1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
DOI:10.18462/ii .adap a ion.2024.1164
De elopmen o model o calcula ion o ca bon emissions du ing dis ibu ion o
F ui s and Vege ables in- and in o No way
Sophie KENDLER(a)*, E lend INDERGÅRD(a), K is ina NORNE WIDELL(a), Pa ick
HADAMITZKY(a)
(a) SINTEF Ocean: T ondheim, 7465, No way, *sophie.kendle @sin e .no
ABSTRACT
The No wegian ood ma ke is domina ed by h ee majo e ail chains, which manage hei own
dis ibu ion sys ems wi h he suppo o one main hi d-pa y impo p o ide . Al hough pa s o goods
a e anspo ed by ain, he majo i y elies on ucks, posing signi ican challenges o sus ainabili y.
Main wa ehouses coexis wi h egional ones o ui s and ege ables, leading o inc eased anspo
equency and ene gy use. T anspa ency ac oss supply chains is essen ial o op imize ene gy
consump ion, minimize ood loss and was e, and lowe CO₂ emissions. By imp o ing cooling
echnologies, e o ming anspo logis ics, and in eg a ing inno a i e sus ainabili y p ac ices, No way’s
ood sec o can add ess g owing cooling demands while ad ancing owa d educed ca bon oo p in s.
The wo k iden i ies impo s and ou lines a me hodology o calcula ing anspo ou es. I desc ibes
he No wegian supply chain s uc u e, including wa ehouses, packing plan s, and s o e dis ibu ion. A
egional case s udy demons a es ou e calcula ions and explains he p ocess o de e mining anspo
olumes o supe ma ke s.
Keywo ds: Model de elopmen , Sus ainabili y, Supply chain, Logis ics, anspo ou es
1 INTRODUCTION
F ui s and ege ables a e pa o a heal hy die , which p o ide among o he s mine als, i amins, an ioxidan s
and ib e. Many coun ies ha e he need o impo s addi ionally o he domes ic cul i a ion locally o ha e a
su icien a ie y and quan i y o ui s and ege ables. Wi h di e en expo ing coun ies p oducing a a ie y
o goods and espec i e impo coun ies ha ing he need o di e en kind o ui s and ege ables, a complex
ood supply sys em eme ges.
No way, being a coun y wi h cold o empe a e clima e as well as being one o Eu ope’s we es coun ies,
makes he cul i a ion o ui s and ege ables ex emely di icul . The no he nmos coun y o Eu ope is
la ge, howe e only a ound 3.5% o he land was a able in 2024 (ssb.no), making i necessa y o impo he
majo i y o goods om ab oad. The ha sh cold clima e, sho g owing season, and geog aphy o he No he n
pa o he coun y, wi h jo ds, we lands, and moun ains, make cul i a ion di icul and lead o a big a ie y
in ag icul u al p ac ices. The mos p oduc i e c op lands a e loca ed in he lowlands in sou h-Eas e n and
Mid No way bu canno mee he na ional demand o ui s and ege ables (Fla en and Hisano, 2007;
Lombnæs e al., 2011). App oxima ely 22,000 e ige a ed ucks and 4,000 shipping con aine s a e used o
impo o al 460,000 onnes o ui and ege ables o No way, abou 70% o he o al ma ke .
A lo o publica ions on li e cycle assessmen a e ound in li e a u e, o which mos pu he ocus on one
p oduc , and only ew e iew he impac o mul iple p oduc s a he same ime. Some li e a u e copes wi h
ui s and ege ables consumed in No way, bu he e is no comp ehensi e s udy published ye on he ui
and ege able supply chain. Mul iple publica ions s a e ha anspo a ion makes a subs an ial con ibu ion
o he g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and ene gy demand in he li e cycle o ui s and ege ables (Be na z,
2009; Bosona and Geb esenbe , 2018; Roibás e al., 2016; S anes, n.d.; Wallg en, 2006). Depending on he
p oduc ’s o igin, anspo a ion can be he main con ibu o o GHG emissions – o example, in he case o
anspo om New Zealand o Sweden – whe eas o locally p oduced goods, i accoun s o only a small
p opo ion o o al emissions (S adig, 2001). This shows ha a comp ehensi e assessmen o he
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
anspo a ion as pa o he ui and ege able supply chain is necessa y.
