Jou nal o Educa ion and T aining S udies
Vol. 2, No. 1; Janua y 2014
ISSN 2324-805X E-ISSN 2324-8068
Published by Red ame Publishing
URL: h p://je s. ed ame.com
165
Mobile De ices o B idge he Gap in VET:
Ease o Use and Use ulness as Indica o s o Thei Accep ance.
Elisa Mo a1, Albe o Ca aneo1 & Jean-Luc Gu ne 2
1Swiss Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion and T aining, Swi ze land
2Depa men o Educa ion, Uni e si y o F ibou g, Swi ze land
Co espondence: Elisa Mo a, Swiss Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion and T aining, ia Besso 84,
CH-6900 Lugano, Swi ze land.
Recei ed: July 23, 2013 Accep ed: Augus 8, 2013 Online Published: No embe 8, 2013
doi:10.11114/je s. 2i1.184 URL: h p://dx.doi.o g/10.11114/je s. 2i1.184
Abs ac
In he dual- ack Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET) sys em, app en ices gain expe iences in di e en
lea ning loca ions (i.e. wo kplace and school) bu he b idges be ween hese expe iences a e di icul o cons uc .
Mobile de ices could help o p omo e connec i i y ac oss lea ning con ex s, p o ided hey a e accep ed by he
a ious pe sons and ins i u ions in ol ed. Ease o use and use ulness, he e in e p e ed as he main elemen s o
usabili y in he la ge, a e indica o s o he accep ance o mobiles. We in ol ed app en ices om h ee di e en
p o essional ields – cooks, pas y cooks and ca mechanics – and wo di e en mobile de ices – headband
came as and sma phones. These de ices se ed o cap u e isual ma e ial on p o essional si ua ions li ed a he
wo kplace. Di e en so wa e applica ions we e hen used o allow such ma e ial o be b ough o school and
discussed wi h eache s and classma es o sha ed wi h supe iso s a wo k. To e alua e he usabili y o such ools
we used a i e-sec ion ques ionnai e mainly based on he TAM and UTATUT model, which had been adequa ely
adap ed o he peculia i y o he VET sys em. Resul s con i m he easibili y o he app oach and he usabili y o
bo h ools: no signi ican di e ence is shown, nei he be ween he wo de ices in he same ield, no be ween he
di e en p o essions wi h espec o he same de ice. These esul s unde line he po en ial o mobile de ices o
os e connec i i y be ween lea ning loca ions in VET.
Keywo ds: mobile de ices, ease o use, use ulness, usabili y, accep ance, mul iple lea ning con ex s, oca ional
educa ion and aining
1. In oduc ion
Lea ning heo ies acknowledge mo e and mo e ha lea ning no longe occu s in a speci ic and unique con ex ,
such as a school, bu in a ious loca ions (Enges öm, Enges öm, & Kä kkäinen, 1995; E au , 2004; Resnick,
1987; La e & Wenge , 1991). In o he wo ds, lea ning o en esul s om he in eg a ion o expe iences made
sepa a ely in di e se con ex s o ans e ed om one con ex o ano he . Howe e , as mos s udies on ans e
ha e shown, o e coming he bounda ies and passing knowledge om one con ex o ano he is a di icul
p ocess: wha is lea ned emains o en encapsula ed in i s o iginal con ex and is seldom ans e ed o he o he
con ex (Renkl, Mandl, & G ube , 1996). The s udy p esen ed in he cu en pape is pa o a la ge p ojec
(Dual-T; No e 1) whose aim is o connec he di e se lea ning loca ions wi hin he Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining (VET) sys em, which o he wise can emain "pa allel" and lack in e ac ion, h ough he use o
echnologies; hus p omo ing he possibili y o a bounda y c ossing, in pa icula be ween he wo main lea ning
loca ions whe e app en ices a e daily in ol ed: he school and he wo kplace. Wi hin he p ojec , a ious
scena ios and ools ha e been de eloped, wi hin which echnologies se e as a means o: (1) cap u e meaning ul
p o essional si ua ions a he wo kplace, (2) exploi his ma e ial in he class oom by de eloping lea ning
ac i i ies which p omo e e lec ion on hese expe iences, and inally (3) alida e back a he wo kplace he
knowledge which has been elabo a ed a school du ing he exploi a ion phase (Ca aneo e al., 2013). The
po en ial o mobile de ices o se e as b idge builde s is impo an and appealing. Al hough e y use ul in
e e yday li e, i is no clea ye whe he such de ices (in he p esen s udy we will conside headband came as
and sma phones) a e usable in a p o essional si ua ion and can be accep ed a he wo kplace as e ec i e ools
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o lea ning, and whe he he cap u e o eal p o essional expe iences and hei la e use a school ep esen o
he a ious s akeholde s use ul ways o a o app en ices‟ p o essional knowledge de elopmen .
