B2SAPP: blockchain based solution for maritime security applications

TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 31 July 2025
DOI 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Nicholas Koloko onis,
Uni e si y o Peloponnese, G eece
REVIEWED BY
Chengzu Dong,
Lingnan Uni e si y, Hong Kong SAR, China
Huida Zhao,
Shenzhen Uni e si y, China
*CORRESPONDENCE
A is eidis Fa ao
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 06 Feb ua y 2025
ACCEPTED 09 July 2025
PUBLISHED 31 July 2025
CITATION
Fa ao A, Za as A, Voudou is A, Papa is G and
Xenakis C (2025) B2SAPP: blockchain based
solu ion o ma i ime secu i y applica ions.
F on . Compu . Sci. 7:1572009.
doi: 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
COPYRIGHT
©2025 Fa ao, Za as, Voudou is, Papa is and
Xenakis. This is an open-access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion License (CC BY). The
use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he
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his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed
which does no comply wi h hese e ms.
B2SAPP: blockchain based
solu ion o ma i ime secu i y
applica ions
A is eidis Fa ao1,2*, Apos olis Za as1,3, Anas assis Voudou is1,
Geo gios Papa is1and Ch is os Xenakis1
1Depa men o Digi al Sys ems, Uni e si y o Pi aeus, Pi aeus, G eece, 2InQbi Inno a ions SRL.,
Bucha es , Romania, 3Founda ion o Resea ch and Technology – Hellas, He aklion, G eece
The digi iza ion o he ma i ime indus y is accele a ing apidly. Howe e ,
c i ical in as uc u es ace g ea e cybe secu i y isks as hey become mo e
in e connec ed. As digi al echnologies ad ance, so do he ad e sa ies ha
exploi hem. The h ea posed by cybe c iminals and s a e-sponso ed ac o s is
mo e significan han e e , and he shipping sec o ’s cen al ole in global supply
chains makes i a p ime a ge o cybe a acks. This a icle in oduces B2SAPP,
an inno a i e p i acy-p ese ing amewo k designed o deli e obus secu i y
and p i acy p o ec ions o ma i ime ope a ions. By le e aging Hype ledge
A ies and Hype ledge Fab ic, B2SAPP p o ides eliable au ho iza ion o he
en i ies in ol ed in he ma i ime ecosys em, as well as secu e s o age o Vessel
ope a ional da a. We ha e implemen ed he co e componen s o B2SAPP and
conduc ed a quan i a i e pe o mance assessmen , demons a ing i s easibili y.
We u he alida e i s secu i y and p i acy a ibu es, confi ming ha B2SAPP
mee s i s design objec i es. In summa y, B2SAPP ep esen s a o wa d- hinking
solu ion poised o enhance cybe insu ance agains e ol ing cybe h ea s,
o e ing a p omising a enue o sa egua ding o ganiza ions and policyholde s
in he digi al e a.
KEYWORDS
blockchain, sel -so e eign iden i y, p i acy p ese ing, ma i ime, sma con ac s
1 In oduc ion
The ma i ime sec o , a global ade and connec i i y co ne s one, aces escala ing
cybe secu i y h ea s ha jeopa dize ope a ional in eg i y and e iciency. Recen ad ances
in sa elli e echnology and IoT in eg a ion ha e mode nized ma i ime communica ion
sys ems, expedi ing decision-making and acili a ing eal- ime da a ansmission (Raza
e al., 2023). Ne e heless, his p og ess has enla ged he a ack su ace (Yu e al., 2023;
Danilin e al., 2021), exposing c ucial sys ems o h ea s like spoo ing (Sp a il e al., 2023),
jamming (Liu e al., 2023a), unau ho ized access (Che nyi e al., 2018), and ansomwa e
a acks (Po amos e al., 2023).
A se ies o ecen inciden s e idence he impo ance o add essing cybe secu i y
conce ns in he ma i ime sec o . Fo ins ance, a Singapo e shipbuilde Sembco p
Ma ine, unau ho ized access o he IT ne wo k ia hi d-pa y so wa e unde sco ed
he necessi y o obus secu i y p o ocols despi e he absence o subs an ial inancial
consequences (Execu i e, 2025). Likewise, Voyage Wo ldwide, a ma i ime IT solu ions
p o ide se ing o e 25% o global shipping o ganiza ions, expe ienced a signi ican
b each in Decembe 2022 ha disabled all sys ems and allegedly enabled u he in usions
ia IT se ice p o ide s (Chambe s, 2025). In Janua y 2023, he g oup behind he
F on ie s in Compu e Science 01 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
ansomwa e PLAY comp omised a Ma ine IT i m in addi ion o
ou o he shipping companies, subsequen ly eleasing s olen da a
on he da k web (The Reco d, 2025a). In Decembe 2022, he Po
o Lisbon su e ed a majo cybe a ack by he “Lock Bi ” g oup,
which disabled ope a ions o ou days and h ea ened o disclose
sensi i e in o ma ion unless a $1.5 million ansom was paid (The
Reco d, 2025b). In Janua y 2023, No wegian shipping classi ica ion
socie y DNV expe ienced a ansomwa e assaul a ec ing 70 clien s
ope a ing ∼1,000 Vessels, a ound 15% o i s o e all lee (The
Reco d, 2024).
The a o emen ioned occu ences highligh he u gen need
o mode n and comp ehensi e cybe secu i y measu es ailo ed o
he ma i ime sec o . Beyond ensu ing na iga ion and ope a ional
sa e y, such measu es a e c i ical o sa egua ding sensi i e da a,
p ese ing he con inui y o global supply chains, and mi iga ing
subs an ial inancial losses, e lec ing he ex ensi e ulne abili ies
inhe en in ma ine sys ems. Al hough cybe secu i y policies
ha e ad anced conside ably, exis ing solu ions equen ly ail o
add ess he complex and e ol ing h ea s unique o ma i ime
ecosys ems (Cla ijo Mesa e al., 2024).
To ackle hese issues, we p opose a Blockchain-based
solu ion, B2SAPP, which in eg a es sma con ac s and Sel -
So e eign Iden i y (SSI) echnology o con on ma i ime
cybe secu i y challenges. The amewo k le e ages Hype ledge
Fab ic’s pe missioned Blockchain o p o ide secu e, immu able,
and anspa en s o age o ma i ime ope a ional da a, while
sma con ac s au oma e c i ical unc ionali ies such as
anomaly de ec ion and esponse. SSI, implemen ed h ough
Hype ledge A ies, deli e s a obus iden i y managemen
mechanism o Vessels, Command and Con ol Cen e s
(CCCs), and pe sonnel using Ve i iable C eden ials (VCs) and
Decen alized Iden i ie (DID).
O e all, B2SAPP enhances secu i y, ope a ional e iciency, and
p i acy by mi iga ing h ea s like spoo ing, signal in e e ence, and
da a co up ion. In essence, sma con ac s enable eal- ime h ea
iden i ica ion and au oma ed ope a ions like c eden ial issuance
and e i ica ion, while enc yp ion sa egua ds sensi i e in o ma ion,
p ese ing us and p o ec ing agains unau ho ized access. This
comp ehensi e app oach no only add esses cu en challenges bu
also es ablishes he amewo k as a u u e-p oo solu ion ha can
adap o he cons an ly e ol ing ma i ime cybe secu i y landscape.
In summa y, we make he ollowing main con ibu ions:
•We in oduce he B2SAPP amewo k, le e aging Blockchain
and SSI echnologies o enhance p i acy, secu i y, and
ope a ional e iciency in ma i ime ope a ions.
•We le e age sma con ac s o eal- ime anomaly de ec ion
and au oma ed ope a ions, including c eden ial issuance,
e i ica ion, and secu e da a sha ing among Vessels, command
cen e s, and sa elli es.
•We pe o m a quan i a i e e alua ion o he sys em’s
pe o mance and esilience, demons a ing he easibili y o
B2SAPP in add essing ma i ime cybe secu i y challenges and
i s e ec i eness agains common cybe h ea s.
The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2
o e s an in-dep h examina ion o he p oposed sa elli e–ma i ime
communica ion ecosys em, discussing ope a ional wo k lows, key
componen s, and de ining cybe secu i y h ea s and equi emen s.
Nex , Sec ion 3 de ails he echnological ounda ion o he B2SAPP
amewo k, highligh ing i s backbone in as uc u e based on
Hype ledge Fab ic and Hype ledge A ies. Sec ion 4 analyzes he
a chi ec u al o e iew o he B2SAPP ecosys em oge he wi h
he oles o he pa icipan en i ies. In Sec ion 5, we ou line he
ope a ional p ocesses wi hin he B2SAPP amewo k, including
Ve i iable C eden ial issuance, e i ica ion, and anomaly de ec ion
mechanisms, as well as he ole o sma con ac s in secu ing
da a exchanges and en o cing commands. Sec ion 6 e alua es
B2SAPP’s pe o mance h ough me ics such as c eden ial issuance
ime, Blockchain h oughpu , and o e all sys em esilience, an
analysis o he secu i y p o ocols and enc yp ion me hods used,
alongside a secu i y analysis o common h ea s. In Sec ion 7,
we c i ically assess he limi a ions o he B2SAPP amewo k
and p opose po en ial enhancemen s. Nex , Sec ion 8 e iews
p io esea ch in sa elli e and ma i ime communica ion sys ems,
highligh ing ad ancemen s in Blockchain-based solu ions and he
need o in eg a ing SSI o secu e iden i y managemen . Finally,
Sec ion 9 concludes he pape by summa izing he amewo k’s
key con ibu ions and sugges ing di ec ions o u u e esea ch o
ad ance ma i ime cybe secu i y.
2 Decen alized sa elli e ecosys em
wi h sma con ac s and
sel -so e eign iden i y
This sec ion concisely analyses he mos p e alen h ea s
con on ing ma i ime sa elli e communica ion ecosys ems, hei
ope a ional con ex , and an associa ed h ea model. Addi ionally,
we ou line he secu i y and p i acy equi emen s needed o
ensu e he us wo hy ope a ion o amewo ks unc ioning wi hin
his ecosys em.
2.1 Ecosys em o e iew
The mode n ma i ime ecosys em is ans o ming in o a
sophis ica ed and secu e en i onmen by in eg a ing ad anced
sa elli e communica ion, Blockchain echnology, sma con ac s,
and SSI (Fa ao e al., 2024). This hyb id ecosys em imp o es
adi ional ma i ime ope a ions by enabling eal- ime, secu e, and
au oma ed da a managemen among Vessels, command cen e s,
and sa elli es. As a esul , i p omo es seamless coo dina ion and
enhances decision-making capabili ies. The ecosys em includes he
ollowing componen s.