The main objec i e o his s udy is o map and gi e an insigh in o he No wegian supply chain o ui and
ege ables. He eby, emphasis is pu on anspo ou es o impo ed ui s and ege ables and whe e his
mee s he dis ibu ion o goods om s o age uni s wi hin No way including packing plan s o local p oduced
goods. The aim is o show he complexi y o he No wegian ui and ege able supply chain. The ma ke
si ua ion and he unique geog aphical and popula ion dis ibu ion a e leading o a highly complex and
in e connec ed sys em. I p o ides a basis o u he wo k in subsequen publica ions on he calcula ion o
GHG emissions and ene gy consump ion o he anspo o ui and ege ables in he No wegian ma ke .
2 MAIN SECTION
2.1
Me hodology
2.1.1
Goal and Scope
In o de o ob ain an o e iew o anspo a ion and dis ibu ion o ui s and ege ables, his a icle ocuses
on o al impo ed and locally p oduced p oduc s, whe e he showcase was na owed down o he six main
ui and six ege able g oups by olume in No way limi ed o he i e la ges expo ing coun ies o each
p oduc .
The o e all supply chain is b oken down o ou anspo s eps:
1) Fi s , he anspo ou side No way o he impo ed goods is in es iga ed. As a s a ing poin o he
analysis, he anspo ou es a e assumed o s a in he capi al ci y o he expo ing coun y and
end in he main wa ehouse in Oslo.
2) F om he main wa ehouse in Oslo, he goods a e dis ibu ed o he egional dis ibu ion wa ehouses.
T anspo ou es inside No way be ween he main and he egional wa ehouses a e iden i ied. The e
may be di e en in e media e des ina ions o di e en g oups o ui . Fo example, bananas a e
anspo ed un ipe and hen equi e a s opo e o ipen in ipening acili ies in he coun y o
des ina ion (Roibás e al., 2016).
3) In a hi d s ep ou ing o he locally p oduced goods is in es iga ed. The anspo ou es o ui and
ege ables p oduced in No way a e pa ially di e en om hose o impo ed ones. Local p oduc s
a e mos ly anspo ed om he a me s o local cold s o es o egional packing plan s and will hen
be dis ibu ed o he egional dis ibu ion wa ehouses. T anspo om a me s o packing plan s is
no included in he s udy.
4) Impo ed and local p oduc s come oge he in he egional dis ibu ion wa ehouses, se e al o which
a e sp ead ac oss he coun y. The p oduc s a e hen u he anspo ed o con enience s o es,
disposable o he end consume . This ou h s ep is o conside he anspo ou es be ween he
local wa ehouses and he s o es.
Figu e 1 p o ides a schema ic o e iew, wi h he scope o his s udy highligh ed by he g een ma ked a ea.
The aim o his s udy is o iden i y anspo ou es and ocus on he abo e-men ioned le e age poin s, a he
han he whole chain as done in a Li e Cycle Assessmen . He eby, he goal is o ga he a holis ic o e iew o
anspo a ion ou es and ne wo ks o he main impo ed ui and ege able g oups bo h looking a
in e na ional ou es and domes ic chains. Mo e complexi y is added o he domes ic chains inside No way,
since di e en main ma ke playe s exis , ha ope a e hei own egional wa ehouses, package plan s and
s o es. Tha leads o di e en anspo chains.
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
Figu e 1 Schema ic o e iew o e supply chain wi h he di e en in e media e s a ions om p oduc ion o consume and scope o
he s udy. F ee icons used om www.s g epo.com
2.1.2
Da a collec ion
To ga he comp ehensi e in o ma ion on he No wegian ood sys em and i s connec ed ac o s, his s udy
wo ks wi h a mul i- ace ed app oach o da a collec ion. He eby, obse a ional and quali a i e da a de i ed
om di e en sou ces we e used. When necessa y, due o a lack o accessible in o ma ion in li e a u e
(publica ions, epo s, ecommenda ions), g ey li e a u e, s akeholde engagemen and p ima y
con e sa ion, news a icles and media epo s as well as unpublished in o ma ion based on good ne wo ks
and expe ise wi hin he ield, helped ex ac use ul in o ma ion.