In he cu en pape we ocus on explo ing he pe cep ion o he ease o use, he use ulness and he accep ance
by app en ices o such de ices as lea ning ools.
1.1 Voca ional T aining in Swi ze land
The Swiss educa ion sys em is s uc u ed so ha s uden s comple ing he compulso y lowe -seconda y school
cycle can selec be ween wo ypes o uppe -seconda y schools: selec i e schools, which p epa e s uden s o he
Academic Baccalau ea e; and oca ional schools, which p epa e s uden s o he Fede al VET Ce i ica e o o
he Voca ional Baccalau ea e. Roughly wo- hi ds (65%) o he young people coming ou o lowe -seconda y
school en oll in a VET p og am, al hough a ecen endency shows a dec ease in en olmen s o he classic
combined school/wo k-based VET p og am (“dual” sys em) and an inc ease in he numbe o young people
s aying in gene al educa ion. Anyway, om a me e quan i a i e poin o iew, he VET sys em in ol es abou 42%
(OFS, 2012) o he popula ion be ween 25 and 64 yea s old con i ming i sel as a adi ion which cha ac e izes
he Swiss educa ional cul u e. The aim o oca ional schools is, as made explici in he 2002 Voca ional and
P o essional Educa ion and T aining Ac (VPETA), o c ea e a p o essional aining sys em ha allows
indi iduals o de elop pe sonally and p o essionally and o in eg a e in o socie y, in pa icula in he employmen
sec o , by making hem capable and a ailable o be p o essionally lexible and o emain in he employmen
sec o (VPETA, A . 3).
In o de o ul ill hese objec i es, bo h p o essional and sociocul u al, he aining cu icula ha e o be
s uc u ed a ound he exis ence o di e en aining agencies and on hei in e ela ionship. Tha is why in
Swi ze land – simila o wha happens in Ge many and Aus ia – such pa hs a e based on he so-called “dual”
sys em, p ima ily o ganized in cons an al e na ions be ween a wo k-based segmen and a school-based segmen .
Conc e ely, his means ha app en ices spend h ee o ou days a week – depending on he p o ession – in a
company, wi h which hey ha e signed a egula con ac and ge paid, and he es o he week a school whe e
hey a e exposed o gene al subjec ma e s (such as language o ci ics) and o mo e heo e ical aspec s linked o
he p o essional sec o in which hey a e engaged.