Vessels. Vessels a e a he hea o ma i ime ope a ions, esponsible
o anspo ing ca go and ca ying ou essen ial missions. They
a e equipped wi h ad anced sa elli e communica ion sys ems ha
allow hem o con inuously ga he and ansmi impo an da a,
such as GPS coo dina es, wea he condi ions, and equipmen
s a us. By u ilizing VCs issued by he Nau ical Ope a ional
Cen e (NOC), Vessels secu ely s o e his da a on a Blockchain,
ensu ing i s in eg i y and a ailabili y o au ho ized s akeholde s.
F on ie s in Compu e Science 02 on ie sin.o g
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Addi ionally, sma con ac s in eg a ed in o he Blockchain
moni o he Vessel’s da a and au oma ically igge ale s o ac ions
whene e speci ic condi ions a e me .
CCC. As he cen al hub o ma i ime ope a ions, he CCC o e sees
all lee ac i i ies. I p ocesses eal- ime da a om Vessels, iden i ies
po en ial isks, and coo dina es esponses o ensu e sa e and
e icien ma i ime ope a ions. The CCC also ac s as a e i ie wi hin
he Blockchain ecosys em, alida ing he iden i y and c eden ials o
Vessels be o e hey engage in ansac ions on he Blockchain. By
u ilizing sma con ac s, he CCC au oma es decision-making and
p o ides an immu able audi ail, which enhances accoun abili y
and anspa ency.
Sa elli e. Sa elli es unc ion as communica ion elays, ensu ing
con inuous connec i i y be ween Vessels and he CCC, e en
in emo e ocean a eas. They acili a e he secu e ansmission
o da a, including ex , oice, and ideo, while also suppo ing
synch oniza ion by p o iding accu a e iming signals ac oss he
ma i ime ne wo k. This p ecise iming alignmen is essen ial o
coo dina ed ope a ions, especially in missions ha demand s ic
empo al accu acy and da a consis ency.
NOC. The NOC plays a c ucial ole in he Blockchain ne wo k
as a Hype ledge A ies issue . I issues VCs o Vessels and CCC
pe sonnel based on e i ied iden i y a ibu es. These c eden ials
p o ide secu e, p i acy-p ese ing access o da a s o ed on he
Blockchain, ensu ing ha only au ho ized en i ies ha e he abili y
o ead om o w i e o i . Addi ionally, he NOC o e sees
he o e all cybe secu i y o he ecosys em, de ec ing h ea s and
dis ibu ing ale s o help mi iga e isks.
3 d-pa y se ice p o ide s. As he ecosys em expands, he
demand o specialized so wa e and se ices is expec ed o
inc ease. 3 d-pa y p o ide s may c ea e applica ions ha enhance
he Blockchain-based ma i ime ecosys em wi h ad anced da a
analy ics, cybe secu i y solu ions, and main enance scheduling
sys ems. They could also o e se ices ha in eg a e smoo hly
wi h exis ing ma i ime ope a ions, adding alue by cus omizing
solu ions o mee speci ic needs.
Regula o y and compliance au ho i ies. To ensu e compliance
wi h legal and egula o y s anda ds, ele an au ho i ies may
moni o he ne wo k. They could o e see in e na ional ma i ime
laws, cybe secu i y equi emen s, and en i onmen al egula ions.
By connec ing wi h he Blockchain, hese au ho i ies can access
ope a ional da a in eal ime, which imp o es audi ing e iciency
and enhances en o cemen p ocedu es.
This decen alized ma i ime sa elli e communica ion
ecosys em, s eng hened by Blockchain echnology, sma
con ac s, and SSI, ep esen s a signi ican ad ancemen in
ma i ime ope a ions. The combina ion o hese echnologies
c ea es a secu e, anspa en , and e icien en i onmen ha
acili a es eal- ime decision-making and coo dina ion wi hin he
ma i ime ne wo k.
By enabling secu e da a exchanges, au oma ing
esponses o c i ical e en s, and ensu ing he in eg i y
and aceabili y o ma i ime ope a ions, his ecosys em
opens new a enues o inno a i e business models and
ope a ional e iciencies. In ol ing hi d-pa y se ice p o ide s
and egula o y au ho i ies u he enhances he ne wo k,
ensu ing esilience and adap abili y o e ol ing challenges
and oppo uni ies.
Ul ima ely, he comp ehensi e in eg a ion o hese ad anced
echnologies wi hin he ma i ime sec o no only imp o es secu i y
and ope a ional e iciency bu also os e s a dynamic and lexible
ecosys em capable o accommoda ing u u e inno a ions and
mee ing s akeholde demands.
2.2 Classic ma i ime sa elli e
communica ion ope a ions and
cybe secu i y h ea s
This sec ion p esen s a undamen al ma i ime ope a ional
scena io in which Vessels, CCC, and sa elli es coope a e o achie e
a sha ed mission. We i s desc ibe he sys em’s co e componen s
and wo k lows, ollowed by he key cybe secu i y h ea s his
sa elli e–ma i ime communica ion ecosys em aces.
2.2.1 Ma i ime ope a ion scena io
In his ma i ime sa elli e communica ion sys em, Vessels
a e equipped wi h ad anced na iga ional ins umen s ha ely
on Global Na iga ion Sa elli e Sys ems (GNSS) o accu a e
posi ioning. Onboa d senso s cap u e a ious da a: me eo ological
eadings om specialized wea he ins umen s, ca go s a us ia
IoT-enabled de ices, and equipmen heal h assessmen s h ough
condi ion moni o ing sys ems. These da a poin s a e compiled
in o s anda dized messages (e.g., using he NMEA 0183 p o ocol)
and ansmi ed o he CCC h ough a sa elli e link, ensu ing
obus communica ion e en in challenging condi ions. Once he
CCC ecei es hese da a, a sophis ica ed analy ical p ocess de ec s
ope a ional pa e ns and applies anomaly de ec ion algo i hms o
lag po en ial issues in eal ime. The ou comes o hese analyses a e
hen sen back o he Vessels.
The sa elli e, loca ed in geos a iona y o bi o consis en
co e age, ac s as a communica ion elay, le e aging mul iple
access echniques and ad anced modula ion schemes o acili a e
bandwid h-e icien da a ans e . Timing synch oniza ion is
upheld ia a omic clocks on he sa elli e, which pe iodically
b oadcas synch oniza ion signals o Vessels, c ea ing a cohesi e
empo al amewo k o he en i e sys em. The Vessels, in
u n, adjus hei ac i i ies based on he CCC’s di ec i es.
Addi ionally, hey may coo dina e wi h one ano he h ough
es ablished ma i ime communica ion p o ocols o Vessel- o-
Vessel in e ac ions.
This ma i ime sa elli e communica ion ecosys em in eg a es
ad anced echnologies such as GNSS, IoT, sophis ica ed
communica ion p o ocols, machine lea ning, and p ecise
iming synch oniza ion. These componen s acili a e eal- ime
da a exchange, enabling be e decision-making and synch onized
ope a ions. This ul ima ely enhances he e iciency and sa e y o
ma i ime missions.
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2.2.2 Cybe secu i y h ea s
Despi e he echnical sophis ica ion o his ma i ime sa elli e
communica ion en i onmen , i is essen ial o acknowledge
he cybe secu i y isks accompanying in e connec ed, da a-
d i en sys ems. The ollowing lis highligh s key h ea s
ha can comp omise he ma i ime sa elli e communica ion
ecosys em (Cla ijo Mesa e al., 2024;Akpan e al., 2022;A enyo
and Caesa , 2023).
CH1 —Spoo ing and jamming: Spoo ing in ol es b oadcas ing
decep i e signals o manipula e sa elli e da a, leading o
comp omised na iga ion da a onboa d ma i ime Vessels.
Consequen ly, Vessels may s ay om hei in ended ou es,
aising collision o na iga ional e o isks. Jamming a acks,
in con as , in en ionally dis up sa elli e communica ions,
po en ially esul ing in empo a y o p olonged communica ion
losses. Du ing eme gencies, such dis up ion impedes dis ess
signals, endange ing p omp esponse e o s. The epe cussions
include immedia e sa e y conce ns, ope a ional down ime, and
ele a ed suscep ibili y o ma i ime secu i y h ea s (Tedeschi e al.,
2022;Tabish and Chau -Luh, 2024).
CH2—Unau ho ized access: Ad e sa ies who gain unau ho ized
en y o na iga ion, communica ion, o con ol sys ems can exploi
ulne abili ies wi h po en ially di e ou comes. A acke s may
manipula e na iga ion unc ions, delibe a ely edi ec ing Vessels
om hei ou es and inc easing he likelihood o collisions,
g oundings, o na iga ional e o s. Mo eo e , in e e ence wi h
communica ion sys ems hampe s essen ial da a exchanges be ween
Vessels and onsho e au ho i ies, ad e sely a ec ing eme gency
coo dina ion. B eaching con ol sys ems also jeopa dize Vessel
sa e y, ca go in eg i y, and c ew wel a e (Tabish and Chau -Luh,
2024;A enyo and Caesa , 2023).
CH3—Da a in e cep ion: The in e cep ion o c ucial da a can
cause a - eaching consequences, anging om secu i y b eaches o
he and illici use. In an in e connec ed ma i ime se ing, whe e
eal- ime communica ion is i al, such in e cep ions h ea en da a
con iden iali y and in eg i y (Tabish and Chau -Luh, 2024;A enyo
and Caesa , 2023).
CH4—Malwa e and ansomwa e: A success ul malwa e o
ansomwa e a ack can dis up c i ical Vessel ope a ions,
a ec ing na iga ion sys ems, engine con ols, and beyond.
Sensi i e da a, such as ca go mani es s o communica ion
logs, may be comp omised, enabling unau ho ized access
o ne a ious use. Ransomwa e adds he isk o ex o ion,
whe e a acke s demand paymen o es o e c i ical sys ems,
po en ially pa alyzing ma i ime ac i i ies un il hese demands a e
me (Tabish and Chau -Luh, 2024).
CH5—Supply chain ulne abili ies: The agili y o he ma i ime
supply chain a ises om i s dependence on a complex and
globally dis ibu ed ecosys em o ha dwa e, so wa e, and se ice
p o ide s. E en a single comp omised componen , whe he a
na iga ion sys em o embedded i mwa e, can in oduce sys emic
ulne abili ies ac oss essels and communica ion in as uc u e.
This agili y is compounded by he limi ed isibili y ma i ime
o ganiza ions o en ha e in o hi d-pa y supplie s and he
absence o s anda dized e i ica ion mechanisms o ha dwa e and
so wa e in eg i y. These weaknesses o e exploi oppo uni ies o
malicious ac o s o in il a e and manipula e c i ical in as uc u e.