Mo eo e , da a on he amoun s o di e en ui and ege able ca ego ies impo ed o No way and he
pa ne coun ies is based on he S a is ics No way (S a is isk sen alby å; www.ssb.no/en) online da a base
ex ac ed wi h he a ailable Py hon API. The da a abou he s o es o Coop we e ex ac ed om hei websi e
and ansla ed o coo dina es by he geocode o Nomina im (osm-sea ch, 2025).
The da a ex ac ion and p ocessing we e conduc ed wi h Py hon (Py hon 3.12). The calcula ion o he s ee
ou es is based on he so wa e Valhalla (S epan, 2024) wi h he ca d ma e ial o open s ee map
(OpenS ee Map con ibu o s, 2017). The sea ou es a e calcula ed by he py hon package Sea ou e py
(Halili, 2024). The map plo s we e mainly c ea ed wi h he py hon basemap package o ma plo lib.
2.1.3
O ganisa ion o he dis ibu ion o ui and ege ables in No way
No way has mainly wo main impo e s and dis ibu o s: Bama and COOP. They supply he p oduc s o he
h ee main supe ma ke chains: COOP, No gesg uppen and Rema 1000. COOP has hei own dis ibu ion
sys em. Bama ( h ough Bama Daglig a e and BaRe) supplies No gesg uppen and Rema 1000. Bama accoun s
o 70% o impo s and COOP o 25%. Bama has con ac s wi h he a me s o ganiza ion Ga ne hallen in
No way and supplie s ab oad. In addi ion o impo s, COOP has di ec con ac s wi h a me s and local
packing plan s.
The impo ed and local p oduc s a e known in olume ( onnes), bu he olume sold by he h ee
supe ma ke chains is no known. I is necessa y o i s con e he olume o u no e and hen con e i
back o olume. This allows us o app oxima e he numbe o ucks needed o deli e esh p oduce o each
local supe ma ke . The o ganiza ion o he dis ibu ion o esh ui and ege ables in No way is shown in
Figu e 2.
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
Figu e 2 O ganisa ion o he dis ibu ion o esh ui and ege ables in No way (Bama.no, Coop.no, Rema.no, No gesg uppen.no,
Ga ne hallen.no,(Eldby, 2024, 2022))
2.2
Resul s and discussion
The unde lying sec ions desc ibe he complexi y o he anspo ing chain o he main ui and
ege able g oups in o No way. Speci ic examples we e picked o explain he applied me hodology as
well as o showcase he sugges ed app oach o u he calcula ions.
S ep 1: Main ui and ege able impo s
The main six ui g oups p esen ed in his wo k a e bananas, apples, melons, o anges,
clemen ines/ma ines and g apes as he mos impo ed ui s. The o al consumed amoun s, he
impo ed amoun s and he i e bigges expo coun ies a e lis ed in Table 1. By mass, banana is by a
he mos impo ed ui o No way, ollowed by apples and melons. The op i e expo ing coun ies o
ui s o No way a e low and middle-income coun ies, wi h Cos a Rica being he main expo coun y
o bananas wi h o e 50% o expo sha e.
Table 1 The six mos consumed ui g oups in olume [ onnes] in No way in 2023, so ed by ype, o al amoun [ onnes], amoun
impo ed ( onnes and dis ibu ion [%]), as well as he 5 bigges expo coun ies and hei dis ibu ion [%] o he o al op 5 impo
olume (Opplysningskon o e o F uk Og G øn , 2024).
