SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Soil con amina ion in Eu ope un eiled: A e iew o pes icides
and me aboli es o wa ch
[ e sion 1; pee e iew: 1 app o ed, 1 app o ed wi h ese a ions]
Raquel Ca alho 1, Paula Guedes 2, Edua do P. Ma eus1, Ve a Sil a3,
Pa los Ty ologou 4, Nikolaos Koukouzas4, Alexand a B. Ribei o 1,
Naza é Cou o 1
1CENSE – Cen e o En i onmen al and Sus ainabili y Resea ch & CHANGE - Global Change and Sus ainabili y Ins i u e, NOVA
School o Science and Technology, NOVA Uni e si y Lisbon, Campus de Capa ica, 2829-516 Capa ica, Po ugal
2Depa men o En i onmen al Science, Aa hus Uni e si y, F ede iksbo g ej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denma k
3Soil Physics and Land Managemen G oup, Wageningen Uni e si y, 670PB Wageningen, The Ne he lands
4Chemical P ocess & Ene gy Resou ces Ins i u e CPERI, Cen e o Resea ch & Technology Hellas CERTH, Ma oussi, 15125, A hens,
G eece
Fi s published: 27 Aug 2025, 5:257
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20475.1
La es published: 24 No 2025, 5:257
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20475.2
1
Abs ac
Soil is mul i unc ional and undamen al o bo h humans and
ecosys em heal h. Howe e , i aces g owing h ea s om
con amina ion, pa icula ly om pes icides. In his e iew, pes icide
con amina ion ends ac oss Eu ope we e assessed by analysing
published da a om 5193 sampled soils collec ed be ween 2015 and
2022. By aking pes icides based on de ec ion equency, pe sis ence
and oxici y, key conce ns we e b ough o a en ion, including he
p esence o banned subs ances, such as p,p’-DDT (de ec ed in 31% o
sampled soils) and A azine (17%), as well as high de ec ion a es o
cu en ly app o ed pes icides like Boscalid (36%) and Epoxiconazole
(32%).
Resul s also e ealed egional con amina ion pa e ns and
di e ences. G eece and Poland p esen ed a s ong associa ion wi h
non-app o ed pes icides. The p esence o hese subs ances, al hough
long banned, aises conce ns abou hei o igin, pe sis ence and
po en ial c oss-bo de pollu ion. In con as , Po ugal appea s o be
mo e associa ed wi h cu en ly app o ed pes icides. Fu he mo e,
me aboli es like AMPA, a deg ada ion p oduc o Glyphosa e, was
de ec ed in 44% o soils, which highligh s he con ibu ion o
me aboli es in long- e m con amina ion isks. The me aboli e 1,2,4-
iazole has been p oposed as a po en ial indica o o soil pes icide
con amina ion, which could enhance moni o ing and educe
Open Pee Re iew
App o al S a us
1 2
e sion 2
( e ision)
24 No 2025
e sion 1
27 Aug 2025 iew iew
Zijian Li , Sun Ya -Sen Uni e si y,
Shenzhen, China
1.
Mohamed Hamza EL-Saeid, King Saud
Uni e si y, Riyadh, Saudi A abia
2.
Any epo s and esponses o commen s on he
a icle can be ound a he end o he a icle.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:257 Las upda ed: 24 NOV 2025
associa ed cos s.
These esul s poin ou he limi a ions o cu en ly egula o y
amewo ks, which o en ail o accoun o en i onmen al anspo ,
pe sis en esidues, and policies ela ed o pes icide dis ibu ion
ac oss coun ies. To p o ec soil heal h, moni o ing p og ams and
emedia ion s a egies a e necessa y. Es ablishing mo e
comp ehensi e legisla ion o bo h ac i e subs ances and hei
b eakdown p oduc s is essen ial o mi iga e long- e m con amina ion
isks.
Plain language summa y
Heal hy soils a e i al o ou e e yday li es - hey a e essen ial o
g owing he ood we ea , o p o ec ou en i onmen , and o suppo
he li e on Ea h (in alignmen wi h “SDG 2 - Ze o Hunge ”, “SDG 12 -
Responsible Consump ion and P oduc ion” and “SDG 15 - Li e on
Land” espec i ely).
This wo k analysed he da a om o e 5,000 soil samples collec ed
ac oss Eu ope be ween 2015 and 2022 o pe cei e whe e and how
pes icide pollu ion a ec s Eu opean e i o y. The esul s gi e cause
o conce n. Many o he soil samples had he p esence o pes icides,
including some ha ha e been banned o yea s, like DDT and
a azine, as well as o he s ha a e s ill allowed, like boscalid and
epoxiconazole. Speci ic egional con amina ion pa e ns we e also
ound.
Some coun ies, like G eece and Poland, we e ound o ha e a s ong
associa ion wi h unapp o ed pes icides, aising conce ns abou hei
use o pe sis ence. The s udy also ound “le o e chemicals” om
pes icides, speci ically b eakdown p oduc s. These a e wha ’s le a e
he pes icide s a s o deg ade – and hey can be jus as ha m ul as
he o iginal pes icides. One such chemical, 1,2,4- iazole, may be
use ul as an indica o and se e as a wa ning sign o soil
con amina ion. The indings show ha pes icides can mo e be ween
coun ies h ough ade o he en i onmen and pe sis in he soil o
a long ime.
The indings highligh he need o be e and mo e comp ehensi e
soil moni o ing, as well as amewo ks ha be e p o ec he heal h
o soil, humans and ecosys ems.
Keywo ds
soil con amina ion, pes icide esidues and me aboli es, soil heal h
This a icle is included in he Ho izon Eu ope
ga eway.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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Co esponding au ho : Naza é Cou o ([email p o ec ed])
Au ho oles: Ca alho R: Concep ualiza ion, Da a Cu a ion, P ojec Adminis a ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – O iginal D a P epa a ion,
W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Guedes P: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Ma eus EP: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing –
Re iew & Edi ing; Sil a V: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Ty ologou P: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew &
Edi ing; Koukouzas N: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Ribei o AB: Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew &
Edi ing; Cou o N: Funding Acquisi ion, P ojec Adminis a ion, Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing
Compe ing in e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
G an in o ma ion: This p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s unde he Ho izon Eu ope p ojec (G an Ag eemen
No. 101112889) (In o ma ion-Based S a egies o Land Remedia ion – [ISLANDR]).
Copy igh : © 2025 Ca alho R e al. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
How o ci e his a icle: Ca alho R, Guedes P, Ma eus EP e al. Soil con amina ion in Eu ope un eiled: A e iew o pes icides and
me aboli es o wa ch [ e sion 1; pee e iew: 1 app o ed, 1 app o ed wi h ese a ions] Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:257
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20475.1
Fi s published: 27 Aug 2025, 5:257 h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20475.1
This a icle is included in he Ea h and
En i onmen al Sciences ga eway.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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In oduc ion o he con ex
Soil
Soil is an ex emely hin laye , ep esen ing only one
en-million h o he Ea h’s en i e adius1. Ye i plays a i al
ole in ou li es. Soil is ‘mul i unc ional’, pe o ming mul iple
key unc ions ha bo h humans and he plane depend on o
su i al.