Po en ial impac s span unau ho ized access, da a b eaches, and
malicious code injec ion. S eng hening supply chain in eg i y
is pi o al o p e en ing such b eaches and sus aining obus
communica ion sys ems (Pola idis e al., 2018;Tabish and Chau -
Luh, 2024;A enyo and Caesa , 2023).
CH6—Inside h ea s: Malicious inside s mo i a ed by inancial
gain o o he ac o s may delibe a ely manipula e sys ems,
comp omise con iden ial da a, and dis up co e ope a ions.
Con e sely, well-in en ioned inside s can inad e en ly cause
se e e dis up ions h ough miscon igu a ion o e o s. The
epe cussions include inancial losses, epu a ional ha m, and
weakened ma i ime secu i y (Tabish and Chau -Luh, 2024).
CH7—Denial o Se ice (DoS) a acks: O e loading
communica ion o na iga ion sys ems wi h excessi e eques s
can igge widesp ead dis up ion. Comp omised communica ion
channels unde mine c i ical da a exchanges be ween Vessels and
sho e acili ies, educing si ua ional awa eness and coo dina ion.
Simul aneously, na iga ion o sa elli e-based sys ems may be
impai ed, p e en ing accu a e posi ion, cou se, and speed eadings,
hus posing isks o c ew sa e y and ma i ime asse s (Tabish and
Chau -Luh, 2024).
CH8—Da a logging: Insu icien o absen logging s a egies pose
a signi ican cybe secu i y isk, as na iga ion, communica ion, and
o he sys em ac i i ies may emain unmoni o ed. De ailed audi
logs a e essen ial o o ensic in es iga ions in o cybe -physical
a acks; wi hou hem, i becomes mo e challenging o de ec
anomalous o malicious ac i i ies p omp ly (Tabish and Chau -
Luh, 2024).
O he po en ial h ea s, such as Cybe -physical a acks and
Social Enginee ing A acks, ha e been examined. Howe e , his
s udy does no add ess hese issues, as hey canno be su icien ly
ackled using he cu en capabili ies o Blockchain, Sma
Con ac s, o SSI, he co e echnologies ha unde pin ou
p oposed a chi ec u e.
2.3 Secu i y and p i acy equi emen s
The sa elli e ma i ime ecosys em combines elemen s o sa elli e
and ma i ime echnology, leading o sha ed secu i y and p i acy
equi emen s om bo h domains. This wo k is he i s o de ine
he necessa y secu i y and p i acy equi emen s o solu ions,
such as a chi ec u es, amewo ks, and schemes, in ended o
use in he ma i ime sec o , as exis ing li e a u e lacks his
ocus. A e conside ing he sa elli e ma i ime ecosys em buil
on Blockchain and ele an esea ch, he ollowing secu i y and
p i acy equi emen s ha e been es ablished.
2.3.1 Secu i y equi emen s
The de ini ion o secu i y equi emen s is c ucial o iden i ying
po en ial cybe secu i y h ea s ha a sa elli e ma i ime ecosys em
may ace. This p oac i e app oach aims no only o educe he
likelihood o cybe secu i y inciden s, such as da a b eaches, bu
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also o minimize hei po en ial consequences. Below, we ou line
he secu i y equi emen s ha should be add essed by sa elli e
ma i ime sys ems buil on Blockchain echnology.
S1—Da a in eg i y: Da a wi hin he Blockchain, sha ed
among in ol ed en i ies, mus be p o ec ed om al e a ion
and duplica ion.
S2—Non- epudia ion: All pa ies in ol ed should be held
accoun able o hei ac ions and canno deny hem.
S3—Au ho iza ion and access con ol: Access o Blockchain-
s o ed da a should only be g an ed o legi ima e en i ies egis e ed
wi hin he espec i e ecosys em.
S4—Accoun abili y: All pa ies in ol ed should be held
accoun able o hei ac ions.
S5—Da a con iden iali y: Da a collec ed mus be accessible
only o au ho ized en i ies. No en i ies should collabo a e o
ob ain in o ma ion.
2.3.2 P i acy equi emen s
The p i acy equi emen s o B2SAPP a e c a ed o
ensu e secu e handling o sensi i e da a while main aining
he con iden iali y and anonymi y o en i ies wi hin he ma i ime
ecosys em. This app oach add esses bo h egula o y compliance
and s akeholde us .
P1—Da a minimiza ion: Only he minimum amoun o da a
should be s o ed and exchanged among he en i ies.
P2—P i acy-p ese ing da a accumula ion: Da a exchange
among pa icipan s mus occu in a secu e and p i acy-p ese ing
manne o p o ec sensi i e in o ma ion om unau ho ized
disclosu e o modi ica ion.
2.4 Th ea model
The h ea model o he sa elli e ma i ime ecosys em buil on
Blockchain elies on he in e ac ions among pa icipa ing en i ies
and is based on se e al key assump ions. Fi s , ad e sa ies may
a emp o s eal o spoo he iden i ies o Vessels o pe sonnel
om he CCC. This could allow hem unau ho ized access o
he sys em and enable manipula ion o Vessel da a s o ed on he
Blockchain. Such b eaches migh also esul in he issuance o
alse commands by unau ho ized indi iduals o p o ide access
o sensi i e in o ma ion. Addi ionally, inside s like disg un led
employees could misuse hei p i ileges o access con iden ial
da a, al e eco ds, o sabo age ope a ions wi hin he Blockchain.
This poses a isk o c i ical sys ems and can dis up ma i ime
ac i i ies. Fu he mo e, communica ions be ween Vessels and he
CCC a e ulne able o in e cep ion and ea esd opping, po en ially
exposing ope a ional plans, comp omising con iden iali y, o
g an ing ad e sa ies access o essen ial sys ems. Finally, ano he
signi ican conce n is he injec ion o alse o misleading da a in o
he Blockchain, which could lead o inco ec decisions a he CCC
o esul in e oneous ac ions by he Vessels.
3 Backbone in as uc u e
This sec ion p o ides a clea explana ion o he echnological
ounda ions o B2SAPP, which o e s a decen alized and p i acy-
ocused solu ion o he sa elli e ecosys em. B2SAPP is buil
on eliable and well-es ablished echnologies ecognized o hei
s ong secu i y and p i acy ea u es, speci ically Hype ledge Fab ic
and Hype ledge A ies.
3.1 Hype ledge ab ic
Hype ledge Fab ic (Voudou is e al., 2024) is an open-
sou ce pe missioned dis ibu ed ledge echnology (DLT) pla o m
speci ically designed o applica ions in en e p ise en i onmen s.
I adhe es o businesses’ igo ous s anda ds and equi emen s and
ope a es unde he auspices o he Hype ledge ini ia i e, which is
go e ned by he Linux Founda ion.
Se e al no able cha ac e is ics dis inguish Hype ledge Fab ic.
Fi s ly, as a pe missioned ne wo k, i ensu es ha pa icipan s
a e known en i ies possessing de ined oles and p i ileges.
This di e s signi ican ly om public Blockchains, which pe mi
un es ic ed access o any pa icipan . Addi ionally, Hype ledge
Fab ic acili a es he es ablishmen o exclusi e “channels,”
whe ein ansac ions emain con iden ial among au ho ized
pa ies, gua an eeing ha sensi i e in o ma ion is disclosed only o
hose wi h a legi ima e need o access.
Fu he mo e, Hype ledge Fab ic employs sma con ac s
o encode business egula ions wi hin he ne wo k. Nume ous
implemen a ions al eady exis , allowing o he p og amming o
sma con ac s using gene al-pu pose p og amming languages.
The pla o m’s highly modula design enables ne wo k a chi ec s
o in eg a e p e e ed implemen a ions o c i ical componen s
such as consensus mechanisms and membe ship se ices.
Finally, Hype ledge Fab ic pe o ms be e in managing ele a ed
ansac ion a es han adi ional Blockchain solu ions and can
scale e icien ly o accommoda e a mo e signi ican numbe o
nodes wi hin a ne wo k.
3.2 Hype ledge a ies
Hype ledge A ies p o ides a comp ehensi e amewo k and
se o ools o gene a ing, ansmi ing, and s o ing e i iable
digi al c eden ials, commonly e e ed o as VCs. I p ima ily
ocuses on acili a ing di ec messaging be ween indi iduals,
enabling secu e and decen alized in o ma ion exchanges
g ounded in sel -so e eign iden i y p inciples. This inno a i e
app oach emo es he eliance on ex e nal alida ion p ocesses
ypically associa ed wi h iden i y managemen , he eby g an ing
use s enhanced con ol o e hei da a.
The pla o m suppo s selec i e disclosu e, allowing use s
o sha e only he essen ial in o ma ion equi ed o speci ic
ansac ions. A no ewo hy ea u e o Hype ledge A ies is i s
in eg a ion o Ze o-Knowledge P oo s (ZKPs). This ad anced
c yp og aphic p o ocol e i ies speci ic a ibu es, such as
legal age, wi hou e ealing he unde lying in o ma ion, such
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as da e o bi h. This ensu es p i acy while s ill ul illing
egula o y equi emen s.
In addi ion o managing digi al c eden ials, Hype ledge A ies
enables enc yp ed and decen alized pee - o-pee communica ion
h ough he Decen alized Iden i ie Communica ion
(DIDComm) [Wo ld Wide Web Conso ium (W3C), 2025]
p o ocol. This acili a es con iden ial and ongoing in e ac ions
be ween pa ies, u ilizing DIDs o es ablish p i acy wi hou
use names o passwo ds. This use - iendly cha ac e is ic helps
main ain dynamic and secu e digi al connec ions. Mo eo e , he
pla o m ex ends beyond simple c eden ial exchanges; i p oac i ely
manages c eden ial li ecycles, keeps use s in o med abou
c eden ial e oca ions, and suppo s a obus messaging sys em
ha enhances use in e ac ion and digi al iden i y managemen .
4 A chi ec u al o e iew and oles
We now p o ide a b ie o e iew o he echnological
ounda ion o B2SAPP, which o e s a decen alized and p i acy-
ocused solu ion o he sa elli e ecosys em (see Figu e 1). B2SAPP
is buil upon s ong and p o en echnologies ha a e well-known
o hei secu i y and p i acy ea u es, pa icula ly Hype ledge
Fab ic and Hype ledge A ies.