Type
To al
amoun
( onnes)
Amoun impo ed
( onnes + %)
5 bigges expo coun ies o No way (%
dis ibu ion be ween hem)
Bananas
79 178
79 178 (100%)
Cos a Rica (53.8%), Ecuado (33.8%), Gua emala
(10.8%), Colombia (1.7%), Panama (0.3%) - ( o al
99.6%)
Apples
46 693
38 784 (83%)
I aly (56.1%), Poland (19.4%), Chile (6.7%),
Aus ia (3.6%), New Zealand (3.5%) -( o al 89.3%)
Melons
33 347
33 347 (100%)
Spain (69.2%), B azil (11.3%), Cos a Rica (5.9%),
I aly (4.6%), G eece (3.1%) - ( o al 94.1%)
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
O anges
33 382
33 382 (100%)
Spain (74.4%), Sou h-A ica (13.2%), Egyp
(6.5%), I aly (1.6%), U uguay (1.3%) -( o al 97.5%)
Clemen ines/
Manda ins
27 018
27 018 (100%)
Spain (57.0%), Sou h-A ica (19.5%), Is ael
(12.2%), Ma occo (6.6%), Pe u (3.4%) - ( o al
98.6%)
G apes
24 470
24 740 (100%)
Spain (27.1%), Sou h-A ica (26.1%), I aly (12.6%),
Pe u (10.3%), Egyp (6.0%) -( o al 82.1%)
In Figu e 3 a e he expo ing coun ies and he ai lines o No way o ui s displayed. Jus conside ing
he six main g oups o ui s and he i e bigges impo coun ies, leads o complex ne wo k o supply
chains ou side No way wi h 17 pa ne coun ies. In gene al, mos expo coun ies o he in es iga ed
ui ca ego ies a e coun ies ou side Eu ope. In he case o apples, he geog aphically closes expo ing
coun ies a e Poland, Aus ia and he op expo ing coun y I aly. Howe e , as can be seen in
Table 1,
Chile and New Zealand con ibu e oge he o abou 10% o he 89% o impo ed apples in o No way.
Figu e 3 Ai line ou es o he i e bigges expo coun ies pe ui ca ego y (5 o he mos consumed g oups in olume) in o No way
The main six ege able g oups selec ed a e ca o s, oma oes, onions, cucumbe s, peppe s and cabbage. The
o al consumed amoun s, he impo ed amoun s and he i e bigges expo coun ies a e lis ed in Table 2
The Ne he lands was he hi d la ges expo e o ege able p oduc s wo ldwide in 2022, and a signi ican
expo e o No way (The Obse a o y o Economic Complexi y, 2024). Being unde he op i e expo ing
coun ies o all six in es iga ed ege able ca ego ies, he Ne he lands con ibu es o a signi ican sha e o
impo ed ege ables in o No way.
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
Table 2 The six mos consumed ege able g oups in olume [ onnes] in No way in 2023, so ed by ype, o al amoun [ onnes], amoun
impo ed ( onnes and dis ibu ion[%]), as well as he 5 bigges expo coun ies and hei dis ibu ion [%] o he o al op 5 impo
olume (Opplysningskon o e o F uk Og G øn , 2024).
Type
To al amoun
( onnes)
Amoun impo ed
( onnes + %)
5 bigges expo coun ies o No way
(% dis ibu ion be ween hem)
Ca o s
36 456
2 745 (7.5%)
I aly (38.6%), Denma k (14%), F ance (13.6%),
Ne he lands (12%), Po ugal (10.4%)
Toma oes
35 815
20 892 (58.3%)
Spain (45%), Ne he lands (22.1%), Ma occo
(20.9%), Belgium (4.8%), Tu key (3.7%)
( o al 96.5%)
Onions
27 807
8 904 (32%)
Ne he lands (25.9%), New Zealand (23.8%),
Denma k (13.7%), F ance (9.1%), Egyp (8.6%)
( o al 81.1%)
Cucumbe s
28 962
5 428 (18.7%)
Spain (66.8%), Ne he lands (31.7%), Tu key
(0.9%), Ma occo (0.2%), Poland (0.1%)
( o al 99.8%)
Peppe s
20 288
20 223 (99.7%)
Ne he lands (45.9%), Spain (42.7%), Tu key (4%),
Poland (3.8%), G eece (1.4%)
( o al 97.8%)
Cabbage
10 765
1 433 (13.3%)
No h-Macedonia (37.5%), Ne he lands (20.5%),
Hunga y (15.1%), Poland (10%), Spain (9.8%)
( o al 93.0%)
Figu e 4 displays he expo ing coun ies and he ai lines o No way wi h he 15 main pa ne coun ies.