These unc ions include biomass p oduc ion, in which he soil
ac s as a medium o plan and p oduce de elopmen . I plays
a c ucial ole in ca bon s o age, helping o mi iga e clima e
change. I ecycles nu ien s like ni ogen, phospho us, and
po assium, making hem a ailable o plan up ake. Soil also
impac s wa e egula ion in ol ing no only wa e s o age bu
also pu i ica ion, by emo ing con aminan s. Soil p o ides
habi a o di e se o ganisms, including bac e ia, ungi, and
in e eb a es, con ibu ing o biodi e si y2,3. The e a e es ima es
sugges ing ha a single hand ul con ains 10 o 100 million o
hem4. These li e o ms a e c ucial o soil unc ions. O ganisms
like ea hwo ms c ea e unnels, inc easing soil po osi y and con-
sequen ly ae a ion and wa e in il a ion. This helps dec ease soil
e osion by 50%. Insec s like bee les and an s a e able o ans-
po nu ien s. In e eb a es like ea hwo ms and millipedes
a e capable o ans o ming decaying ma e ial and mine als
in o usable o ms, inc easing soil e ili y. Along wi h his,
many o hese o ganisms a e capable o con olling pes s and
diseases5.
Soil heal h is de ined as he con inued capaci y o soils o
deli e hese mul iple essen ial unc ions3. Heal hy soils a e
essen ial o achie ing he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De el-
opmen Goals (SDGs) by suppo ing ood supply and secu i y
(SDG 2), clean wa e (SDG 6), biodi e si y and ecosys em se -
ices (SDG 15), and clima e ac ion h ough ca bon seques a-
ion (SDG 13). Despi e i s impo ance, soil heal h is h ea ened
by, among o he s, imp ope use and managemen , leading o
soil deg ada ion6. I is es ima ed ha 33% o he wo ld’s soil is
al eady deg aded and ha 60–70% o he soils o Eu ope a e in
an unheal hy s a e7,8. Fu he mo e, UNESCO (Uni ed Na ions
Educa ional, Scien i ic and Cul u al O ganiza ion) es ima es
ha his numbe will each 90% by 20509.
In Eu ope, soil deg ada ion has dis inc cha ac e is ics. While
much o he con inen s uggles wi h e osion and con amina-
ion, indus ialized and densely popula ed egions also ace soil
sealing due o u baniza ion and expanding in as uc u e. In
he Medi e anean, e osion is he p ima y o m o deg ada ion,
while cen al, wes e n, and no he n Eu ope a e aced wi h sig-
ni ican soil con amina ion, wi h an es ima ed o 2.5 million
con amina ed si es10,11. Thus, soil con amina ion poses a
majo h ea , unde mining SDGs goals. Con aminan s dis up
ecosys ems, ha m human heal h (SDG 3), and deg ade land12.
These con aminan s can o igina e om a ious sou ces, includ-
ing ag icul u al ac i i ies, indus ial p ocesses, u ban was e,
mining, and e luen s, and include, bu a e no limi ed o,
hea y me als, ola ile o ganic compounds (VOCs), polycy-
clic a oma ic hyd oca bons (PAHs), pe sonal ca e p oduc s,
pha maceu icals, and pes icides13–17.
The inc eased demand o ood p oduc ion has esul ed in he
in ensi ica ion o ag icul u al p ac ices, which has des oyed
habi a and con amina ed soil h ough pes icide use. Soil
con amina ion by ag ochemicals, pa icula ly pes icides, is a
g owing conce n due o i s ha m ul e ec s. While pes icides
play an impo an ole in mode n ag icul u e, hei o e use
o imp ope applica ion can dis u b soil ecosys ems. These
e ec s a e usually shown in key soil heal h indica o s, including
educ ions in o ganic ma e con en , soil po osi y, mic obial
biomass, and biodi e si y1.
Objec i e o his e iew
Pes icides endange us all, making i c ucial o add ess, p e en
and emedia e soil con amina ion. Moni o ing plays a c i ical
ole, since i allows o he de ec ion o con amina ion le els,
acks he e icacy o ea men s a egies, and helps ensu e ha
esidual pes icides do no eaccumula e o e ime. Wi hou egu-
la moni o ing, he success o emedia ion e o s canno be
ully assessed, and he possibili y o ecu ing con amina ion
emains high.
In addi ion, moni o ing pes icide con amina ion in soil is c u-
cial o achie ing se e al SDGs12. I di ec ly suppo s SDG
2: Ze o Hunge by ensu ing soil emains heal hy and able o
p oduce ood. I also aligns wi h SDG 3: Good Heal h and
Well-being, since con amina ed soil migh in oduce ha m ul
chemicals in o ood and wa e sou ces. I con ibu es o SDG 6:
Clean Wa e and Sani a ion by p e en ing pes icide uno
in o wa e bodies. Responsible pes icide use p omo es SDG
12: Responsible Consump ion and P oduc ion. I also sup-
po s SDG 13: Clima e Ac ion, as heal hy soils play a c i ical
ole in ca bon seques a ion and clima e change. Las ly, i helps
achie e SDG 15: Li e on Land by p ese ing biodi e si y.
This e iew aims o in es iga e pes icide con amina ion o
Eu opean soils and o iden i y which a e he mos equen ly
de ec ed ones ac oss his con inen . Unde s anding he p e a-
lence and possible ends o hese con aminan s is c ucial o
in o med decision-making, helping o p io i ize e o s whe e
hey a e needed mos . By o e ing a comp ehensi e o e iew,
his pape aims o guide u u e esea ch on pes icide moni o ing
and emedia ion, ul ima ely p ese ing soil heal h.
In oduc ion o pes icides
Pes icides
Pes icides a e subs ances, o mix u es o subs ances p ima ily
used in ag icul u e o p e en and des oy pes s ha endange
c ops. These chemical o biological subs ances a e he oun-
da ion o mode n ag icul u e, helping o mee he demands
o a g owing popula ion. The EU Pes icides Da abase lis s
mo e han 1400 ac i e subs ances, o which 433 a e cu en ly
app o ed o use18. These igu es demons a e ou dependence
on such p oduc s. Al hough pes icides ha e he ad an age o
con olling pes s, no all bu mos , also pose he disad an age
o being ha m ul no only o hei in ended a ge s bu also
o humans and o he li ing beings19.