The B2SAPP a chi ec u e exempli ies an ad anced sys em
ha in eg a es adi ional ma i ime sa elli e communica ion
wi h con empo a y Blockchain echnology, sma con ac s,
and SSI. This in eg a ion acili a es he de elopmen o a
secu e, decen alized ma i ime communica ion ne wo k, he eby
enhancing bo h ope a ional e iciency and secu i y. This sec ion
o e s a de ailed o e iew o he in as uc u e and echnical
componen s comp ising he backbone o he B2SAPP ecosys em
while ecommending addi ional conside a ions o u he o i y
he sys em’s esilience and unc ionali y.
The CCC unc ions as he cen al coo dina ing en i y
esponsible o o e seeing Vessel ope a ions, managing po en ial
isks, coo dina ing eme gency ac ions, and ensu ing sa e y a
sea. I ope a es as a Hype ledge A ies e i ie , alida ing he
VCs p o ided by Vessels o con i m he au hen ici y o hei
iden i ies and ope a ional pe missions. The CCC employs he
Ma i ime Blockchain o analyze synch onized da a, including
Vessel posi ions, na iga ion logs, and pe o mance me ics,
which assis s in main aining e ec i e o e sigh o lee ac i i ies.
Pe sonnel a he CCC u ilize hei VCs o secu ely connec o he
Blockchain and collabo a e wi h bo h Vessels and he NOC.
The sa elli e enables unin e up ed da a exchange be ween
Vessels and he CCC, ensu ing con inuous communica ion
ega dless o loca ion. I ansmi s Vessel eleme y da a,
synch oniza ion imes amps, and eme gency signals o he CCC
FIGURE 1
B2SAPP bluep in .
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while ecei ing upda ed mission di ec i es and sa e y no i ica ions.
This sa elli e in as uc u e is c i ical in acili a ing eal- ime
da a sha ing in emo e a eas o open seas whe e adi ional
communica ion me hods may be una ailable.
Each Vessel plays a i al ole wi hin he ecosys em, as i
is esponsible o na iga ing he seas, anspo ing ca go, o
ul illing mission objec i es. Equipped wi h Time Synch oniza ion
Uni s (TSUs) and SSI-enabled VCs, Vessels can secu ely sha e
hei iden i ies and ope a ional in o ma ion wi h he CCC
and he Blockchain. Vessels ansmi eal- ime eleme y,
synch oniza ion logs, and eme gency ale s h ough he sa elli e
ne wo k while ecei ing mission upda es, sa e y guidance, and
inciden coo dina ion de ails om he CCC. By u ilizing VCs,
Vessels ensu e secu e and alida ed da a sha ing, os e ing us
h oughou he ecosys em.
The CCC employees a e in eg al o supe ising Vessel
ope a ions, analyzing Blockchain da a, and managing inciden s
as hey a ise. They use hei SSI-enabled VCs o access sensi i e
in o ma ion wi hin he ma i ime Blockchain, ensu ing ha only
au ho ized indi iduals can in e ac wi h he sys em. Thei
esponsibili ies include e i ying Vessel c eden ials, assessing
isks, and managing eme gency esponses. Addi ionally, he VCs
enhances accoun abili y, as employee ac ions a e pe manen ly
documen ed on he Blockchain. This s uc u ed app oach mi iga es
inside h ea isk and p omo es da a managemen anspa ency.
The NOC se es as he au ho i a i e body esponsible o
issuing VCs o Vessels and CCC employees. Be o e issuing
c eden ials, i e i ies iden i y de ails (Dong e al., 2021,2024,
2020), such as Vessel egis a ions and employee oles. The
NOC dissemina es c eden ial schemas and alida ion keys o
he SSI Blockchain, he eby p omo ing eliabili y h oughou he
ecosys em. Fu he mo e, i collabo a es wi h he CCC o p o ide
ope a ional insigh s and ensu e ha c eden ials comply wi h
ma i ime egula ions. The NOC is essen ial in es ablishing and
main aining he us amewo k necessa y o sa e and e ec i e
ma i ime ope a ions.
The Ma i ime Blockchain unc ions as a eliable and dis ibu ed
ledge , p ese ing ope a ional and synch oniza ion in o ma ion
om Vessels. I also s o es e i ied in e ac ions and inciden epo
eco ds, acili a ing eal- ime o e sigh o Vessel ac i i ies and
gene a ing au oma ed no i ica ions.
The SSI Blockchain suppo s he iden i y managemen sys em,
enabling secu e and p i a e au ho iza ion/au hen ica ion o bo h
Vessels and CCC employees who issue and e i y Hype ledge
A ies VCs. This capabili y os e s seamless collabo a ion, allowing
CCC pe sonnel and Vessels o au hen ica e and in e ac wi h
one ano he while upholding s ingen s anda ds o p i acy
and secu i y.
Finally, he Po Au ho i y is esponsible o managing po
ope a ions and ensu ing he sa e y o Vessels, gua an eeing
compliance wi h local, na ional, and in e na ional egula ions. I s
esponsibili ies include o e seeing docking p ocedu es, e i ying
ha Vessels adhe e o sa e y and en i onmen al s anda ds,
conduc ing cus oms and secu i y checks, and coo dina ing he
loading and unloading o ca go. The Po Au ho i y plays a pi o al
ole in ensu ing he e icien u iliza ion o po acili ies, managing
Vessel a ic, and add essing eme gencies such as acciden s o
en i onmen al inciden s. I collabo a es closely wi h Vessels o
ensu e ope a ional sa e y, secu i y, and o e all e iciency wi hin he
po en i onmen .
5 Sys em a chi ec u e and ope a ions
The B2SAPP a chi ec u e is speci ically designed o enable
Vessels o main ain e ec i e con ol o e hei ma i ime ope a ions
while ensu ing adhe ence o es ablished secu i y p o ocols. This
a chi ec u e comp ises he ollowing essen ial ope a ions:
(i) Issuance o VCs; (ii) Ve i ica ion o VCs; (iii) En o cemen
o Commands; (i ) Ve i ica ion and Clea ance o Vessels
App oaching Po . A comp ehensi e desc ip ion o hese
ope a ions will be p o ided in he con ex o bo h he Vessel and a
CCC employee ( e e o Table 1).
5.1 C eden ial issuance ope a ion
As indica ed by i s designa ion, his ope a ion is o e seen
by he NOC, which is esponsible o issuing VCs ollowing he
p inciples o Hype ledge A ies, speci ically conce ning Vessels and
CCC Employees. The p ima y objec i e o his ope a ion is o
es ablish a obus iden i ica ion mechanism ha enables accu a e
da a ans e be ween Vessels and CCC Employees o bo h he CCC
and, subsequen ly, he Po Au ho i y. This ope a ion is designed
o in eg a e au oma ed p ocedu es in he iden i ica ion phase o
Vessels and CCC Employees o au hen ica e and au ho ize da a
exchange be ween he wo en i ies (see Figu e 2).
TABLE 1 Ins ances used in B2SAPP.
Vessel ins ance CCC employee
A ibu e Value A ibu e Value
Vessel name ARGO Full name John Doe
IMO numbe IMO 123456 Employee ID 123456789
Vessel owne Milky Way L d. Depa men Ma i ime
Ope a ions
Ope a o
in o ma ion
Milky Way L d. O ganiza ion Milky Way L d.
Vessel ype Ca go Posi ion Ope a ion
Manage
Flag Hellas Role Coo dina o
Ce i ica ions SOLAS Pe mission Access da a
Vessel’s size 366 m Ce i ica ion SOLAS, IMS
TEU 15,000 Main enance
his o y
No issues in pas
12 mon hs
Fuel
consump ion
500 ons o uel pe
mon h
Las
main enance
Engine o e haul
on 2024-10-10
Emission CO21,500 ons
annually
Nex
Inspec ion
2025-01-15
Insu ance Hull and
machine y
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FIGURE 2
B2SAPP VC issuance.
In he VC issuance p ocess ( e e o S eps 1–17 in Figu e 2),
i is assumed ha bo h he Vessel and he NOC ha e p e iously
gene a ed a c yp og aphic key pai . The co esponding public key
is encoded in a speci ic o ma ha will la e ep esen he DID (e.g.,
SHA-256) o be sha ed wi h o he en i ies. In con as , he p i a e
key is secu ely s o ed in a digi al walle (see Figu e 1). Subsequen ly,
he Vessel and he NOC publish hei DIDs o he decen alized SSI
Blockchain ne wo k (S eps 1–2).
The issuance o a Hype ledge A ies VC begins when he
Vessel ansmi s a eques o es ablish a DIDComm channel o he
NOC, esul ing in he exchange o DIDs and public keys be ween
he wo pa ies (S eps 3–4). P io o ini ia ing he DIDComm
channel wi h he Vessel, he NOC aims o au hen ica e he Vessel
h ough a challenge- esponse p o ocol. The Vessel au hen ica es
his challenge using i s p i a e key, which is secu ely s o ed in
i s digi al iden i y walle and e u ns he esponse o he NOC
o alida ion. The Vessel’s de ice mus be adequa ely secu ed o
p e en unau ho ized access o he p i a e key. Upon success ul
comple ion o he e i ica ion p ocess, he DIDComm channel is
es ablished (S eps 5–9).
Once he DIDComm channel has been success ully se up,
he NOC, ac ing as he Issue , sends a VC o e o he Vessel
(S ep 10). This o e de ails he c eden ial ype, schema, and he
equi ed a ibu es. Upon eceip o he o e , he Vessel issues a
co esponding eques ha accep s he o e , p o iding i s DID,
c eden ial schema, and e i ied a ibu es (S ep 11).
Subsequen ly, he NOC conduc s an in e nal e i ica ion o he
a ibu es and issues he VC based on hose a ibu es. Fo ins ance,
a VC pe aining o Vessels may include he ollowing da a:
•id: a unique iden i ie o he VC issued o he Vessel (e.g.,
h ps://noc.eu/ e i iablec eden ial/1234).
• ype: indica es he ype o he c eden ial ha is e i iable (e.g.,
Ve i iable C eden ial).
•issue : includes in o ma ion abou he issue o he
co esponding VC such as he name (e.g., NOC), i s
DID (e.g., did:noc:9876543221), and URL (e.g., h ps://www.
noc.miklyway.eu).
•issuanceDa e: he da e and ime when he c eden ial was
issued (e.g., 2024-31-12T10:30:00Z).
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•expi a ionDa e: he da e and ime when he c eden ial expi es
(e.g., 2024-06-05T10:30:00Z).
•c eden ialSubjec : con ains in o ma ion abou he subjec
o he c eden ial. In his pape , i includes he Vessel’s DID,
VesselName, imoNumbe , VesselOwne , VesselOpe a o ,
VesselFlag, TEU, size, uel, insu ance, ce i ica ions.