1.2 When Lea ning Means Connec ing Expe iences om Mul iple Loca ions: can mobile de ices be a solu ion?
In such a sys em, he p ocess owa ds collabo a ion among lea ning loca ions eally needs o be os e ed,
de eloped and be e consolida ed be ween wha app en ices do in p ac ice (wo kplace) and wha hey lea n a
school. Li ing he e ogeneous expe iences in each speci ic p o essional con ex , app en ices o en pe cei e a gap
be ween he loca ions ins ead o homogeneous aining (E eläpel o, 2008; Fillie az e al, 2008; Taylo &
F eeman, 2011). In o he wo ds, his non-pe ec link be ween he wo kplace and he school ep esen s an
oppo uni y and a sou ce o p oblems a he same ime: by spli ing oppo uni ies o lea ning o e wo main
loca ions (i.e. wo kplace and school), he dual- ack VET sys em implies ha lea ning eme ges om he
in e ac ion o mul iple con ex s (Gu ne e al., 2001; Ho n e al., 2008). Being able o agg ega e in o ma ion and
expe iences ga he ed in wo di e en con ex s in o a cohe en body o knowledge seems o be a p e equisi e o
app op ia e lea ning in such condi ions. Because his connec ion be ween expe iences and in o ma ion is nei he
ob ious no spon aneous, we need o os e i h ough a speci ic lea ning en i onmen design ha is able o
exploi he e ec s ha he con ex has on he lea ne s‟ mo i a ion (Vole & Jä elä, 2001), in line wi h Guile and
G i i hs (2001), Tynjälä (2008) o Lud ingsen e al. (2011). In his amewo k, mobile lea ning seems o o e
in e es ing oppo uni ies o lea ning ac oss con ex s. In ac , in mobile lea ning li e a u e, he ole o he con ex
is seen as undamen al: i ea u es a dynamic en i y cons uc ed by he in e ac ions be ween lea ne s and hei
en i onmen and no a me e con aine (Sha ples e al., 2005, 2007). This is pa icula ly ue in an age, o en
called he Mobile Age, whe e – independen ly om he speci ici ies o VET on which we ha e al eady ocused –
lea ning no longe seems o be g ounded in a ixed loca ion o ime, bu as lowing ac oss loca ions (Sha ples e
al., 2008; Sha ples, 2009). Bu Mobile lea ning is „no simply a a ian o e-lea ning enac ed wi h po able
de ices, no an ex ension o class oom lea ning in less o mal se ings‟ (Sha ples, 2009, p. 18): i gi es he
chance o c ea e new con ex s o lea ning, p omo ing in e ac ions among people, echnologies and se ings,
which is exac ly wha is needed o p omo e connec i i y.
The p esence o mul iple lea ning loca ions also p omp s e lec ion on he assump ion ha lea ne s a e
con inually on he mo e (Sha ples e al., 2008); his means ha hey lea n ac oss wo con ex s using h ee ypes
o mo e. Fi s , hey lea n ac oss physical spaces, picking expe iences o di e en kinds ( o mal, in o mal,
non- o mal and p ac ical) om se e al loca ions and elabo a ing hem in o he con ex s. Second, hey lea n
ac oss ime, h ough ideas and s imuli om pas expe iences conside ed use ul o a li e ime o lea ning.
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Mo eo e , he lea ne s make h ee kinds o mo e: (a) ac oss opics, as hey manage no only a pe sonal and
indi idual lea ning p ojec , bu also mul iple and a icula ed cu icula; (b) ac oss echnologies, ha means hey
mo e in and ou o engagemen wi h echnologies; and inally (c) ac oss social spaces, whe e lea ne s pe o m
wi hin a ious social g oups, including encoun e s in wo kplaces o he class oom (Sha ples e al., 2007).