Conside ing po en ial impac s on humans, pes icides can en e
he human body h ough he skin, eyes, mou h, and espi a o y
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sys em. While acu e poisoning is a e, ch onic oxici y
om con inuous exposu e o low quan i ies o pes icides is
common19. Pes icides a e linked o a ious heal h issues,
including as hma, de ma i is, ep oduc i e dys unc ions, neu-
obeha io al diso de s, and e en cance 19. Pes icide esidues
ha e also been de ec ed in human b eas milk aising con-
ce ns abou he heal h e ec s in child en20. Acco ding o
WHO (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion), he e a e i e classes o
oxici y: ex emely haza dous (Ia), highly haza dous (Ib),
mode a ely haza dous (II), sligh ly haza dous (III) and unlikely
o p esen acu e haza d (U)21.
Pes icides a e ca ego ized in o se e al ypes: insec icides,
which a ge insec pes s; ungicides, which p e en and
con ol ungal in ec ions in plan s; and he bicides, which
elimina e unwan ed ege a ion, such as weeds. They can also
be classi ied acco ding o hei oxici y and chemical s uc-
u e. Some a e ino ganic, bu mos a e o ganic. The main classes
commonly epo ed a e o ganochlo ines, o ganophospha es,
ca bama es, and py e h oids22.
Pes icides a e usually sold as a mix u e o an ac i e subs ance
and ine ing edien s. Ine ing edien s a e added o imp o e
s abili y and achie e e ec i e, sa e and economic use o pes-
icide o mula ions23. These a e called ‘ine ’ because hey a e
no mean o ha e a di ec e ec on pes con ol. Howe e ,
jus like he ac i e ing edien s, al hough he ine ing edien s
p o ide ce ain ad an ages, hey come wi h isks. S udies
ha e demons a ed ha comme cial pes icide o mula ions a e
mo e oxic han hei pu e ac i e ing edien s24. Addi ionally,
so-called ine ing edien s ha e been ound o enhance he
abso p ion o he ac i e ing edien —no only by he a ge
o ganism bu also h ough he skin o indi iduals who come
in o con ac wi h hem25.
Pes icides in he en i onmen
I is es ima ed ha unde wo s -case scena ios, less han 0.1%
o applied pes icides each hei in ended a ge 26. The emain-
de can deg ade o dispe se, po en ially con amina ing o he
a eas, including he a mosphe e and wa e bodies. Pes icides
can ola ilize in o he ai , un o in o su ace wa e , leach
in o g oundwa e , be aken up by plan s o soil o ganisms,
o emain in he soil, ep esen ing he main pa hways ac oss
en i onmen al compa men s (Figu e 1)27.
Du ing applica ion, pes icides can deposi on o non- a ge
and/o be immedia ely los in he a mosphe e. They can also
ola ilize pos -applica ion28. Vola iliza ion is in luenced by soil
p ope ies (wa e con en , o ganic ma e ), pes icide p ope ies
( apou p essu e, solubili y), and en i onmen al ac o s (ai low,
empe a u e)29. The main issue is he dis ibu ion o pes icides
ac oss he plane . Pes icides can a el long dis ances, hough
dilu ion and deg ada ion educe hei isk. Howe e , some
may deposi , posing exposu e isks o humans and animals21,22.
Pes icides en e wa e sou ces mos ly ia uno and leaching.
Runo occu s when wa e lows ac oss he soil, ca ying
pes icides in o i e s, lakes, and seas. Leaching happens
Figu e 1. Simpli ied ep esen a ion o he main dis ibu ion pa hways o pes icides. C ea ed in BioRende . Ca alho, R. (2025)
h ps://BioRende .com/i a1d60.
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when pes icides mo e h ough pe meable soils, eaching
g oundwa e 30,31.
This highligh s how pes icide use con amina es and dis up s
ecosys ems, a p oblem exace ba ed by he accumula ion o
bo h pes icides and hei me aboli es in he soil19.
Me aboli es
Deg ada ion is he p ocess h ough which a pes icide is b oken
down in o smalle molecules. This p ocess can occu h ough
2 pa hways: chemical and mic obiological. Reac ions such
as pho olysis, hyd olysis, oxida ion and educ ion a e exam-
ples o chemical deg ada ion. Biological deg ada ion akes
place when soil mic oo ganisms a e in ol ed in he pes icide’s
me abolism32.
Biological me abolism ypically ollows a h ee-phase p ocess.
In Phase I, he pa en compound unde goes oxida ion, educ-
ion, o hyd olysis, o o m a p oduc ha is gene ally mo e
wa e -soluble and usually less oxic. Phase II in ol es he con-
juga ion o he pes icide o i s me aboli e wi h molecules such
as suga s, amino acids, o glu a hione, u he enhancing wa e
solubili y and educing oxici y33. Phase III in ol es he exc e-
ion o hese me aboli es, o in case o plan s, he ans o ma ion
o hese in o seconda y conjuga es ha a e non- oxic33,34.
The a e o deg ada ion can be cha ac e ized by he hal -li e
(DT50), which ep esen s he ime equi ed o he concen a ion
o a compound o be educed by hal h ough deg ada ion35.
DT50 depends on he p ope ies o he pes icide, cha ac e is-
ics o he soil, clima ic condi ions, and he numbe and ype
o mic oo ganisms p esen 36. Pes icides wi h DT50 sho e
han 30 days a e classi ied as non-pe sis en , such as cap an
(2–8 days) and mala hion (1 day). Those wi h a hal -li e
be ween 30 and 100 days a e classi ied as mode a ely pe sis -
en , like benomyl (67 days) and diu on (90 days). When his
ime is g ea e han 100 days, hey a e conside ed pe sis en ,
such as e bacil (204–252 days) and lindane (120 days)36,37.
When hal -li es a e assessed unde con olled labo a o y
condi ions, hey o en gi e ise o highe alues compa ed o
hose obse ed in he ield. This occu s because, unde ield
condi ions, mul iple deg ada ion pa hways a e a play. Also,
losses by ola ilisa ion, uno and leaching a e happen-
ing. These ac o s, while no deg ada ion pa hways pe se,
signi ican ly con ibu e o he loss o compounds in he soil27.
Al hough, du ing me abolism, pes icides a e usually ans-
o med in o less oxic compounds han he pa en compound,
i does no mean ha he opposi e canno happen. In some
cases, he me aboli es a e mo e oxic (Figu e 2). E en when
me aboli es a e less oxic han hei pa en compound, hey can
s ill ha m he en i onmen , o ins ance, by exhibi ing highe
mobili y in soil. This issue is u he exace ba ed by he ac
ha mul iple me aboli es can be p esen in he soil and may
be p esen in subs an ial quan i ies32.
Figu e 2. Example o pes icides and hei espec i e DT5O, Toxici y (WHO Classi ica ion) and me aboli es wi h highe
oxici y32,38,39. C ea ed in BioRende . Ca alho, R. (2025) h ps://BioRende .com/d9iwzn2.