Apa om Denma k, which anks among he op i e expo e s o ca o s and onions o No way, he
Ne he lands is geog aphically closes expo ing coun y. Vege ables can be g own in la ge quan i ies in
mo e no he ly egions, which means ha mos pa ne coun ies a e in Eu ope, whe e anspo
dis ances a e sho e .
Figu e 4 Ai line ou es o he i e bigges expo coun ies pe ege able ca ego y (6 mos consumed g oups in olume) in o No way.
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
The eal ou es a e now shown in Figu e 5 and Table 3 using apples as an example. Apples a e impo ed
in o No way om I aly, Poland, Aus ia, Chile and New Zealand. In compa ison o he di ec ai lines, he
eal ou es can qui e di e . The apples om Poland, Aus ia and I aly a e anspo ed ho ough Eu ope
by uck (Becke , 2022) and al eady accoun o a sha e o 79.1 %. Gi en ha Chile and New Zealand
ha e a combined sha e o 10 %, and gi en he dis ance be ween hese coun ies and No way, his is a
signi ican igu e o in e con inen al anspo . Fo New Zealand, he apples a e anspo ed by
con aine ship mo e han 21 508 km om Welling on, New Zealand o Ro e dam, whe e hey a e hen
assumed o be anspo ed by oad o a u he 1 607 km o b ing apples o he main s o age acili ies
in he Oslo a ea. Chilean apples a el 13 982 km by ship o Ro e dam, o inally des ina e in Oslo.
Figu e 5 Compa ison o he ai line ou es o he i e main expo coun ies s. ac ual anspo ou es shown o apples
Table 3 T anspo ou e om he i e bigges apple expo ing coun ies o No way, showing ou e poin s (ci ies), means o anspo
( ypes) and dis ances [km] o each s op / anspo ype.
Sou ce
Coun y
Ta ge
Coun y
Rou e
Means o anspo
Dis ances (km)
I aly
No way
Rome
Oslo
Long Haul T uck
2 894
Poland
No way
Wa saw
Oslo
Long Haul T uck
1 916
Chile
No way
San iago
Pue o San
An onio
Po o
Ro e dam
Oslo
Long Haul T uck
Con aine Ship
Long
Haul T uck
114.5
13 982
1 607
Aus ia
No way
Vienna
Oslo
Long Haul T uck
2 001
New Zealand
No way
Welling on
Po o
Welling on
Po o
Ro e dam
Oslo
Long Haul T uck
Con aine Ship
Long
Haul T uck
3
21 508
1 607
2.2.1
S ep 2: D i e s, ma ke playe s and cu en ma ke si ua ion
63% o he o al impo ed and p oduced esh ui and ege ables in No way a e sold in supe ma ke s. This
g oce y ma ke is spli be ween h ee di e en ma ke playe s whe e Coop, Rema 1000 and No gesg uppen
ha e a ma ke sha e o 29.2, 23.8 and 43.6 % espec i ely adding up o 96.6 %. The ou h playe , Bunnp is
holds a sha e o jus 3.4 %, and whe e he dis ibu ion is done by No gesg uppen. No gesg uppen dis ibu es
all hei gods h ough hei pa ly owned dis ibu o ASKO. Mos o he dis ibu ion in REMA 1000 is done by
hei own REMA Dis ibu ion, bu hey ha e a coope a ion also wi h AKSO o some egions. COOP dis ibu es
hei own p oduc s be ween some o hei egional wa ehouses bu mos ly use ex e nal dis ibu o s.
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
Coop includes six supe ma ke concep s (Ex a, Mega, P ix, Ma ked, Ma k oken and Obs!) and had an
ope a ing e enue o app ox. 5 billion € in 2023. Rema 1000 has one supe ma ke concep wi h a e enue o
4.5 billion €, while No gesg uppen, he bigges g oce y g oup, includes i e concep s (KIWI, MENY, Joke ,
SPAR, Næ bu ikken), which had a o al ope a ing e enue o app ox. 8.7 billion € in 2023 (S a is a, 2025).