Di e en ly said, acco ding o El-Hussein and C onje (2010), mobile lea ning e e s o a leas h ee di e en
in e dependen dimensions: lea ne s‟ mobili y, lea ning and echnology. This las dimension s ill me i s some
poin s o a en ion. Conside ing he echnological aspec , wo main ad an ages o mobile lea ning a e usually
highligh ed in he li e a u e: on one side mobile de ices ha e a high po en ial o suppo non- o mal and in o mal
lea ning (Pachle , 2009) as well as wo kplace lea ning; on he o he side, in he pe spec i e o expe ien ial
lea ning app oaches, mobile de ices would suppo and p o ide di e en educa ional a o dances (Ki schne ,
2002) such as eal- ime in o ma ion e ie al and apid access o no e- o pho o- aking (Lai e al., 2007). Mobile
echnologies can hen be designed o bes suppo app en ices on he mo e, pa icula ly when lea ning happens in
mul iple lea ning loca ions. They mo e wi h he lea ne s, ac oss lea ning con ex s (space and ime), es ablishing
wi h hem an “indi idual” ela ionship as well as a “social” one, as lea ning con en becomes sha ed wi h o he
lea ne s and people in ol ed in he lea ning p ocess. Among o he s, Passey (2010) p oposes mobile echnologies
o be he ools o cap u e expe iences in a speci ic and i ing place so ha hey can in pa icula be sha ed wi h
o he s. Acco ding o he au ho , mobile de ices can in ac be use ul o lea ning by making wo dis inc i e
ac i i ies possible: (1) he cap u e o ideas o eal examples whe e and when hey a e gene a ed o obse ed; (2)
he sha ing o cap u ed wo k i ems wi h mo e knowledgeable people, p omo ing con e sa ion and discussion.
Once mo e, gi en ha he VET amewo k ea u es he s uc u al p esence o mul iple con ex s, mobile de ices
can ep esen a possible solu ion o b idge hose gaps exis ing among he lea ning loca ions and can con ibu e o
connec expe iences li ed in di e en loca ions. In ou s udy, mobile de ices allow app en ices o cap u e
expe iences in he place ( he wo kplace) whe e he p o essional p ocedu es eally ake place in o de o euse
hem in ano he lea ning loca ion ( he school).
Anyway, speaking abou he “social” po en iali ies o mobile de ices, he e is s ill an addi ional s ep o make.
Sha ples e al. (2008) sugges ha we should conside con e sa ion o be an essen ial cons uc o unde s anding
how mobile lea ning can be in eg a ed wi h con en ional educa ion. The echnology may en ich he en i onmen
in which con e sa ion akes place because i can p o ide new ools and de ices o collec da a, o build and es
models. I also p o ides new sha ed con e sa ional lea ning spaces, which can be used no only o single
lea ne s bu also o lea ning g oups and communi ies (Sha ples e al., 2007, 2008). The added alue o po able
de ices is ha hey gi e app en ices he chance o collec and exploi ma e ial which becomes a u he objec o
con e sa ion. Acco ding o he de ini ion o Sha ples e al., his means ha he app en ice can exploi he
ma e ials collec ed on he mo e (a he wo kplace especially) in a con e sa ion p ocess: (1) wi h he sel /himsel ,
o e lec ing on he /his p o essional p ac ices and mas e y acqui emen ; (2) wi h pee s and eache s a school, in
a ious lea ning ac i i ies buil a ound au hen ic p o essional si ua ions; and (3) wi h supe iso s and colleagues
a he wo kplace, whom she/he can con on and wi h whom she can moni o he /his lea ning p og ess. In his
way, mobile de ices can ac as eal ools o hinking, helping app en ices o b ing o school wha hey usually
li e ou side (e.g. he wo kplace) whe e hey spend he es o hei lea ning ime, and ice e sa, o b ing back o
he wo kplace he esul s o wha has been exploi ed a school. In his way we suppo a VET-speci ic and
sense-making use o mobile de ices, emb acing an app oach p oposed by Sha ples e al., who de ine mobile
lea ning „as he p ocess o coming o know h ough con e sa ions ac oss mul iple con ex s amongs people and
pe sonal in e ac i e echnologies‟ (Sha ples e al., 2007, p. 225).
1.3 Usabili y … in he La ge: he s a ing poin o pe o m e alua ion
Implemen ing mobile echnology in lea ning con ex s equi es us o e lec on how o app oach he e alua ion
o he s akeholde s in ol ed in he p ocess. Sha ples (2009, p. 22) sugges s h ee main aspec s in o de o
pe o m such an e alua ion: „1. usabili y (will i wo k?), (2) e ec i eness (is i enhancing lea ning?) and 3.
sa is ac ion (is i liked?)‟. In he p esen pape ou a en ion is mainly ocused on he i s o hese h ee elemen s,
which is he inescapable and p elimina y condi ion o he o he wo aspec s.