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The o ma ion o di e se me aboli es du ing pes icide deg-
ada ion can a y based on he deg ada ion pa hway and he
ype o o ganism in ol ed, esul ing in a complex mix u e o
subs ances36. Fo ins ance, i lu alin alone can yield a leas
28 di e en me aboli es40.
Pes icide legisla ion
Pes icide use is egula ed ac oss he wo ld41. Wi hin he
Eu opean Union (EU), Regula ion (EC) No 1107/2009 go e ns
he placing o plan p o ec ion p oduc s on he ma ke . This
egula ion es ablishes he c i e ia ha plan p o ec ion p oduc s
mus mee o be app o ed in he EU, including oxicological
e ec s, en i onmen al impac , pe sis ence, and bioaccumula-
ion, ensu ing p o ec ion o human and animal heal h and he
en i onmen 42,43. While his egula ion p o ides a amewo k
o pes icide app o al and use, i is complemen ed by Di ec i e
2009/128/EC, which es ablishes a amewo k o he sus ainable
use o pes icides43. This di ec i e p omo es in eg a ed pes
managemen (IPM), es ic s ae ial sp aying, manda es aining
and ce i ica ion o pes icide use s, and se s ules o p o ec
wa e and sensi i e a eas. Unlike Regula ion (EC) No 1107/2009,
which applies di ec ly ac oss all Membe S a es, Di ec i e
2009/128/EC equi es na ional implemen a ion, allowing coun ies
o de e mine how bes o achie e i s objec i es.
Al hough hese egula ions and di ec i es ocus on sa egua ding
human and en i onmen al heal h, hey do no ully add ess he
complexi ies posed by pes icides, pa icula ly hei pe sis -
ence and beha iou in di e en en i onmen al compa men s.
EU-wide, i is no equi ed o pes icide esidues o be moni-
o ed in soil, bu such moni o ing is manda o y o wa e
unde he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e (2000/60/EC)44. Rega d-
ing d inking wa e , he D inking Wa e Di ec i e (98/83/EC)
imposes a maximum allowable concen a ion o 0.1 μg/L
o any indi idual pes icide and 0.5 μg/L o o al pes icide
concen a ion45.
E en hough soil moni o ing is no manda o y, a s udy based
on da a om LUCAS 2015 (Land Use/Co e A ea F ame
Su ey), which analysed 317 ag icul u al opsoil samples ac oss
Eu ope, ound ha 83% o he samples con ained a leas one
pes icide esidue17. A mo e ecen s udy, based on LUCAS
2018, which analysed o e 3,000 sampled soils, de e mined
ha 74.5% o si es had a leas one pes icide esidue and 57.1%
con ained mix u es o wo o mo e subs ances46. The planned
Eu opean Soil Heal h Law may ackle his issue by de in-
ing scien i ic and legal c i e ia o heal hy soil, es ablishing
obliga ions o soil moni o ing a he EU le el, and ensu -
ing ha monized assessmen me hods ac oss Membe S a es47.
This law is expec ed o imp o e soil p o ec ion policies by
add essing con amina ion, biodi e si y loss, and soil deg ada ion.
Addi ionally, he EU has se ambi ious goals unde he Fa m
o Fo k S a egy o educe he use and isk o chemical
pes icides by 50% by 203045.
Despi e he implemen a ion o Regula ion (EC) No 1107/2009,
some non-app o ed pes icides a e expo ed o non-EU
coun ies, inc easing he isk ha impo ed ood consumed
wi hin he EU may s ill con ain hese esidues48. The Eu opean
Food Sa e y Au ho i y (EFSA) moni o s compliance wi h
maximum esidue le els (MRLs) se unde Regula ion (EC)
No 396/2005—limi s es ablished o p o ec consume s based
on good ag icul u al p ac ice (GAP)49. Howe e , his does
no elimina e he possibili y o con amina ion a low le els
deemed non-ha m ul. Addi ionally, Membe S a es can issue
eme gency au ho iza ions o ac i e subs ances ha a e no
app o ed a he EU le el, po en ially con ibu ing o u he
con amina ion and posing long- e m en i onmen al isks48.
As men ioned, pes icides a e no applied indi idually bu a e
used in complex mix u es o ac i e subs ances and ine ing e-
dien s. The e o e, legisla ion should no ocus solely on ac i e
subs ances. Howe e , in he EU, oxici y es ing is conduc ed
on a single comme cial o mula ion pe ac i e ing edien 50.
This poses a challenge, as he e can be hund eds o di e -
en o mula ions o one ac i e ing edien , po en ially leading
o an unde es ima ion o oxici y51. Fu he mo e, Regula ion
(EC) No 1907/2006 equi es only co- o mulan s wi h speci ic
human haza d s a emen s o be epo ed, while o he s emain
undisclosed as p op ie a y in o ma ion50,52. This lack o ans-
pa ency makes i di icul o ully assess how ine ing edien s
in e ac wi h ac i e subs ances, a ec ing bo h dispe sion and
en i onmen al impac 50.
Ma e ial and me hods
Li e a u e e iew
A sys ema ic li e a u e e iew was conduc ed, examining
a icles on soil o ganic con aminan s, ocusing on he ones
epo ing pes icides and he deg ada ion p oduc s.
The da ase was ex ac ed om he Scopus li e a u e da abase
assessed in June 2024, co e ing publica ions om 2019 o
2024. Only hese i e yea s we e conside ed o ensu e he
mos ecen da a on con amina ion. The sea ch was con-
duc ed using he English keywo ds “soil” and “pes icides”. The
eco ds we e sc eened by i le, abs ac , highligh s, and key-
wo ds o exclude any ha did no pe ain o Eu opean coun ies,
ensu ing ou e iew ocused solely on EU ele an da a.
The eco ds we e also sc eened o emo e any ha we e no
wi hin he scope o his e iew (Figu e 3). They we e also
checked o i e c i e ia. C i e ion 1: Reco ds mus s udy
mul iple pes icides a he han ocusing on only one o wo
and hei me aboli es. C i e ion 2: Reco ds mus be w i en in
English. C i e ion 3: The s udy mus indica e he soil cha ac-
e is ics (e.g., pH, % o ganic ma e ), he land use (such as he
speci ic c op), and he coun y whe e he s udy was conduc ed.
C i e ion 4: The s udy mus speci y he equency (i.e., numbe
o sampled soils) in which each pes icide was ound, whe he
di ec ly o indi ec ly. C i e ion 5: The analy ical me hod mus be
de ailed, including sample collec ion p ocedu es, ime o
collec ion, sample p epa a ion, and ch oma og aphic condi ions.
Building lis s o pes icides o conce n
The 17 a icles we e used o c ea e pes icide lis s, which highligh
he mos equen ly epo ed pes icides ac oss Eu ope17,53–68.
