ing in Aus ia has g own signi ican ly. By 2024, hei popula ion exceeded 100,000, making
hem he six h la ges o eign-bo n mino i y g oup in he coun y. While immig a ion has
con inued o ise, especially a e 2021, his end is inc easingly accompanied by e u n
mig a ion and ci cula mobili y. In ac , in 2024 o e e y 100 Hunga ians lea ing o Aus ia,
67 e u ned, e lec ing a dynamic and luid mig a o y pa e n. Geog aphically, a no iceable shi
is unde way. Al hough Vienna and Bu genland ha e his o ically been he p ima y des ina ions
o Hunga ian mig an s, hei ela i e impo ance is declining. Ins ead, he wes e n p o inces
such as Ty ol and Salzbu g a e a ac ing mo e Hunga ians, many o whom a e se ling in
smalle owns wi h popula ions o 3,000 o 5,000 and inding employmen in he hospi ali y
sec o .
Ou insigh s a e based on a snowball sampling me hod among Hunga ians in Aus ia. While
his app oach limi s ep esen a i eness, he da a align closely wi h he Aus ian- esiden sample
om Hunga y’s 2016 Mic ocensus. The only no able bias appea s o be he o e ep esen a ion
o highly educa ed indi iduals. When asked abou hei easons o mig a ion, inancial mo i es
clea ly domina e. Fo 57.5% o esponden s, his was among he op h ee easons o mo ing
o Aus ia. A mo e p edic able u u e and be e wo king condi ions we e also ci ed equen ly,
each appea ing in o e 35% o esponses. In e es ingly, hese same h ee ac o s we e also he
mos commonly ci ed easons o wan ing o s ay in Aus ia, highligh ing hei ongoing
ele ance in mig an s’ li es.
On a e age, Aus ian wages a e 2.3 imes highe han Hunga ian wages when adjus ed o
pu chasing powe . Howe e , he e is a ca ea : mig an s om pos -2004 EU accession coun ies
ea n, on a e age, only abou 70% o na i e Aus ians’ income. A seconda y analysis o EU-
SILC da a e eals ha Aus ia o e s objec i ely be e li ing condi ions, including lowe a es
o ela i e dep i a ion, be e heal h ou comes, educed social exclusion, mo e equen social
in e ac ions, and g ea e access o leisu e ac i i ies. In mos o hese domains, Hunga ians in
Aus ia app oach o e en exceed (e.g. he capabili y o a o d a leas one aca ion pe yea ) he
Aus ian sco es. Howe e , in some a eas, hey a e wo se han bo h Aus ians and Hunga ians
in Hunga y, especially in pe cei ed social exclusion.
In Hunga y, li e sa is ac ion, a key indica o o cogni i e subjec i e well-being, has shown a
s eady inc ease since 2013. In ou 2024 su ey, Hunga ians in Aus ia epo ed an a e age li e
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sa is ac ion sco e o 7.4, which alls be ween he 2022 Aus ian a e age o 7.9 and Hunga y’s
2024 sco e o 7.0. This gene al pa e n is mi o ed in sa is ac ion ac oss a ious li e domains.
One no able excep ion is income sa is ac ion, whe e Hunga ians in Aus ia epo highe le els
han he Aus ian a e age. On he o he hand, hey epo lowe sa is ac ion han hei
coun e pa s in Hunga y in a eas such as housing, social ela ionships, and wo k-li e balance.
A s iking duali y eme ges in a ec i e well-being. Hunga ians in Aus ia epo expe iencing
bo h posi i e emo ions (e.g., happiness, calmness) and nega i e ones (e.g., s ess, loneliness)
mo e equen ly han Hunga ians li ing in Hunga y. Howe e , in he domain o eudaimonic
well-being, pa icula ly in measu es such as op imism (+1.3), hey clea ly ou pe o m.
Hunga ians in Aus ia main ain s ong ansna ional ies, acili a ed by he coun ies’
geog aphic p oximi y. In p ac ice, many mig an s ne e uly "lea e" Hunga y no ully "a i e"
in Aus ia. They li e simul aneously in wo social sphe es. O e hal (54%) isi Hunga y a
leas 4–5 imes a yea , and nea ly hal (47%) egula ly send money home, indica ing a high
le el o ongoing c oss-bo de engagemen .
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Mig a ion in en ions in Hunga y and subjec i e well-being
“Be o e mig a ion, I wen h ough a di o ce. Th ee kids, 50% child suppo . Now, i 's easy
o add up how much money is needed o someone o ge by in a si ua ion like ha , and he e
was no o he op ion. […] I used o be he kind o pe son who said, ‘I e e yone lea es
Hunga y, I’ll be he las one o close he doo , and om he inside.’ I had no in en ion o
going anywhe e. Bu e en ually, he e was jus no o he op ion, no o he pa h.”