1.3.1 Usabili y and Accep ance: de ini ions and in e ac ions be ween he wo concep s
S ong links exis be ween he concep o usabili y and ha o accep ance. As a s a ing poin , we can conside : (1)
he easonable assump ion ha usabili y is „a p e equisi e o accep ance‟ (Holden & Rada, 2011, p. 343) and (2) he
ac ha usabili y ac o s will become p og essi ely dominan in he p ocesses o accep ance made by use s
(Shackel, 1991, 1999). In o he wo ds, i a echnology is no conside ed highly usable, i is unlikely ha i will be
accep ed by he use s; use accep ance is e y impo an as i ep esen s one o he c ucial ac o s o he di usions
o echnologies, al hough many echnologies pe cei ed as usable we e ne e accep ed by he use s (Dillon, 2001).
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Gi en hese assump ions, wo main ques ions a ise o ou discussion: (1) how o de ine usabili y? and (2) how
is usabili y ela ed o accep ance?
Conce ning he i s ques ion, he de ini ion o usabili y is nei he unique no clea in he li e a u e. In ISO
9241–11 (E gonomic Requi emen s o O ice Wo k wi h Visual Display Te minals; ISO, 1996), o ins ance,
usabili y is app oached in e ms o : (1) e iciency, esou ces expended in ela ion o he accu acy and
comple eness wi h which use s achie e goals; (2) e ec i eness, he accu acy and comple eness wi h which use s
achie e speci ied asks; and (3) sa is ac ion, a subjec i e measu e conce ning he com o and accep abili y o
use by end use s. Gi en ha he de ini ion by ISO 9241–11 has become he s anda d wi hin he “usabili y”
communi y, he model in oduced by Nielsen (1993) has been widely adop ed. He p oposes o explain usabili y
in e ms o he o e all accep abili y o a sys em h ough a model ocused on i s social and p ac ical accep abili y;
he elemen s o be conside ed in his espec a e ou : (1) e iciency, e e ing o expe use s only; (2)
lea nabili y, which is also di ec ly ela ed o e iciency; (3) memo abili y, mainly ela ed o casual use s; and (4)
e o s, which deals wi h hose e o s no co e ed by e iciency and which ha e mo e ca as ophic esul s. La e
on, Dix e al. (1998) p opose a model in which usabili y is based on h ee main componen s: lea nabili y,
lexibili y and obus ness; hey speci y ha hese concep s a e on he same abs ac ion le el and hey ocus mo e
on he conc e e elemen s ha in luence usabili y.
This i s and b ie analysis o he concep o usabili y al eady e eals a s ong o e lap wi h he concep o
accep ance. Gi en he ac ha usabili y eme ges as a s ong e e ence poin , i is c ucial o unde s and how i
can be ope a ionalised. Wi h his espec , i can be e y use ul o look a Ha son, who sugges s ha one should
e ol e owa ds he concep o usabili y in he la ge, de ined as „ease o use plus use ulness‟ (Ha son, 1998, p.
103). Ease o use is an impo an aspec o conside because a ool o an applica ion „pe cei ed o be easie o use
han ano he is mo e likely o be accep ed by use ‟ (Da is, 1989, p. 320). I includes such measu able a ibu es –
some o which a e al eady implici ly p esen in he p e iously ci ed de ini ion – as lea nabili y, speed o use ask
pe o mance, use e o a es, and subjec i e use sa is ac ion, as Hix and Ha son (1993) o Shneide man (1992)
p opose. Bu , acco ding o Ha son, ease o use is no enough because i does no ake in o accoun he
unc ionali y ha suppo s use s‟ needs. So, in his amewo k, use ulness plays a c ucial ole: i is „pe haps he
p ima y usabili y ac o , he ac o ha p o ides immedia e access and a o dance o he unc ionali y wi hou
ge ing in he way‟ (Ha son, 1998, p. 103). This is why, as al eady men ioned, in he p esen s udy we will ocus
bo h on he ease o use and he use ulness, which can be also app oached as indica o s o accep ance (§1.3.2).