No only ha , bu i was aking in o conside a ion hei
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p ope ies such as pe sis ence (DT50) and oxici y, pinpoin ing
which a e he pes icides o conce n o wa ch. A sp eadshee
was c ea ed using a ious da a se s o gene a e a inal able.
This able was based on he esul s om all se en een s udies,
aking in o accoun he numbe o sampled soils in which a
pa icula ac i e subs ance was de ec ed and quan i ied, as
well as he o e all numbe o sampled soils analysed o ha
pes icide. A ule was es ablished ha only pes icides quan i ied
in he s udies we e included, as some a icles epo ed only he
limi o quan i ica ion (LOQ) a he han he limi o de ec ion
(LOD).
To e ine he selec ion, p io i y was gi en o he mos e-
quen ly de ec ed pes icides. In cases whe e mul iple pes icides
had he same equency and we e ound in he same numbe
o soils, o i one o bo h o hese a iables di e ed sligh ly,
hey we e u he e alua ed based on hei cha ac e is ics.
Speci ically, pes icides ha we e mo e oxic, mo e pe sis en
in he en i onmen , and had highe bioaccumula ion po en ial
we e gi en p io i y. This app oach ensu ed ha he lis s
ocused on subs ances posing he g ea es po en ial isk.
The bibliog aphic analysis yielded in o ma ion on he p esence
o pes icides in 1720 soils, ac oss 18 coun ies, which was
c oss- e e enced wi h da a om he 2018 LUCAS co e ing
3473 loca ions, o alling 5193 soils analysed collec ed be ween
2015 and 2022 (Figu e 4)17,46,53–68.
Da a analysis: P incipal componen analysis
P incipal componen analysis (PCA) was used o analyse and
isualize ends ac oss coun ies based on epo ed pes icides.
PCA was ca ied i s wi h he pes icides ha we e epo ed
ac oss all selec ed coun ies and secondly wi h he non-app o ed
pes icides only. The analysis was based on he equency o
pes icide occu ence. The wo esul ing da a ma ices we e
impo ed in o he Unsc amble ®X e sion 10.5 so wa e (CAMO
So wa e, Oslo, No way) o analysis. Sco es plo s we e
used o isualise coun y g oupings, while loadings plo s
Figu e 3. Diag am o he me hodology used o include/exclude eco ds o be used in his e iew. * C i e ion 1: Reco ds mus s udy
mul iple pes icides a he han ocusing on only one o wo and hei me aboli es. C i e ion 2: Reco ds mus be w i en in English. C i e ion
3: The s udy mus indica e he soil cha ac e is ics (e.g., pH, % o ganic ma e ), he land use (such as he speci ic c op), and he coun y
whe e he s udy was conduc ed. C i e ion 4: The s udy mus speci y he equency (i.e., numbe o sampled soils) in which each pes icide
was ound, whe he di ec ly o indi ec ly. C i e ion 5: The analy ical me hod mus be de ailed, including sample collec ion p ocedu es, ime
o collec ion, sample p epa a ion, and ch oma og aphic condi ions.
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gi e insigh in o he pes icides ha mos in luenced hese
pa e ns.
Resul s and discussion
Pes icides use ac oss Eu ope
Pes icides sales
Ac oss he EU, he sales o pes icides om 2013 o 2022
ha e oscilla ed s a ing a 347 k in 2013 and peaking a 367
k in 2014 (Figu e 5)70. The lowes sales du ing his pe iod
occu ed in 2022 wi h 322 k , la gely due o a su ge in p ices71.
A simila down u n was eco ded in 2019, when sales
d opped o 323 k , a dec ease a ibu ed o ad e se wea he
condi ions, including d ough 45.
Du ing his en-yea pe iod, F ance and Spain ha e consis en ly
been he op wo consume s o pes icides, wi h a e age annual
sales o 69 k and 73 k , espec i ely. Fungicides and he bicides
we e he mos sold ca ego ies, accoun ing o 42–49%
and 32–36% o o al pes icide sales, espec i ely70.
A clea end is isible in Figu e 6: when o al pes icide sales
dec eased (Figu e 5), ungicide sales gene ally ollowed he
same pa e n, while he bicide sales we e less a ec ed by
hese luc ua ions. The same canno be said o insec icides,
as hei sales ha e been s eadily g owing o e he yea s. Insec-
icides ha e consis en ly been he las sold ca ego y, con ib-
u ing only 9-14% o o al pes icide sales, bu ha e shown
a no able inc ease, s a ing a 31 k in 2013 and peaking a
50 k in 202170. Despi e a decline in 2022, as seen ac oss all
pes icide ca ego ies, he o e all g ow h in insec icide sales
aises conce ns abou issues such as insec icide esis ance72.
Pes icides o conce n
Gi en he o e all sales ends, i is c ucial o iden i y he
speci ic pes icides d i ing hese changes. Using da a om
se en een s udies and he 2018 LUCAS, pes icides we e anked
based on hei pe sis ence, oxici y, and de ec ion equency,
p o iding a clea e unde s anding o eme ging subs ances o
conce n17,46,53–68. Sampled soils analysed in hese s udies we e
collec ed be ween 2015 and 2022, o e ing insigh in o ecen
pes icide con amina ion ends. A o al o 455 pes icides we e
conside ed in he s udy17,46,53–68. Howe e , many o hese pes i-
cides we e analysed in only a single a icle, limi ing he abili y
o assess hei dis ibu ion ac oss Eu ope due o a low numbe
o sampled soils o egional ocus. Only pes icides s udied in
mul iple a icles we e included in he inal analysis, ensu -
ing a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o hei p esence and
dis ibu ion. The pes icides lis ed in Figu e 7 we e e e enced
in mul iple s udies, con i ming hei widesp ead analysis and
inclusion in he assessmen 17,46,53–68.
S a ing wi h an analysis o pes icide p esence ac oss he EU,
Figu e 7 shows ha mos o he pes icides on he TOP 10
pes icides o conce n ac oss Eu ope lis a e ungicides, in line
wi h sales ends. No ably, wo insec icides — p,p’-dichlo o-
diphenyl- ichlo oe hane (p,p’-DDT) and Imidaclop id — and
wo he bicides — A azine and Di lu enican — also ea u e
on his lis . Addi ionally, he esul s om he 2018 LUCAS
Figu e 4. Spa ial dis ibu ion o sampled soils e iewed17,46,53–69. C ea ed in BioRende . Ca alho, R. (2025) h ps://BioRende .com/
c9pz 5.
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means ha when bo h pes icides and pha maceu icals deg ade,
hey elease 1,2,4- iazole in o he en i onmen (Figu e 14).
Depending on he compound, be ween 3% and 44% o hese
subs ances b eak down in o his me aboli e85.