Man, 45-60, Wai e , in AT
In ou p ojec we explo ed mig a ion in en ions among he Hunga ian popula ion using a h ee-
ie ed app oach (willingness, hough , planning o mo e ab oad wi hin he nex wo yea s). Fo
he pu poses o his summa y, we ocus on he mos conc e e o hese: he in en ion o mig a e
wi hin wo yea s. P e ious Hunga ian s udies ha e shown ha such conc e e plans a e
s a is ically signi ican p edic o s o ac ual mig a ion. Acco ding o esea ch by Göd i and
Feleki (2017), 17% o hose wi h de ini e plans ollowed h ough wi hin h ee yea s.
Based on ou na ionally ep esen a i e su ey o Hunga ians aged 18–64, 8.3% plan o
emig a e, ema kably simila o he igu e eco ded in he 2016 Hunga ian Mic ocensus.
Howe e , jus 14% o his g oup say hey ha e al eady made a i m decision o lea e. The mos
commonly ci ed mo i a ions a e inancial easons (83%), a mo e p edic able u u e, and
imp o ed wo king condi ions. No ably, 29% also ci ed he in en ion o use mig a ion as a means
o imp o ing hei long- e m p ospec s in Hunga y i sel . The majo i y o po en ial mig an s
en ision s aying ab oad o wo o i e yea s, bu 28% a e p epa ed o lea e Hunga y
pe manen ly. Aus ia eme ged as he mos popula des ina ion, named by 43% o hose
conside ing emig a ion. I is ollowed by Ge many, he Uni ed Kingdom, and he Ne he lands.
Mig a ion is o e whelmingly d i en by employmen oppo uni ies, 99% o po en ial mig an s
ci ed wo k as hei p ima y eason, while only 7% men ioned s udying ab oad. Mig a ion
decisions a e la gely suppo ed by social ne wo ks: while 38% would emba k on his jou ney
alone, mos enjoy encou agemen om amily and iends.
The demog aphic p o ile o po en ial mig an s aligns wi h in e na ional ends and ea lie
Hunga ian indings. They end o be younge , mo e likely o be male, in good heal h, highly
educa ed, employed, and u ban esiden s. They also ha e g ea e access o mig a ion ne wo ks,
nea ly 15% ha e li ed ab oad be o e, and o e 80% ha e ela i es o iends al eady li ing
ab oad. As expec ed, po en ial mig an s hold mo e a ou able iews o emig a ion in gene al.
An o e whelming 99% disag ee wi h he no ion ha lea ing he coun y amoun s o le ing i
down, a s a k con as o only 71% among hose who in end o s ay.
A lowe le el o li e sa is ac ion cha ac e izes hose planning o emig a e. Thei a e age li e
sa is ac ion sco e is 6.9, compa ed o 7.2 among hose in ending o s ay in Hunga y. The mos
p onounced dissa is ac ion is seen in ime use (a 0.9-poin gap) and income sa is ac ion (a 0.8-
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poin gap). The la e is pa icula ly no ewo hy: al hough po en ial mig an s a e no
o e ep esen ed among Hunga y’s poo es esiden s, hey a e concen a ed in he middle-
income ange o 200,000–500,000 HUF pe mon h. Heal h is he only li e domain in which
po en ial mig an s epo signi ican ly highe sa is ac ion, a phenomenon consis en wi h he
well-documen ed "heal hy mig an e ec ." A nuanced pa e n eme ges when compa ing
a ec i e and eudaimonic well-being indica o s. Po en ial mig an s epo mo e a ou able
ou comes in a ec i e domains, bo h posi i e and nega i e. In con as , hei sco es on
eudaimonic indica o s, ela ed o meaning, pu pose, and long- e m psychological lou ishing,
end o be lowe han hose who wish o emain in Hunga y.
Ou indings based on causal me hods con i m a clea link be ween subjec i e well-being and
mig a ion in en ion. Lowe li e sa is ac ion is one o he ac o s, which a e leading o g ea e
in en ion o emig a e. Mo e su p isingly, li e sa is ac ion also appea s o co ela e wi h whe e
people in end o go. Those planning o mo e o Aus ia epo ed signi ican ly lowe le els o
sa is ac ion han hose conside ing o he coun ies, sugges ing ha Aus ia, while close and
amilia , may a ac indi iduals in pa icula ly acu e s a es o dissa is ac ion.
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Fo ms o ac ion po en ial: Mig a ion p opensi y and en ep eneu ial
inclina ion
“I eally admi e hose who s ay in Hunga y wi hou being a ou ed by he cu en sys em
and s ill keep igh ing. Some imes I e en eel a bi o cowa dice in mysel . Tha we le .