•p oo : include c yp og aphic p oo o he au hen ici y and
in eg i y o he VC, including he ype o he p oo ’s signa u e,
he day o he p oo c ea ion, he pu pose o he p oo , he
e i ica ion me hod used om e i ie and he signa u e.
Finally, he NOC sa es a e e ence o he c eden ial on he SSI
Blockchain ne wo k, ensu ing ha he issued VC emains secu e
and unmodi iable a e issuance (S eps 12–14). This e e ence
con ains in o ma ion abou he NOC’s DID, public key, p oo ,
and e oca ion de ails. Subsequen ly, he NOC ansmi s he
gene a ed VC o he Vessel, which secu ely s o es i in i s digi al
iden i y walle . A his poin , he DIDComm channel is e mina ed
(S eps 15–17).
A his poin , i is essen ial o highligh ha his p ocess
ou lines he issuance o B2SAPP VCs o he Vessels. Howe e , as
p e iously men ioned, bo h he Vessels and CCC Employees will
hold B2SAPP VCs. The issuance o a CCC employee’s B2SAPP
VC will also adhe e o he Hype ledge A ies VC s uc u e,
simila o he desc ip ion p o ided abo e. The key dis inc ion
lies in he c eden ialSubjec , which will encompass he ollowing
a ibu es: employeeName, employeeSu name, employeeUID,
employeeDepa men , employeeLe el, and employeeAccess.
5.2 Ve ifiable c eden ial e ifica ion and
ma i ime ope a ion au ho iza ion
As indica ed by i s designa ion, his ope a ion acili a es he
exchange o ope a ional da a and commands be ween Vessels and
employees o he CCC (see S eps 1–37 in Figu e 3).
Ini ially, he Vessel acqui es sa elli e da a, o wa ding i s
ope a ional da a o he CCC (S eps 1–2). The p ocess commences
wi h he es ablishmen o a p esen a ion mechanism o he
Hype ledge A ies VC be ween he Vessel and he CCC, which
en ails he c ea ion o a DIDComm channel (S eps 3–9). The
Vessel submi s a eques o he CCC o es ablish he DIDComm
channel; a his poin , bo h en i ies exchange hei DIDs and
public keys (S eps 3–4). Be o e o ming a DIDComm channel
wi h he selec ed Vessel, he CCC employs a challenge- esponse
p o ocol o au hen ica e he Vessel’s iden i y, sending a challenge
o be add essed. The Vessel subsequen ly signs he ecei ed
challenge u ilizing i s p i a e key, secu ely housed wi hin i s digi al
iden i y walle , and ansmi s he signed challenge back o he
CCC o alida ion. P o ec ing he Vessel’s walle agains po en ial
a acks aimed a comp omising he p i a e key is impe a i e.
Upon success ul e i ica ion, he DIDComm channel is es ablished
(S eps 5–9).
Following he success ul es ablishmen o he DIDComm
channel, he CCC, se ing as he Hype ledge A ies VC e i ie ,
ini ia es he VC p esen a ion (S eps 10–15) by issuing a eques
o he Vessel o a speci ied se o VCs (S ep 10). The Vessel
hen communica es wi h he CCC, p oposing a p esen a ion and
de ailing he c eden ials i in ends o display. In esponse, he
CCC sends a message eques ing a p esen a ion ha ou lines
speci ic equi emen s o cons ain s. Once his eques is ecei ed,
he Vessel p epa es a p oo demons a ing i s possession o he
equisi e c eden ials h ough a ze o-knowledge p oo me hodology
(S eps 11–5). The CCC hen e i ies he p oo and e alua es he
de ails o he p esen a ion, p o iding ei he an acknowledgmen o
a ejec ion message (S ep 16). All in e ac ions anspi e wi hin he
es ablished DIDComm channel, which is subsequen ly e mina ed
upon comple ion o he VC p esen a ion.
Nex , he Vessel in okes he unc ion en i led Submi Da a
wi hin B2SAPP’s sma con ac o submi i s ope a ional da a o
he Ma i ime Blockchain (S ep 16). The inpu o his unc ion is he
ollowing da a: (i) VesselId, ha is he Vessel’s Unique iden i ie
(e.g., VSL-12345); (ii) he Vessel’s loca ion including coo dina es
o la i ude (e.g., 37.75839) and long i ude (e.g., 25.561143); (iii)
he signalS eng h ha is he signal s eng h in dBm (e.g., -75);
(i ) he imes amp (in ege ) ha is he Time o submission in
UNIX o ma (e.g., 1702387200, equi alen o 12 h Decembe
2024, 00:00:00 UTC); ( ) he Vessel’s speed in kno s (e.g., 14.5);
( i) he Vessel’s heading in deg ees (e.g., 45.2), and ( ii) he
en i onmen al condi ions including, wind speed (wind’s speed in
kno s, e.g., 10.2), wa e heigh ( he heigh o wa es in me e s,
e.g., 2.5), and empe a u e ( he sea su ace empe a u e in Celsius
deg ees, e.g., 24.3). Also, i s ou pu is a new eco d s o ed wi hin
he Ma i ime Blockchain ha includes all he a o emen ioned
ope a ional da a.
La e , he CCC employee ini ia es he p ocess o ob ain
au ho iza ion o pe o ming ac ions on he Ma i ime Blockchain.
The i s s ep in ol es p esen ing he Hype ledge A ies VC
be ween he CCC employee and he CCC, he eby c ea ing a
DIDComm channel (S eps 17–23). The CCC employee sends a
eques o hei espec i e CCC o es ablish a DIDComm channel,
du ing which bo h pa ies sha e hei DIDs and public keys.
Be o e he CCC can es ablish his channel, i employs a
challenge- esponse p o ocol o e i y he iden i y o he CCC
employee by sending a challenge. The CCC employee signs he
ecei ed challenge using hei p i a e key, secu ely s o ed in hei
digi al iden i y walle and e u ns i o he CCC o e i ica ion.
I is impe a i e o ensu e ha he Vessel’s walle is sa egua ded
agains po en ial a acks aimed a accessing he p i a e key. Once
he e i ica ion is success ul, he DIDComm channel is es ablished.
Upon he success ul c ea ion o he DIDComm channel,
he CCC, ac ing as he e i ie o he Hype ledge A ies VC,
commences he Hype ledge A ies VC p esen a ion p ocess by
sending a eques o he Vessel o a speci ic se o VCs (S eps 24–
29). The CCC employee subsequen ly eaches ou o he CCC wi h
a message p oposing a p esen a ion and de ailing he c eden ials
hey in end o showcase. Following his, he CCC o wa ds a
message eques ing a p esen a ion, speci ying any pe inen needs
o limi a ions. Upon ecei ing his eques , he CCC employee
gene a es p oo o possessing he necessa y c eden ials using a
ze o-knowledge p oo me hod. The CCC hen e i ies his p oo
along wi h he de ails o he p esen a ion, p o iding a esponse
ha is ei he an acknowledgmen o a ejec ion message. All
F on ie s in Compu e Science 09 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
FIGURE 13
A e age la ency wi h ou nodes.
FIGURE 14
CPU consump ion wi h wo nodes.
equi es 2.80%, 4.27%, 4.66%, and 4.26% CPU ( wo nodes) and
2.56%, 3.30%, 3.70%, and 3.72% CPU ( ou nodes).
In summa y, expe imen s in he in-house Ra -based
Hype ledge Fab ic ne wo k indica e ha ou -node con igu a ions
FIGURE 15
CPU consump ion wi h ou nodes.
demons a e be e CPU consump ion and a e age la ency han
wo-node con igu a ions, p ima ily due o mo e e icien wo kload
dis ibu ion and imp o ed consensus e iciency. Inc easing he
numbe o nodes can educe CPU usage because he asks ela ed
o ansac ion endo semen , log eplica ion, and consensus a e
mo e e enly sha ed. Howe e , he h oughpu dec eases as he
numbe o nodes inc eases, likely because he Ra -based consensus
mechanism equi es addi ional coo dina ion o log eplica ion
and ag eemen among mo e pa icipan s, he eby inc easing
o e all la ency and educing h oughpu .
O e all, ou implemen a ion was a p o o ype, no an op imized
p oduc ion sys em. Fo example, c eden ial payloads we e minimal
(only essen ial ields) and ne wo k pa ame e s we e se o allow as
commi s. As a esul , pe o mance numbe s should be in e p e ed
as baseline capabili ies; eal-wo ld deploymen s (wi h la ge
payloads o hea ie p ocessing) migh exhibi highe la encies.
In addi ion, es s we e limi ed o a small ne wo k (e.g., wo–
ou nodes). While we a ied clien load, we did no e alua e
pe o mance on a la ge dis ibu ed deploymen . Consequen ly,
he obse ed me ics do no accoun o ac o s like in e -node
ne wo k delays, bandwid h cons ain s, o la ge-scale concu ency
bo lenecks. Finally, as we p e iously men ioned ha B2SAPP
e alua ion elied on buil -in imes amps and logging.
6.2 Secu i y and p i acy analysis
I is s ongly con ended ha B2SAPP can add ess all o he
cybe secu i y challenges men ioned in Sec ion 2, apa om he
CH5 Supply Chain Vulne abili ies, while also p oac i ely de ending
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Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
agains o he common a acks. Thus, i s ly we will analyze he
speci ic secu i y p o ocols and enc yp ion me hods used in B2SAPP
and la e on we elabo a e on hese challenges and illus a e how
B2SAPP mi iga es hem.
Fi s and o emos , he uniqueness o B2SAPP is inhe i ed
by he blockchain in ne wo k secu i y due o abili y o p o ide
decen alized us , ampe -e iden logging, and e i iable da a
in eg i y wi hou eliance on a cen al au ho i y. Unlike adi ional
secu i y mechanisms, which o en depend on cen alized con ol,
blockchain dis ibu es us ac oss mul iple nodes, educing single
poin s o ailu e and inside isk. This is pa icula ly c ucial in
ma i ime, whe e asse s, iden i ies, and communica ions mus be
managed secu ely ac oss o ganiza ional bounda ies. Fu he mo e,
blockchain enables c yp og aphically e i iable and immu able
audi ails, ensu ing ha all ac ions (i.e., da a submissions, access
e en s, o c eden ial e i ica ions) a e pe manen ly eco ded and
audi able. When pai ed wi h SSI, i acili a es p i acy-p ese ing
iden i y p oo s and ine-g ained access con ol wi hou exposing
sensi i e pe sonal da a.