1,2,4-T iazole p esen s en i onmen al isks, such as ep oduc-
i e oxici y and neu o oxici y, wi h addi ional conce ns abou
i s po en ial o leach in o g oundwa e 85,86. Al hough mos
iazole ungicides a e hyd ophobic and less likely o leach,
1,2,4- iazole, due o i s high-wa e solubili y (>700 g/L), poses
a g ea e isk o leaching86,87.
The accumula ion o 1,2,4- iazole in soils can lead o sig-
ni ican nega i e e ec s, pa icula ly because many di e en
compounds b eak down in o his common me aboli e. This
buildup is conce ning and equi es close moni o ing, especially
since se e al pes icides om he Top 10 pes icides lis
deg ade in o 1,2,4- iazole (Figu e 12). Figu e 15 p o ides an
o e iew o he concen a ions a which hese pes icides we e
de ec ed.
In s udies, 1,2,4- iazole has been analysed using Liquid
Ch oma og aphy Tandem Mass Spec ome y (LC–MS/MS,)
hough challenges ha e been epo ed due o i s low molecula
weigh (69.1 g/mol) and mass spec ome ic in e e ences om
co-elu ing ma ix compounds. Resea che s ha e success ully
used mul iple eac ion moni o ing (MRM) ansi ions (70/70,
70/43) o de ec 1,2,4- iazole. In one s udy, a limi o de ec-
ion (LOD) o 0.5 μg/kg was epo ed, along wi h a limi o
quan i ica ion (LOQ) o 1.1 μg/kg. Fo p opiconazole (a pa en
compound), he LOD was 2.4 μg/kg and he LOQ 4 μg/kg85.
As shown in Figu e 15, LOQ alues can a y be ween me h-
ods o he same compound. Ne e heless, li e a u e shows ha
1,2,4- iazole can be success ully analysed wi h ela i ely low
LOQ alues. Gi en i s associa ed challenges and po en ial o
accumula ion, i is always wise o moni o his compound.
To enhance moni o ing and po en ially educe analysis cos s,
1,2,4- iazole could se e as a p ac ical indica o o pes-
icide con amina ion in soils. No ably, he 1,2,4- iazole
agmen is unknown in any na u al p oduc , making i a unique
and eliable ma ke o con amina ion88. Since nume ous
pes icides and o he con aminan s deg ade in o 1,2,4- iazole,
and conside ing he obus limi s o de ec ion and quan i ica ion
achie able o his compound, i s moni o ing o e s a easible
app oach o ini ial sc eening85.
A h eshold concen a ion o 1,2,4- iazole could be es ablished
o guide subsequen ac ions. When le els exceed his h eshold,
mo e de ailed analyses, ei he a ge ed o speci ic pes icides o
employing b oade non- a ge ed app oaches, could be ecom-
mended o iden i y he p ecise con aminan s p esen . This indi-
ca o -based s a egy would s eamline soil es ing by ocusing
esou ces on a single ep esen a i e me aboli e. Comp ehen-
si e analyses would be ini ia ed only when con amina ion is
indica ed, he eby op imizing he o e all cos and e iciency o
soil assessmen p ocesses.
Glyphosa e and AMPA
Gi en he impac and po en ial use o me aboli es, like 1,2,4
iazole, i is essen ial o also conside o he s, like AMPA
(Aminome hylphosphonic acid).
Al hough Glyphosa e did no make he op 10 lis o mos
conce ning pes icides, i is s ill no ewo hy. Acco ding o
he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion classi ica ion, Glyphosa e is
conside ed sligh ly haza dous (Class III). Addi ionally, i is
non-pe sis en in he en i onmen and has low bioaccumula-
ion po en ial. These ac o s ha e led o he p io i iza ion o
o he pes icides, such as Di enoconazole which, despi e being
de ec ed in ewe soils and wi h a lowe incidence, has a highe
bioaccumula ion po en ial, is classi ied as mode a ely haza dous
(Class II), and is mode a ely pe sis en 69.
Howe e , Glyphosa e s ill demands a en ion, as i was de ec ed
in 161 sampled soils (18% incidence), while i s me aboli e
AMPA was ound in 396 soils (44% incidence). This high-
ligh s a key conce n: al hough Glyphosa e is non-pe sis en
and b eaks down ela i ely quickly, i deg ades in o AMPA, a
mo e oxic compound32.
Figu e 13. DDT me aboli es, and hei espec i e incidence ac oss Eu opean soils10,42–58. C ea ed in BioRende . Ca alho, R. (2025)
h ps://BioRende .com/e0 g .
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Figu e 14. Compounds wi h 1,2,4- iazole in he skele on and espec i e p ope ies. P oposed deg ada ion pa hways o Penconazole
and Tebuconazole.
Figu e 15. A e age concen a ion (μg/kg) and Limi o Quan i ica ion (LOQ) (μg/kg) o pes icides mos de ec ed in Eu ope ha
deg ade in o 1,2,4- iazole10,47,53,54,59. C ea ed in BioRende . Ca alho, R. (2025) h ps://BioRende .com/ 8 zb.
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In s udies ha analysed bo h compounds, AMPA consis -
en ly appea ed a concen a ions simila o o exceeding hose
o Glyphosa e17,53,60,61. Fo example, in wo o he s udies,
AMPA was de ec ed a oughly double he median concen-
a ions o Glyphosa e, wi h alues such as 0.11 μg/g e sus
0.06 μg/g and 0.06 μg/g e sus 0.02 μg/g60,61. This pa e n is
u he exace ba ed by he ac ha AMPA is de ec ed much
mo e equen ly han Glyphosa e.
Al hough hese concen a ions emain below acu e oxici y
h esholds (65 μg/L o AMPA and 6500 μg/L o Glyphosa e)
(Figu e 2), AMPA’s signi ican ly highe oxici y and e-
quen p esence in la ge quan i ies a e cause o conce n32. I s
pe sis ence and po en ial o accumula ion in soils, i le
unmoni o ed, could pose inc easing isks o soil ecosys ems
o e ime.
An addi ional issue is he de elopmen o he bicide esis -
ance, o which Glyphosa e widesp ead use con ibu es sig-
ni ican ly, bu i is no he only pes icide esponsible89. The
2018 LUCAS u he unde sco es he widesp ead p esence
o Glyphosa e and i s me aboli e AMPA in Eu opean soils46.
AMPA was equen ly de ec ed, o en as he sole esidue ound
in some loca ions. This ein o ces he obse a ion ha AMPA is
mo e commonly de ec ed han Glyphosa e, highligh ing i s pe -
sis ence in he en i onmen . While he su ey concluded ha
AMPA is no signi ican ly associa ed wi h high- isk si es o
majo con ibu o s o isk indica o s, i s p e alence aises con-
ce ns abou i s po en ial o accumula ion o e ime. Coupled
wi h i s highe oxici y compa ed o Glyphosa e, hese indings
emphasise he need o con inued moni o ing and e alua ion o
AMPA’s long- e m en i onmen al impac , e en i immedia e
isks appea low.