Acco ding o his well-es ablished and expanded meaning, usabili y is hen he p elimina y condi ion which he
ac o s in ol ed (app en ices i s , in he p esen case) need o pe cei e in o de o la e use echnology ools in
hei con ex s. In he cu en pape , we will apply his concep o mobile de ices. Mobile usabili y can be
conside ed bo h an eme ging and a new and speci ic b anch wi hin he mo e gene al ield o usabili y, whe e i is
impo an o eally conside and unde s and all he ac o s ha de e mine he way people ope a e
(Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). We need o ake in o accoun he peculia i y o he mobile de ices we chose o
implemen in he VET con ex and ake in o conside a ion ha hey ha e he po en ial o in oduce inno a ion,
especially in he VET sys em in which his s udy akes place. In o de o p omo e a conc e e and eal
implemen a ion o a echnology, we need hen o de ine: (1) whe he he use o he de ices is easible in he
speci ic lea ning loca ions and (2) o e i y whe he and how he po able echnologies a e i ing ools o cap u e
expe iences a he wo kplace. In pa icula we conside ed he e wo di e en kinds o de ices: sma phones and
headband wea able came as. These wo de ices ha e been used o cap u e in a isual o m meaning ul aces o
p o essional si ua ions expe ienced a he wo kplace. Two co esponding ools we e hen included in he s udy:
an online en i onmen (called Mobile and Online Tool – MOT) o u he exploi he aw ma e ials (pic u es)
cap u ed h ough he sma phone and a hype ideo in e ace o exploi ing he ideos collec ed h ough he
headband came a. We gi e u he de ails on he speci ic p ocedu e in he co esponding sec ion (§2.1).
1.3.2 How o Measu e Usabili y in he La ge: ease o use and use ulness as indica o s o accep ance
Taking in o accoun , i s , he concep o usabili y in he la ge and i s main componen s (ease o use and
use ulness) and, second, he s ong in e ac ion, as shown be o e, be ween he concep s o usabili y and
accep ance, we could no a oid e ealing a e y well-g ounded and di used model called Technology
Accep ance Model (TAM) by Da is (1989), in which accep ance is conside ed o be composed o exac ly he
wo same main componen s: ease o use and use ulness.
Wi hin his pe spec i e, Da is (1989) de eloped and alida ed a scale ocused on he wo heo e ical cons uc s:
pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness. Pe cei ed ease o use e e s o „ he deg ee o which a pe son
belie es ha using a pa icula sys em would be ee o e o ‟ (Da is, 1989, p. 320). The idea is ha a ool which
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is pe cei ed as easie o use han ano he one has mo e chance o be accep ed by use s. Pe cei ed use ulness is
de ined as „ he deg ee o which a pe son belie es ha using a pa icula sys em would enhance his o he job
pe o mance‟ (Da is, 1989, p. 320). Da is‟s esea ch shows ha ease o use and use ulness measu es can explain
app oxima ely 50% o he a iance in accep ance. This i s model was hen u he de eloped (Venka esh &
Da is, 2000) wi h he speci ic aim o including complemen a y aspec s and a iables ela ed o he con ex o
use because echnologies a e no isola ed, bu embedded in wo king p ac ices, in speci ic con ex s and in
ne wo ks o social ela ionships. This e o inally b ough a u he e olu ion o he TAM in o he Uni ied
Theo y o Accep ance and Use o Technology model (UTAUT; Venka esh e al., 2003). This new model aised
he pe cen age o he explained a iance in usage in en ion o 70%. Fou key cons uc s play a signi ican ole in
his model as di ec ly in luencing and de e mining he use ‟s accep ance and usage beha io : (1) pe o mance
expec ancy (indi idual belie s o a ain gains in job pe o mance helped by using he sys em); (2) e o
expec ancy ( e y close o he Ease O Use scale in TAM model, i is he deg ee o ease o use o he sys em); (3)
social in luence (which desc ibes indi idual pe cep ion abou o he s belie ha she/he should use he sys em);
and (4) acili a ing condi ions (indi idual belie o conside o ganiza ional and echnical in as uc u es as
suppo s in using he sys em). Bu he model also includes mode a ing a iables, such as gende , age, expe ience,
and olun a iness o use, which a e posi ed o media e he impac o he ou key cons uc s as well as o he
aspec s such as a i udes owa d he use o echnology, beha io al in en ions, sel -e icacy o anxie y. A i ude
owa d using echnology is de ined as he indi idual‟s o e all a ec i e eac ion o using a sys em, and
beha io al in en ions a e de ined as he beha io adop ed in he subsequen ime pe iod (Venka esh e al., 2003).