Well, i is wha i is... You only ha e one li e... I o en c osses my mind ha , e en i i ’s
no eason, i migh s ill be cowa dice o un away like his, while someone else s ays
behind and keeps igh ing.”
Man, 30-45, Cashie , in AT
Ac ion po en ial e e s o he eadiness and capaci y o indi iduals o espond o changes in
hei en i onmen . This concep can ake di e en o ms: p oac i e ac ion po en ial is o en
exp essed h ough he desi e o mig a e o s a a business, while p o es e lec s a mo e eac i e,
es i u i e o m o engagemen . A hi d g oup includes hose who emain passi e, showing
nei he p oac i e no es i u i e endencies.
In Hunga y, nea ly one in ou adul s exp esses a desi e o li e ab oad, while a ound one in
se en is conside ing s a ing a business. Addi ionally, close o 30% o esponden s say hey
would be willing o p o es i hei in e es s we e h ea ened. Mig a ion and en ep eneu ial
in en ions appea o be s ongly connec ed. People who exp ess a desi e o mig a e show nea ly
double he a e age en ep eneu ial inclina ion. An e en s onge associa ion eme ges be ween
mig a ion in en ion and p o es po en ial: almos hal o hose who conside emig a ing a e also
open o pa icipa ing in p o es s.
While gende is no signi ican ly associa ed wi h ac ion po en ial, age plays a mo e p ominen
ole. P o es inclina ion does no decline ma kedly wi h age, bu among younge people,
mig a ion in en ion ends o ou weigh p o es engagemen . A posi i e sel -pe cep ion o heal h
also ends o align wi h p oac i e ac ion po en ial, especially mig a ion eadiness, which is mo e
equen among hose who epo being in excellen heal h. Family s a us is ano he meaning ul
ac o . Single indi iduals a e mo e likely o exp ess mig a ion, en ep eneu ial, and p o es
inclina ions han hose wi h amilies. Economic ac i i y also ma e s: abou hal o s uden s and
wo- i hs o he unemployed indica e a eadiness o mig a e, compa ed o jus one in en
pensione s. Mig a ion in e es is mo e p e alen among en ep eneu s and people wo king
ou side he public sec o . P o essional s a us, en ep eneu ial oles, and in e nal labou ma ke
posi ioning a e all posi i ely associa ed wi h a ious o ms o ac ion po en ial.
Mig a ion willingness is no ably highe among indi iduals in bo h he lowe and uppe income
e ciles. Fo he o me g oup, he mo i a ion may be escape o upwa d mobili y; o he la e ,
he d i e may ela e o explo a ion o oppo uni y. This V-shaped ela ionship also cha ac e izes
en ep eneu ial inclina ion. Howe e , p o es po en ial does no appea o be s ongly linked
wi h income le els. Educa ion ends o be associa ed wi h mig a ion and p o es endencies, as
well as o e all engagemen e sus passi i y, bu has less in luence on en ep eneu ial in en ion.
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in e iewees said ha ips back ein o ced hei decision o mig a e, especially a e
encoun e ing nega i e expe iences wi h public se ices o poli ical discou se in Hunga y. The e
is a s iking con as in ins i u ional us : 80% o esponden s us he Aus ian media and
go e nmen mo e han hei Hunga ian coun e pa s. Many pe cei e ha poli ics is mo e
in usi e in Hunga y.
47% o mig an s p o ide inancial o emo ional suppo o amily in Hunga y. The a e age
amoun sen is €330 pe mon h, wi h highe amoun s epo ed by hose planning o e u n.
Re u n-planning mig an s send €150 mo e on a e age, and hose wi h a pa ne in Hunga y send
an addi ional €250 mon hly. Remi ances a e mo e common among: hose wi h lowe educa ion,
hose who isi home equen ly, and hose who in end o e u n. By con as , mig an s a e less
likely o send money i hey’ e li ed longe in Aus ia o li e wi h hei child en he e.
In e es ingly, hose who send emi ances, especially o close amily membe s, also epo
highe sa is ac ion wi h wo k.
23% o esponden s le behind a pa ne o child in Hunga y. These indi iduals epo mo e
nega i e ou comes in se e al well-being indica o s. Fo example, hose wi h a pa ne s ill in
Hunga y a e 12.6% less likely o say hey a e “always happy” compa ed o hose li ing wi h
hei pa ne . Sepa a ion om lo ed ones appea s o be one o he s onges s esso s in he
mig a ion expe ience. While ansna ional connec ions can o e emo ional g ounding, hey also
ca y bu dens, inancial, logis ical, and emo ional, ha may coun e ac he po en ial well-being
bene i s o mig a ion.