In B2SAPP, secu i y and da a in eg i y a e en o ced
h ough a combina ion o ad anced c yp og aphic echniques
and well-es ablished secu i y p o ocols. On he one hand,
Hype ledge Fab ic, se ing as he unde lying blockchain
in as uc u e, employs T anspo Laye Secu i y o ensu e
enc yp ed communica ion be ween nodes and u ilizes s ong
enc yp ion algo i hms, such as Ellip ic Cu e Digi al Signa u e
Algo i hm, o au hen ica e ansac ions and e i y iden i ies. On
he o he hand, he Hype ledge A ies le e ages DIDs and VCs
ha can be c yp og aphically signed using JSON Web Signa u es,
ensu ing bo h he au hen ici y and in eg i y o iden i y claims.
Da a exchanged be ween en i ies is u he p o ec ed using
end- o-end enc yp ion p o ocols, and he s o age o e i iable
logs on he immu able ledge gua an ees non- epudia ion and
audi abili y. The combina ion o hese p o ocols and enc yp ion
me hods enables secu e, e i iable, and p i acy-p ese ing
communica ion and au hen ica ion ac oss he ma i ime ecosys em,
aligning wi h bo h mode n cybe secu i y s anda ds and egula o y
compliance equi emen s.
Below, we elabo a e on hese challenges and illus a e how
B2SAPP mi iga es hem.
CH1—Spoo ing and jamming: B2SAPP coun e s spoo ing and
jamming a acks by in eg a ing echnologies such as Blockchain,
Sma Con ac s, and SSI. In B2SAPP, e e y Vessel mus e i y
i s iden i y h ough i s Hype ledge A ies VC p io o submi ing
ope a ional da a o he ma i ime Blockchain, ensu ing ha only
au hen ica ed and us wo hy Vessels can in e ac wi h he sys em.
Fu he mo e, he anomaly de ec ion unc ion wi hin B2SAPP’s
sma con ac s con inuously moni o s incoming da a (e.g., Vessel
ope a ional da a) and e alua es hem agains p ede ined h esholds.
Any a ypical beha io (Suciu e al., 2022), such as an implausible
speed (e.g., 45 kno s o a ca go Vessel) o inconsis en heading,
is lagged as suspicious and gene a es ale s o subsequen
in es iga ion. Simul aneously, moni o ing signal s eng h da a
om Vessels acili a es he de ec ion o jamming a acks ha
unde mine signal ansmission ia B2SAPP’s anomaly de ec ion.
Fo ins ance, a sudden dec ease in signal s eng h (e.g., below
–100, dBm) o delayed da a submissions would igge he
anomaly de ec ion mechanism, indica ing a po en ial jamming
scena io. The immu able eco ds o he ma i ime Blockchain
u he gua an ee ha his o ical da a emain esis an o ampe ing,
enabling e i ica ion o pas Vessel posi ions and beha io s o
expose disc epancies a ising om comp omised o dis up ed
signals. Concu en ly, he CCC can le e age eal- ime anomaly
ale s h ough he ma i ime Blockchain o ini ia e immedia e
coun e measu es, including e ou ing Vessels o heigh ening
moni o ing e o s. By combining decen alized us h ough he
ma i ime Blockchain, da a alida ion h ough sma con ac s, and
secu e iden i y managemen wi h SSI, B2SAPP p o ides obus
sa egua ds agains spoo ing and jamming, he eby upholding he
secu i y and in eg i y o ma i ime ope a ions.
CH2—Unau ho ized access o sys em: In B2SAPP, his challenge
is p ima ily add essed ia Hype ledge A ies VCs issued by
he CCC. These VCs e i y iden i ies, oles, and pe missions,
ensu ing ha only alida ed en i ies (e.g., a CCC employee) can
access speci ic sys em unc ionali ies (e.g., issuing an ope a ional
command). Conc e ely, a Vessel mus e i y i s iden i y using
i s B2SAPP VC be o e con ibu ing ope a ional da a o he
ma i ime Blockchain, whe eas CCC employees equi e alid VCs
o e ie e and o e see Vessel da a. Illici a emp s, such as Vessels
lacking p ope VCs o indi iduals impe sona ing CCC pe sonnel,
a e immedia ely ejec ed and gene a e no i ica ions o u he
e iew. By in eg a ing bo h SSI and Blockchain echnologies,
B2SAPP es ablishes a us wo hy in as uc u e ia VCs and sma
con ac s, he eby diminishing he p obabili y o unau ho ized
access and os e ing a secu e, ole-based ma i ime en i onmen .
CH3—Da a in e cep ion: Employing Hype ledge A ies ensu es
ha each pa icipa ing en i y is au hen ica ed ia VCs be o e
engaging in B2SAPP ope a ions. These VCs a e issued and
alida ed by he CCC, g an ing only au ho ized en i ies he abili y
o ini ia e o ecei e da a exchanges. Fu he mo e, VCs enable
secu e, end- o-end communica ion among pa icipan s h ough
DIDComm p o ocols. Addi ionally, ope a ional da a om Vessels
and CCC pe sonnel is p o ec ed by enc yp ion bo h du ing
ansmission [e.g., AES-256-GCM in DIDComm (Cu en e al.,
2022)] and while a es [e.g., AES-256 o enc yp ing ledge da a ia
he BCCSP (Hype ledge Fab ic, 2025a,b;Gao e al., 2023)]. Thus,
e en i ad e sa ies manage o in e cep hese communica ions, he
enc yp ion mechanisms supplied by A ies and Fab ic ende he
cap u ed da a unin elligible and unusable.
CH4—Malwa e and ansomwa e: Th ough Hype ledge A ies,
B2SAPP ensu es ha only au hen ica ed en i ies possessing
alid VCs can access he sys em. This iden i y-based e i ica ion
minimizes he possibili y ha unau ho ized o comp omised
de ices can in il a e c i ical in as uc u es, hus mi iga ing he
likelihood o malwa e and ansomwa e a acks. In addi ion,
Hype ledge Fab ic ein o ces secu i y h ough an immu able
Blockchain ledge , in which all submi ed da a is c yp og aphically
hashed and secu ely s o ed. Consequen ly, he da a emains
in ac e en i malwa e comp omises a sys em. Mo eo e , he
decen alized na u e o he Blockchain eplica es da a ac oss
mul iple nodes, acili a ing apid es o a ion wi hou eliance on
ansom paymen s. By combining iden i y-based access, immu able
da a, eal- ime anomaly de ec ion, and dis ibu ed backups,
F on ie s in Compu e Science 17 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
B2SAPP is well-posi ioned o de end agains malwa e and
ansomwa e h ea s.
CH6—Inside h ea s: B2SAPP add esses inside h ea s by
le e aging Hype ledge Fab ic and Hype ledge A ies o obus
access con ol, da a e i iabili y, and sys em accoun abili y.
Pa icipa ing en i ies use Hype ledge A ies o au hen ica e hei
iden i ies wi h VCs be o e engaging wi h ma i ime ope a ional
sys ems. This iden i y-cen ic app oach gua an ees ha only
en i ies wi h app op ia e oles and pe missions can in oke sma
con ac unc ions o access sensi i e da a. Hype ledge Fab ic
u he enhances esilience by main aining an immu able ledge
o all ansac ions and in e ac ions, ensu ing ha any malicious o
acciden al changes can be comp ehensi ely audi ed. Fo delibe a e
inside h ea s, his unal e able audi ail se es as a powe ul
de e en and a sou ce o o ensic e idence o p omp ly unco e
and add ess unau ho ized beha io s. Sma con ac s ac as
a p e en a i e ba ie o unin en ional mis akes by en o cing
s ingen alida ion p o ocols ha de ec and disca d e o s o
in alid inpu s be o e in eg a ing in o he sys em.
CH7—DoS a acks: B2SAPP e ec i ely mi iga es DoS a acks by
le e aging Hype ledge Fab ic and Hype ledge A ies o esilien
access con ol, da a alida ion, and aul ole ance. Th ough SSI,
B2SAPP en o ces iden i y e i ica ion wi h VCs be o e allowing
en i ies o u ilize communica ion channels o submi da a o
he Blockchain. This mechanism p e en s malicious use s om
inunda ing he sys em wi h spu ious eques s since en i ies lacking
alid VCs a e immedia ely ba ed. In addi ion, sma con ac s in
Hype ledge Fab ic bols e he sys em’s de ense by implemen ing
a e limi s and h eshold checks on da a submissions. The
decen alized na u e o he Blockchain ensu es da a a ailabili y
e en in he e en o pa ial ne wo k dis up ions (e.g., i one node
becomes una ailable, o he nodes can s ill p o ide access). Las ly,
con inuous moni o ing and de ec ion ea u es enable he p omp
iden i ica ion o DoS- ype anomalies and acili a e swi ac ions o
neu alize he sou ce o he dis u bance.
CH8—Da a logging: B2SAPP le e ages Hype ledge Fab ic and
Hype ledge A ies o secu e he da a-logging wo k low. In
B2SAPP, da a logging occu s ia designa ed sma con ac
unc ions, which only become ac i e once an en i y (e.g., a Vessel
o CCC employee) has e i ied i s iden i y ia he co esponding
B2SAPP VC. This equi emen gua an ees ha any newly added
da a is secu ely s o ed, digi ally signed, e i iable, and sa egua ded
om manipula ion.
Beyond add essing he a o emen ioned challenges, B2SAPP
also sa egua ds he ma i ime ecosys em and he sys em’s co e
in as uc u e om a ious o he cybe secu i y h ea s (Symes
e al., 2024):
Sybil a ack: An ad e sa y migh c ea e mul iple audulen
iden i ies in an a emp o domina e o mislead a ne wo k (e.g.,
injec ing inco ec in o ma ion in o he Blockchain). B2SAPP,
howe e , equi es each pa icipan o p esen Hype ledge
A ies VCs o au hen ica ion, he eby blocking a acke s om
in oducing illegi ima e iden i ies. VCs a e g an ed only ollowing
ho ough iden i y e i ica ion by he CCC, ensu ing ha alse
Vessel o CCC iden i ies canno be ab ica ed.
Replay a ack: This a ack in ol es cap u ing legi ima e
ansac ions o da a and esubmi ing hem o pe o m illici
ope a ions (e.g., eusing Vessel da a logs o in oduce aul y
Blockchain en ies). B2SAPP employs imes amp and nonce
checks wi hin i s sma con ac s, such ha da a submissions and
VC ac i i ies con ain unique imes amps, allowing any eused o
eplayed ansac ions and VCs o be iden i ied and in alida ed. Fo
ins ance, a Vessel’s na iga ion da a bea ing an ou da ed imes amp
would be au oma ically lagged.
Da a ampe ing: This occu s when ad e sa ies al e ansmi ed
da a o s o ed in o ma ion o unde mine he sys em’s eliabili y. In
B2SAPP, any da a eco ded on he Blockchain emains immu able
due o he c yp og aphic p ope ies o Hype ledge Fab ic; hus,
any modi ica ion a emp is e ealed by a hash misma ch.