Wha can be imp o ed?
To be e unde s and and o imp o e he managemen o
pes icide con amina ion in soils, key a eas equi e a en ion and
enhancemen .
The e ec i eness o cu en pes icide de ec ion me hods mus
be assessed. Many pes icide analyses ely on andem mass
spec ome y (MS/MS), which, despi e i s e icacy, is p one
o issues such as co-elu ion and sha ed ion in e e ence. As a
esul , some pes icides may be easie o de ec , while o he s
may go almos unde ec ed, which could lead o alse nega i es.
I is challenging, i no impossible, o ely on a single sam-
ple p epa a ion me hod and one analy ical echnique o all
he pes icides due o hei a iabili y. Because each pes icide
has unique chemical p ope ies, con ex -speci ic me hods a e
necessa y o gua an ee accu a e de ec ion. This is e lec ed in he
li e a u e, whe e s udies employ a ious p epa a ion me hods,
each wi h i s de ec ion limi s and challenges. Fo ins ance,
e en wi hin a single s udy, 3 di e en me hodologies we e
applied based on he speci ic cha ac e is ics o he pes icide
esidues being analysed17.
Because di e en s udies employ di e en p epa a ion and
analy ical echniques, he lack o s anda disa ion ac oss hem
makes i di icul o compa e esul s. Al hough c ea ing a
uni e sal me hod o all pes icides is un ealis ic due o hei
di e se na u e, i would be bene icial o ha e a single s anda d-
ised p epa a ion me hod o each pes icide. The same applies
o analy ical echniques, whe e a ia ions in equipmen and
sensi i i y u he hinde uni o mi y. None heless, es ablishing
a consis en app oach pe pes icide could signi ican ly imp o e
he eliabili y and compa abili y o da a ac oss di e en
esea ch e o s.
Ano he c i ical issue is he no malisa ion o pes icide inci-
dence da a. Many s udies do no in es iga e he same ange o
pes icides, and some ely on smalle sample sizes o
ce ain compounds. Fo example, i only 159 sampled soils
a e analysed o a pes icide, as was he case o Ip idione, and
i is de ec ed in 28, he incidence a e appea s high (18%), bu
his may no accu a ely ep esen i s b oade dis ibu ion.
To add ess hese challenges, a s anda dised, la ge-scale in es-
iga ion should be es ablished. The LUCAS 2018 highligh ed
ha knowledge sugges ing expanding his assessmen om
3,473 sampled soils in he EU o he o al ex en o LUCAS
poin s o 2022 (~40,000)46. This expansion would no only
inc ease knowledge abou he numbe o con aminan s p esen
bu also p omo e be e in e ac ion wi h coun ies o unde s and
key managemen p ac ices and s ay awa e o ecen con amina ion
pa e ns.
While i may no be easible o analyse e e y pes icide in use,
being able o access de ailed eco ds whe e a me s epo he
speci ic pes icides used, hei applica ion iming, and o he
ele an da a could signi ican ly imp o e he accu acy o
con amina ion assessmen s. Including pes icide me aboli es in
hese in es iga ions is essen ial, as hey can be mo e oxic o
pe sis en han hei pa en compounds.
Regula moni o ing would also be bene icial in acking ends
o e ime, assessing deg ada ion pa hways, and iden i ying
con amina ion pa e ns. This in o ma ion would help di ec
emedia ion e o s o a eas o highes conce n.
Legisla ion mus also e ol e o add ess he issue o ine
compounds in pes icide o mula ions. These compounds, hough
no in ended o ha e a di ec e ec on pes s, can al e he
beha iou o ac i e ing edien s and may pose heal h and
en i onmen al isks. Cu en egula o y amewo ks o en o e -
look he impac o ine ing edien s, leading o unde es ima ion
o hei po en ial dange s. Equally impo an is he ac ha
pes icides a e a ely used in isola ion; mix u es o mul i-
ple ac i e subs ances a e a mo e common in eal-wo ld
applica ions. This complexi y should no be igno ed, since we
ha e no ye achie ed comp ehensi e knowledge abou he
cumula i e o syne gis ic e ec s ha hese mix u es may ha e
on human heal h and o he li ing o ganisms17,53,90.
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Pes icides know no bo de s
The Eu opean Union’s pes icide egula ions a e designed o
p o ec bo h en i onmen al and human heal h. Howe e , he
pe sis ence and mo emen o hese subs ances e eal a signi i-
can challenge: pes icides do no ecognize poli ical bo de s.
This p oblem is emphasized by he exis ence o banned
pes icides in a eas whe e hei use has long been p ohibi ed.
The challenge o c oss-bo de con amina ion and policy gaps
The ac ha pes icide egula ions a e applied a he na ional
o egional le el, whe eas en i onmen al p ocesses unc ion
on a much la ge scale, is one o he main issues wi h hem.
Th ough a a ie y o p ocesses, such as soil anspo , wa e
uno , and a mosphe ic d i , pes icides can sp ead well beyond
he a eas whe e hey a e in ended o be applied. One s udy
ha examined he p esence o 209 pes icides in soil, c ops,
su ace wa e , su ace ai , sedimen , and e en indoo dus
samples p o ided e idence o his 90. E en i a coun y bans
a speci ic subs ance, neighbou ing egions whe e i s use emains
pe mi ed can become indi ec sou ces o con amina ion.
This c ea es a egula o y gap: e en i a coun y has s ic ban
on he use o a pa icula pes icide, i may s ill be exposed due
o ac o s beyond i s con ol. Addi ionally, he e is ano he
c i ical ques ion, gi en ha ou unde s anding and knowledge
o pes icide deg ada ion unde ield condi ions is s ill limi ed:
a e expe imen ally measu ed DT50 alues uly ep esen a i e o
he “en i onmen al eali y”? This issue highligh s he need o
pos -app o al moni o ing p og ams in ‘ eal-li e’ scena ios.
The e a e s ill some policy gaps in spi e o EU’s e o s o
egula e pes icides. Some pes icides a e s ill manu ac u ed
o expo , e en hough hey a e banned wi hin he EU. Addi-
ionally, s ockpiles o p e iously app o ed pes icides p esen
a dilemma. When a pes icide is banned, wha happens o he
emaining supplies? Can hey s ill be used un il exhaus ed?
These un esol ed ques ions expose gaps in cu en policies
ha allow con inued exposu e, e en when o icial app o als
ha e been e oked.
The possibili y o illici pes icide use is ano he challenge.
Banned subs ances may s ill ind hei way in o ag icul u al
p ac ices, o a a ie y o easons, such as he a ailabili y
o old s ock o limi ed access o al e na i es. In some cases, he
use o non-app o ed pes icides may be consequence o economic
p essu es o misin o ma ion, a he han delibe a e use.
We equi e mo e knowledge o deal wi h all o hese p oblems.