The supply chains and he connec ed na ional and egional o ganisa ion o dis ibu ion a eas and
cen es o dis ibu ion and s o age di e o each o he h ee big g oce y g oups. Fu he in his pape ,
COOP is se o be he showcase o he model de elopmen . The di e en egional di isions o
dis ibu ion a eas and espec i e alloca ions o s o age and dis ibu ion cen es o COOP e ail g oup
can be seen in Figu e 6. Wi h ou lining he me hodology o calcula ing he km- onnes and u he he
GHG emissions o he COOP e ail g oup, he o he g oce y g oups can be included.
Coop subdi ides No way in o 58 a eas o o ganiza ional pu poses. The main 14 o hese a eas a e
shown in Figu e 6. Since he u no e o each egion and supe ma ke concep is known, i is possible
o app oxima e he a e age olume o ui and ege ables deli e ed o each supe ma ke . This
indi ec ly akes in o accoun he unique geog aphical and popula ion dis ibu ion. The di e en
dis ibu ion a eas a e supplied h ough he di e en egional wa ehouses ac oss he o ganisa ional
boa de s. The egional wa ehouses a e supplied om he main wa ehouse in Oslo and he es om he
a ious packaging plan s in he icini y. The egional wa ehouses o Coop a e based in S a ange ,
Be gen, T ondheim and T omsø. As shown in Figu e 6 he e a e ain connec ions in be ween bu he
main amoun s a e anspo ed by ucks.
Figu e 6 No wegian map showing he dis ibu ion a eas (1-15), s o age uni s (yellow squa es o some main ci ies and a,b) as well as
he main ain ou es ( ed o diesel locomo i e and g een o elec i ied ou es) o he g oce y g oup Coop.
2.2.2
S ep 3: Regional dis ibu ion o No h-Wes No way: Example o he Coop g oce y g oup
Fu he in he COOP showcase, he egion No h-Wes (Figu e 6, egion 4) is used o p esen he model
de elopmen . Fo u he dis ibu ion om he local cold s o es and packing plan s o he egional wa ehouse
in he a ea a ound T ondheim has been selec ed. The e o e, he packing plan s in he middle pa o No way
1s IIR Con e ence on Re ige a ion Adap ing o Rising Tempe a u es, Manches e , England, Augus 2025
a e shown in Figu e 7 addi ional o he egional wa ehouse in T ondheim. The packing plan s a e mainly
dis inguished in o packaging acili ies o ege ables, po a oes and ui s wi h some o hem packaging a
combina ion o po a oes and ege ables. A ound 12 package plan s deli e o he egional wa ehouses o he
di e en main ma ke playe s in T ondheim including Coop. A e epackaging, he p oduc s a e dis ibu ed
o o he egional dis ibu ion cen e s o di ec ly o he supe ma ke s.
Figu e 7 T anspo ou es om he indi idual packing plan s in he a ea No h-Wes o he egional wa ehouse in T ondheim.
2.2.3
S ep 4: Dis ibu ion o he shops om he egional wa ehouse:
COOP alone ope a es 1114 s o es as pa o hei six di e en supe ma ke chains in No way. The uppe
pa o he No -Wes a ea, shown in Figu e 6 is supplied h ough he egional wa ehouse in T ondheim,
excep a smalle local p oduc ion a ound Mosjøen and T omsø. Figu e 8 shows he ou es om he
wa ehouse in T ondheim o he 66 indi idual s o es loca ed in his a ea. The leng hs o he ou es ange
om 148 km o 502 km and he mean leng h o all ou es displayed is 284.2 km. The deli e y o esh
ui and ege ables o he supe ma ke s is mos ly done 4 days pe week h oughou he coun y, excep
3 days pe week up no h and 5 days pe week a ound he Oslo a ea.
Figu e 8 Dis ibu ion o p oduc s o indi idual s o es om Coop’s egional wa ehouse in T ondheim in a pa o he a ea No h-Wes