Fu he mo e, da a exchanges be ween Vessels, he CCC, and he
Blockchain a e p o ec ed h ough secu e communica ion me hods,
ensu ing ha ampe ing canno occu du ing ansmission.
Eclipse a ack In such a acks, a node wi hin a decen alized
ne wo k is cu o om he legi ima e ne wo k by being su ounded
by hos ile nodes. This isola ion p e en s he ic im node om
communica ing wi h he b oade sys em. In B2SAPP, Hype ledge
Fab ic ope a es wi hin a pe missioned en i onmen equi ing node
au hen ica ion. Consequen ly, ad e sa ies canno con ol o isola e
a node, as each node is igo ously e ed and main ained unde a
us ed in as uc u e.
7 Discussion and u u e pe spec i es
This sec ion ou lines he cu en limi a ions o B2SAPP and
iden i ies po en ial a enues o u u e wo k.
7.1 Iden ified limi a ions and cons ain s
Al hough B2SAPP add esses key challenges such as Spoo ing
and Jamming (CH1) and Supply Chain Vulne abili ies (CH5), i
does no en i ely elimina e hese h ea s. By le e aging SSI and
Blockchain echnologies, B2SAPP es ablishes obus mechanisms
o e i y en i y au hen ici y and he in eg i y o exchanged da a,
he eby mi iga ing he likelihood o spoo ing a acks. Mo eo e ,
he applica ion o imes amps and anomaly de ec ion unc ions
can assis in iden i ying abno mal pa e ns, hus con ibu ing
o unin e up ed ope a ions and pa ially mi iga ing he impac
o jamming. Howe e , ully add essing spoo ing and jamming
ul ima ely equi es he in eg a ion o ex e nal coun e measu es,
including specialized an i-jamming echniques.
A pa allel obse a ion applies o “Supply Chain
Vulne abili ies”. While B2SAPP includes e i ica ion and
au hen ica ion mechanisms o all IT/OT componen s in e ac ing
wi h he Blockchain and SSI sys ems, hese mechanisms
p edominan ly ope a e pos -deploymen , and he e o e do
no add ess p e-deploymen ulne abili ies inhe en in he supply
chain li ecycle. B2SAPP’s design, ancho ed in blockchain’s
immu able ansac ion logging and SSI’s ine-g ained access
con ol, o e s a moni o ing and o ensic capabili y ha can help
de ec anomalies o igina ing om comp omised componen s.
F on ie s in Compu e Science 18 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
Al hough he pape does no o malize a dedica ed supply chain
measu e se es as a ounda ion o u u e de elopmen o such
me ics. In his way, B2SAPP does no elimina e supply chain
agili y bu p o ides a laye o ope a ional esilience ha can
suppo quicke de ec ion, aceabili y, and esponse when
ulne abili ies a e exploi ed.
Despi e B2SAPP’s abili y o enhance cybe secu i y in he
ma i ime sec o , i does no p o ec agains physical a acks o
h ea s aimed a sa elli e in as uc u e. Physical a acks (e.g.,
ampe ing wi h ha dwa e on Vessels o CCC acili ies) emain
ou side he pu iew o he sys em’s digi al sa egua ds, and
malicious in e e ence wi h sa elli e sys ems (e.g., om high-
powe ed g ound s a ions) is simila ly unadd essed. Mi iga ing
hese h ea s necessi a es specialized physical secu i y measu es,
sa elli e backup solu ions, and sa elli e-speci ic de ensi e p o ocols
beyond he scope o his pape .
Ins ead, B2SAPP p ima ily ocuses on ensu ing da a in eg i y,
au hen ici y, and con inui y o ope a ions in he ma i ime
ecosys em. By employing ad anced echnologies, B2SAPP
secu es da a sha ing, alida es he in ol ed s akeholde s, and
sus ains ope a ions despi e a ious digi al challenges. None heless,
de ending agains physical o sa elli e-based isks equi es a
holis ic, coo dina ed e o in ol ing sa elli e ope a o s, na ional
secu i y agencies, and physical secu i y s a egies, highligh ing
he need o a comp ehensi e app oach ha in eg a es digi al
sa egua ds wi h b oade p o ec i e measu es.
Ano he no able limi a ion is he simple na u e o he sma
con ac unc ions de ined in Sec ion 5. These unc ions a e
in en ionally designed as illus a i e examples o demons a e
he syne gies among SSI, Blockchain, and sma con ac
unc ionali ies wi hin a ma i ime con ex . As such, hey do no
cap u e he ull complexi y and ange o ope a ions equi ed in a
eal-wo ld ma i ime se ing. This is a consequence o he pape ’s
p ima y emphasis on assessing hese echnologies’ easibili y and
ounda ional a chi ec u e wi hin ma i ime domains a he han
deli e ing a comple e, p oduc ion- eady implemen a ion.
Fu he mo e, se e al po en ial ba ie s o adop ion mus be
add essed o ensu e success ul implemen a ion. One signi ican
challenge is he in eg a ion o blockchain and SSI echnologies
in o exis ing ma i ime in as uc u e. Addi ionally, he e may
be a lack o echnical expe ise among s akeholde s o manage
decen alized iden i y sys ems and sma con ac s secu ely.
Regula o y unce ain y su ounding he use o decen alized
echnologies in c i ical in as uc u e may also hinde widesp ead
adop ion. To o e come hese ba ie s, i is essen ial o p omo e
s anda diza ion e o s, o e comp ehensi e aining p og ams,
and de elop use - iendly in e aces ha abs ac he complexi y o
blockchain and SSI ope a ions.
7.2 Fu u e esea ch di ec ions
Fu u e esea ch a enues in ol e in eg a ing no el echnologies
o u he o i y he ma i ime ecosys em agains eme ging h ea s.
One po en ial enhancemen is inco po a ing quan um- esis an
c yp og aphic me hods in o SSI and Blockchain amewo ks,
he eby ensu ing he long- e m con iden iali y and in eg i y o
c i ical da a in he ace o quan um compu ing ad ancemen s.
Addi ionally, using A i icial In elligence echniques in B2SAPP
could acili a e mo e obus anomaly de ec ion, including
iden i ying Ad anced Pe sis en Th ea s.
Explo ing Blockchain in e ope abili y p o ocols also allows o
es ablishing a global ma i ime ne wo k, os e ing seamless da a
exchange and collabo a ion ac oss di e se lee s and o ganiza ions.
In pa allel, apid de elopmen s in A i icial In elligence (Pe ihakis
e al., 2024;Pan elakis e al., 2023) and 6G communica ion
may enable ul a- as in e ac ions and eal- ime decision-making,
he eby enhancing he e iciency and secu i y o ma i ime
sys ems. These inno a i e di ec ions can po en ially ans o m
B2SAPP in o a c i ical componen o a echnologically ad anced
ma i ime in as uc u e.
Finally, B2SAPP is assessed as a p oo -o -concep ha e ec i ely
showcases how blockchain, sma con ac s, and SSI can be
in eg a ed o enhance secu i y and in e ope abili y wi hin ma i ime
sys ems, we ha e ecognized he impo ance o alida ing B2SAPP
in a eal-wo ld ope a ional con ex . As pa o ou u u e wo k, we
plan o ini ia e a pilo deploymen in eal-li e en i onmen . This
e alua ion will allow us o assess sys em pe o mance, scalabili y,
in e ope abili y wi h exis ing in as uc u e, and use accep ance
unde ealis ic condi ions, he eby p o iding s onge empi ical
e idence o he amewo k’s p ac icali y and alue.
8 Rela ed wo k
Sa elli e communica ion sys ems ha e wi nessed signi ican
ad ancemen s, wi h inc easing a en ion owa d secu ing da a
ansmission agains po en ial h ea s. Na iga ion Message
Au hen ica ion has eme ged as a c i ical mechanism o ensu e
he au hen ici y and eliabili y o na iga ion da a. Among such
e o s, he Chips Message Robus Au hen ica ion (CHIMERA)
sys em employs a hyb id NMA solu ion o GPS signals, le e aging
bo h symme ic and asymme ic c yp og aphic me hods. I
u ilizes ECDSA P-224 o c yp og aphic ope a ions and equi es
pe iodic access o non-GPS channels o alida ed GPS public keys
au hen ica ed ia a Public Key In as uc u e (PKI) (Ande son
e al., 2017,2022). The de elopmen and implemen a ion
o CHIMERA ha e been ex ensi ely discussed, pa icula ly
highligh ing i s ole in p o ec ing GPS ecei e s om spoo ing
a acks (Di is, 2019) and de ailing i s applica ion wi hin GPS
so wa e ecei e s (Nicola e al., 2021).
The Galileo Global Na iga ion Sa elli e Sys em, also known
as GNSS, employs he Timed E icien S eam Loss- ole an
Au hen ica ion (TESLA) p o ocol o message au hen ica ion,
o e ing low compu a ional o e head and sui abili y o one-
o-many b oadcas s (Pe ig and Tyga , 2003). TESLA secu es
message o igin and in eg i y using a Message Au hen ica ion Code
(MAC), wi h he key o MAC compu a ion p o ided pos -message
h ough a one-way unc ion chain (Pe ig e al., 2002). Howe e ,
TESLA-based NMA sys ems ace compu a ional challenges,
as highligh ed in analyses o e minal load (Cancela e al.,
2019). Addi ionally, ulne abili ies ha e been no ed, pa icula ly
conce ning c yp analysis and po en ial spoo ing a acks (Capa a
e al., 2016;Gho bani e al., 2020). Complemen a y s udies
ha e explo ed c oss-au hen ica ion checks in GNSS signals,
F on ie s in Compu e Science 19 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
assessing hei e ec i eness agains non-au hen ica ed signal
ulne abili ies (A dizzon e al., 2023). B oade e iews u he
examine NMA me hods and hei in eg a ion in o exis ing GNSS
sys ems (Chen e al., 2023;Yuan e al., 2023), alongside he
adop ion o message au hen ica ion o coun e spoo ing in Sa elli e-
Based Augmen a ion Sys ems (Chen e al., 2021).
Blockchain echnology has ecen ly ound applica ion in
sa elli e communica ions, eme ging as a ans o ma i e solu ion
o enhancing secu i y, scalabili y, and e iciency. The P oo
o Space T ansac ions p o ocol, o ins ance, in oduces space
digi al okens o secu e sa elli e ansac ions (To ky e al.,
2022). O he Blockchain-enabled sys ems include decen alized
epu a ion mechanisms o sa elli e elay ne wo ks (Cla k
e al., 2020) and he BlendCAC amewo k, which in eg a es
Blockchain and sma con ac s o decen alized au hen ica ion
and capabili y-based access con ol in space sys ems (Xu e al.,
2019). Addi ional inno a ions include Blockchain-based spec um
sha ing app oaches o sa elli e and e es ial ne wo ks (Wang
e al., 2024), p o ocols o secu e spec um ading (Li e al.,
2020), and amewo ks le e aging sa elli e b oadcas ing o add ess
adi ional Blockchain h oughpu limi a ions (Zhang and Liu,
2020).