Be e educa ion and suppo a e also equi ed o gi e a me s
who a e aced wi h di icul decisions, al e na i es.
Conclusion
The widesp ead con amina ion o Eu opean soils by bo h app o ed
and banned pes icides highligh s a pe sis en en i onmen al
challenge ha ex ends beyond na ional egula ions.
Because o he complexi y o en i onmen al anspo mecha-
nisms and he legacy o pas applica ions, ha m ul subs ances
con inue o be de ec ed, despi e s ic policies. No ably, pes i-
cides do no ecognize poli ical bo de s, as banned subs ances
s ill appea in a eas whe e hei use has long been p ohibi ed.
Mos likely his is a esul o soil pe sis ence, c oss-bo de
mo emen , and occasionally illici applica ions.
Fu he mo e, cu en egula o y amewo ks end o ocus
on he ac i e ing edien s in pes icides, o en igno ing he
e ec s o hei me aboli es and ine co- o mulan s, which
can be jus as oxic, i no mo e so. The necessi y o mo e
comp ehensi e isk assessmen s aking in o accoun he
ull spec um o con aminan s associa ed wi h pes icides is
highligh ed by he high de ec ion a es o AMPA and o he
b eakdown p oduc s.
Mo ing o wa d, i will be c ucial o imp o e de ec ion ech-
niques using ma ke s like 1,2,4- iazole and expand soil moni-
o ing ini ia i es, as well as en o ce s ic e egula ions o e
pes icide ade and usage. Mi iga ing soil deg ada ion equi es
a shi o sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices and enhanced
in e na ional coope a ion on pes icide egula ion. The pe -
sis ence o hese pollu an s will con inue o endange human
heal h and he en i onmen o u u e gene a ions unless immedia e
ac ion is aken.
E hics and consen
“E hical app o al and consen we e no equi ed”.
Da a a ailabili y
All supplemen a y ma e ials used in he e iew a e publicly
a ailable ia Knowledge Ne wo k o Biocomplexi y91. The
da ase includes: (1) Supplemen a y_Ma e ial.docx: S uc u ed
summa y ables o he op 10 de ec ed pes icides by coun y,
including egula o y s a us, ype, de ec ion equency, and numbe
o soils in which each was ound; (2) Supplemen a y_Ma e-
ial.xlsx: The aw and o ganized sp eadshee used o ex ac and
s uc u e pes icide de ec ion equency da a om included
s udies; (3) PRISMA_2020_Checklis .docx: Comple ed PRISMA
2020 checklis documen ing adhe ence o sys ema ic e iew
s anda ds, including s udy selec ion, da a ex ac ion, syn he-
sis me hods, and isk o bias conside a ions. The eposi o y
can be accessed a : doi: 10.5063/F1Z899WP.
This wo k is dedica ed o he public domain unde he C ea i e
Commons Uni e sal 1.0 Public Domain Dedica ion.
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch ecei ed unding om Fundação pa a a Ciência
e a Tecnologia, I.P., Po ugal, UIDB/04085/2020 (Resea ch
uni CENSE “Cen e o En i onmen al and Sus ainabili y
Resea ch”); Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia is also
acknowledged o N. Cou o (CEECIND/08147/2023) con ac
es ablished unde Indi idual Call o Scien i ic Employmen
S imulus. This esea ch is ancho ed a RESOLUTION
LAB, an in as uc u e a NOVA School o Science and
Technology.
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Open Pee Re iew
Cu en Pee Re iew S a us:
Ve sion 1
Re iewe Repo 25 Sep embe 2025
h ps://doi.o g/10.21956/open eseu ope.22156. 59829
© 2025 EL-Saeid M. This is an open access pee e iew epo dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Mohamed Hamza EL-Saeid
King Saud Uni e si y, Riyadh, Saudi A abia
This e iew cla i ies ha hepes icide con amina ion ends ac oss Eu ope we e assessed by
analysing published da a om 5193 sampled soils collec ed be ween 2015 and 2022. By aking
pes icides based on de ec ion equency, pe sis ence and oxici y, key conce ns we e b ough o
a en ion, including he p esence o banned subs ances, such as p,p’-DDT (de ec ed in 31% o
sampled soils) and A azine (17%), as well as high de ec ion a es o cu en ly app o ed pes icides
like Boscalid (36%) and Epoxiconazole (32%).
A e he a ionale o , and objec i es o , he Sys ema ic Re iew clea ly s a ed?
Yes
A e su icien de ails o he me hods and analysis p o ided o allow eplica ion by o he s?
Yes
Is he s a is ical analysis and i s in e p e a ion app op ia e?
No applicable
A e he conclusions d awn adequa ely suppo ed by he esul s p esen ed in he e iew?
Yes
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: En i onmen al Pollu ion
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o con i m ha i is o an accep able scien i ic s anda d.
Re iewe Repo 23 Sep embe 2025
Open Resea ch Eu ope
Page 22 o 23
Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:257 Las upda ed: 24 NOV 2025
h ps://doi.o g/10.21956/open eseu ope.22156. 59823
© 2025 Li Z. This is an open access pee e iew epo dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he
o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Zijian Li
Sun Ya -Sen Uni e si y, Shenzhen, China
The pape pulls oge he a la ge body o e idence on pes icide con amina ion in Eu opean soils,
co e ing bo h ac i e subs ances and me aboli es. The scope is b oad, he me hodology is clea ,
and he indings a e p esen ed in a way ha is bo h accessible and ele an o ongoing policy
discussions. I ound he pape o be well-w i en and hough ully s uc u ed, and I belie e i will
be o eal in e es o esea che s.
Sugges ions:
Figu es 6 and 7: The main ends come ac oss, bu he igu e could be polished.
I would be use ul o b ie ly no e in he me hods how PCA da a we e s anda dized.
The policy sec ion could be s eng hened wi h one o wo speci ic ecommenda ions— o
ins ance, highligh ing 1,2,4- iazole as a p ac ical sc eening ma ke o soil moni o ing.
A sho compa ison wi h simila global e iews could help o place he Eu opean indings in
con ex .
Figu e 11: In he cu en e sion, some o he coun y names o e lap wi h each o he , making
hem ha d o ead.
A e he a ionale o , and objec i es o , he Sys ema ic Re iew clea ly s a ed?
Yes
A e su icien de ails o he me hods and analysis p o ided o allow eplica ion by o he s?
Yes
Is he s a is ical analysis and i s in e p e a ion app op ia e?
Yes
A e he conclusions d awn adequa ely suppo ed by he esul s p esen ed in he e iew?
Yes
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: Pes icides
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o con i m ha i is o an accep able scien i ic s anda d, howe e I ha e
signi ican ese a ions, as ou lined abo e.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
Page 23 o 23
Open Resea ch Eu ope 2025, 5:257 Las upda ed: 24 NOV 2025