Blockchain echnology has inc easingly been explo ed as
a ans o ma i e solu ion o mode nizing business p ocesses
and enhancing da a secu i y also in ma i ime communica ions
and logis ics. Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed he in eg a ion
o blockchain in o ma i ime supply chain sys ems o add ess
longs anding indus y challenges such as lack o anspa ency,
da a spoo ing, and ine icien in o ma ion exchange. Liu e al.
(2023b) p o ided a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew coupled wi h
an indus ial in es iga ion o map he cu en s a e o blockchain
adop ion in ma i ime logis ics, highligh ing p e ailing p oblems
and u u e challenges. In pa icula , he au ho s emphasized he
need o in e ope able and scalable blockchain amewo ks o
suppo he sec o ’s digi al ans o ma ion. Recen e o s ha e
ocused on he design o blockchain-based pla o ms ha in eg a e
wi h exis ing ma i ime sys ems. AISChain (Duan e al., 2022), is
a no able example, u ilizing conso ium blockchain echnology o
enhance he Au oma ic Iden i ica ion Sys em (AIS) wi h a ocus
on da a in eg i y and scalabili y. Simila ly, F ei e e al. (2022)
p oposed a pe missioned blockchain-based Ma i ime Moni o ing
Sys em ha employs consensus algo i hms such as Ra o secu e
essel a ic da a. These app oaches aim o imp o e he eliabili y
o ma i ime da a exchange, educe ope a ional isk, and p o ide
p o ec ion agains a acks such as AIS spoo ing (Tsiulin e al., 2020;
Goudosis and Ka sikas, 2022).
The ole o blockchain in Digi al Supply Chain (DSC)
ope a ions has also been widely discussed. Ko pela e al. (2017)
examined he po en ial o blockchain o accele a e business-
o-business (B2B) ansac ions and in eg a e DSC p ocesses,
emphasizing he alue o secu e and anspa en da a sha ing
in imp o ing o e all supply chain e iciency. The adop ion o
blockchain in global seabo ne con aine ized logis ics has been
u he in es iga ed in Shi ani (2018) and Olo un obi e al. (2023),
whe e he au ho s discussed i s bene i s o ading pa ne s
and shipping companies. These s udies unde line he necessi y
o b oade indus y accep ance and s anda dized implemen a ion
s a egies o ealizing blockchain’s ull po en ial in ma i ime
logis ics. Ano he comp ehensi e su ey by Fa ah e al. (2024)
del ed in o he implica ions o blockchain o supply chain
managemen in he ma i ime con ex . The au ho s highligh ed
blockchain’s capabili ies in enhancing anspa ency, aceabili y,
and ope a ional e iciency ac oss he complex ne wo k o ma i ime
logis ics s akeholde s.
In e ms o eal-wo ld deploymen , one o he mos p ominen
ini ia i es was he collabo a ion be ween Mae sk and IBM on he
T adeLens pla o m (McDaniel and No be g, 2019;Kjæ sgaa d,
2020). T adeLens aimed o p o ide eal- ime access o shipping
da a, in eg a ing IoT senso in o ma ion wi hin a blockchain-
backed sys em. Despi e ini ial success, he collabo a ion was
e en ually discon inued (Mae sk, 2022), illus a ing he di icul ies
in achie ing b oad indus y-wide adop ion and s akeholde
alignmen . In addi ion o p op ie a y sys ems, se e al p oo -
o -concep (PoC) models ha e been de eloped and assessed.
Ni and I annezhad (2024) in oduced Logis icChain, an open-
sou ce PoC on a high- equency blockchain ne wo k using
Hype ledge Calipe , ailo ed o in e na ional ma i ime logis ics.
Empi ical e alua ions o a ious PoCs e eal bo h po en ial
and limi a ions in scalabili y and pe o mance. While some
implemen a ions such as Ca goX ope a e on public blockchains
like E he eum (Elmay e al., 2022), he majo i y o PoCs—such
as P oduc Chain o he ood supply chain (Malik e al., 2018),
T us Chain o us managemen (Malik e al., 2019), and Fab ic-
PSChain o po logis ics (Gao e al., 2022)—ha e been de eloped
on Hype ledge Fab ic. T adeLens i sel has also been pa ially
ealized on his pla o m (Kouhizadeh e al., 2021).
Se e al s udies ha e also add essed he socio- echnical and
o ganiza ional aspec s o blockchain adop ion. Philipp e al. (2019)
explo ed how blockchain-enabled sma con ac s can suppo
collabo a i e logis ics s uc u es and he in eg a ion o small
and medium-sized en e p ises (SMEs) in o sus ainable ma i ime
supply chains. The s udy was g ounded in expe in e iews and
case analyses, o e ing quali a i e insigh s in o he ba ie s and
enable s o blockchain adop ion. Wagne and Wi´
snicki (2019)
classi ied exis ing and planned blockchain applica ions in ma i ime
shipping h ough web con en analysis and mul i-case s udies. The
au ho s no ed ha while many con aine shipowne s a e in ol ed
in blockchain p ojec s, hese accoun o ∼84% o he wo ld’s
con aine lee onnage, sugges ing a concen a ion o inno a ion
among la ge ope a o s.
Economic conside a ions ha e also been analyzed in ecen
li e a u e. Pe onja e al. (2020) quan i ied he ime and cos sa ings
enabled by blockchain, pa icula ly in con aine eigh a es,
o e ing p edic i e scena ios o cos e olu ion unde blockchain
adop ion. In pa allel, no el applica ions o blockchain in ma i ime
IoT and secu e communica ions ha e eme ged. Rahimi e al.
(2020) p oposed a blockchain-based au hen ica ion mechanism o
UAV-assis ed ma i ime sensing sys ems. By employing a p i a e
blockchain linked o a e es ial usion cen e , hei sys em
alida es ecei ed packe s using s o ed blockchain iden i ies o
p e en unau ho ized access and in usions.
Sel -So e eign Iden i y (SSI) echnology has he po en ial o
u he enhance decen alized sys ems by p o iding obus iden i y
managemen . SSI elies on DIDs and VCs, ensu ing p i acy
and secu i y. Al hough SSI has been ecognized o i s po en ial
in ma i ime and sa elli e communica ions (ˇ
Cuˇ
cko e al., 2023;
F on ie s in Compu e Science 20 on ie sin.o g
Fa ao e al. 10.3389/ comp.2025.1572009
Ma e al., 2022), i s in eg a ion in o Blockchain-based sys ems
emains limi ed. E o s ha e p ima ily ocused on au hen ica ion
p o ocols and access con ol amewo ks, wi h minimal explo a ion
o how SSI can e olu ionize iden i y managemen in hese
domains (Bolgou as e al., 2022).
Despi e he signi ican ad ancemen s in sa elli e and ma i ime
communica ions using Blockchain echnology, one c i ical
gap emains: he in eg a ion o SSI. Mos exis ing esea ch
ocuses on imp o ing da a in eg i y (Muñoz e al., 2021,
2020), au hen ica ion (Fa ao e al., 2021), and decen alized
managemen . Howe e , he po en ial o SSI o p o ide secu e
and p i a e iden i y managemen , especially in Blockchain-
based sys ems, is la gely unexplo ed. This wo k add esses
ha gap by combining SSI wi h Blockchain o c ea e mo e
e icien , secu e, and p i acy- espec ing solu ions o ma i ime
communica ions. Ou app oach aims o b ing inno a i e iden i y
managemen and coo dina ion capabili ies o hese c i ical
communica ion ne wo ks.
9 Conclusions
This a icle in oduces a no el ma i ime au ho iza ion
amewo k, B2SAPP, which le e ages well-es ablished
echnologies. On he one hand, Hype ledge Fab ic pa icipa es as
he c ux o B2SAPP, o e ing Sma Con ac s and secu e s o age
o ensu e secu i y, ai ness, us , and in e ope abili y among
pa icipa ing en i ies. On he o he hand, Hype ledge A ies
p o ides essen ial unc ionali ies such as da a minimiza ion, obus
iden i ica ion, da a in e ope abili y, po abili y, decen aliza ion,
and anspa ency. The in eg a ed use o Hype ledge Fab ic and
Hype ledge A ies has e ec i ely enabled B2SAPP o add ess
common ma i ime cybe secu i y challenges. Addi ionally, his
a icle p esen s a comp ehensi e pe o mance e alua ion o
bo h u ilized echnologies, con i ming B2SAPP’s e ec i eness
and e iciency. Fu he mo e, he secu i y and p i acy app aisal
complemen s he pe o mance assessmen by demons a ing
B2SAPP’s capabili y o de end agains a ious well-known
cybe secu i y a acks and o ul ill cybe insu ance secu i y and
p i acy equi emen s. The indings o his esea ch a e in ended
o se e as a ounda ion o designing obus cybe secu i y
amewo ks and a chi ec u es ha will shape he u u e o he
cybe insu ance ecosys em.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included
in he a icle/supplemen a y ma e ial, u he inqui ies can be
di ec ed o he co esponding au ho .
Au ho con ibu ions
AF: Concep ualiza ion, Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis,
Funding acquisi ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec
adminis a ion, Resou ces, So wa e, Supe ision, Valida ion,
Visualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew &
edi ing. AZ: W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing,
Concep ualiza ion, Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, Funding
acquisi ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion,
Resou ces, So wa e, Supe ision, Valida ion, Visualiza ion. AV:
W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing. GP: W i ing –
o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing. CX: Concep ualiza ion,
Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, Funding acquisi ion, In es iga ion,
Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion, Resou ces, So wa e,
Supe ision, Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a ,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e ha inancial suppo was ecei ed o
he esea ch and/o publica ion o his a icle. This esea ch has
ecei ed unding om Eu opean Commission’s Ho izon Eu ope
and Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og ams unde g an
ag eemen s No. 101082440 (CHRISS), No. 101092702 (OASEES),
No. 101131481 (SOVEREIGN), and No. 101120962 (RESCALE).
Conflic o in e es
AF was employed by InQbi Inno a ions SRL.
The emaining au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed
in he absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha
could be cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Gene a i e AI s a emen
The au ho (s) decla e ha no Gen AI was used in he c ea ion
o his manusc ip .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
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