Sel -e icacy and anxie y ha e been modeled as indi ec de e minan s o use in en ions, which a e ully media ed
by pe cei ed ease o use.
In he p esen s udy we chose o combine he wo ins umen s (TAM and UTAUT) in o de o gain e idence on
he wo main undamen al de e minan s o use s‟ accep ance (pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness) as
well as on he main con ex ual elemen s in luencing accep ance.
2. Me hod
2.1 Resea ch Ques ions, P ocedu es and Samples
The cu en s udy ecognizes an added alue o mobile de ices as a means o cap u e eal p o essional
expe iences om he wo kplace o la e use a school. Wi hin he gene al amewo k o he Dual-T p ojec ,
lea ning ac i i ies based on such cap u ed ma e ial we e o ganized and deli e ed in he class oom in o de o
a o p o essional knowledge de elopmen . Conside ing usabili y o mobile de ices o be he i s , p elimina y
and inescapable lea ning p ocess s ep, he p esen s udy deals wi h he ollowing wo esea ch ques ions:
a) A e mobile echnologies easy o use a he wo kplace?
b) A e mobile echnologies pe cei ed o be use ul as ools o aid e lec ion a school on wo kplace expe iences
and o os e he lea ning o p o essional knowledge?
In ou s udy we in ol ed h ee g oups o app en ices: (1) ca mechanics, (2) pas y cooks, and (3) cooks.
The headband use s (app en ice ca mechanics and cooks) wo e he came a, placed on hei own o ehead hanks
o a i ing band, in o de o eco d p o essional p ocedu es du ing hei daily ac i i ies a he wo kplace (see
Figu e 1). These de ices did no hinde he p og ess o hei usual job, hanks o hei small dimension and o
hei ligh ness, le ing hei hands ee wi hou obs uc ing hei body mo emen s.
Figu e 1. Use o headbands among ca mechanics and cooks
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170
The headbands we e a hei disposal, in he ga ages o he ki chens, o 1 o 4 weeks, du ing which hey we e
eques ed o eco d some ideo apes o hei p o essional ac i i ies. Choosing which p ocedu e o eco d could:
(1) be le o he app en ices‟ own disc e ion; (2) ollow a ecommenda ion om he app en ice‟s boss; and (3) be
sugges ed by he p o essional subjec eache , who could ask o collec some p ocedu es pa icula ly ele an o
he cu iculum (e.g. he adjus men o al es, he iming chain phasing, he o e hauling o he cooling sys em, in
he case o ca mechanics). The ideos we e b ough back o he eache who selec ed and edi ed he mos
meaning ul sequences (acco ding o him o he ) in a b ie clip (3 o 5 minu es, each one) o each opic. The
eache hen wo ked on he clips in o de o ealize se e al hype ideos (Chambel e al., 2004, 2006; Zahn e al.,
2004). Each ideo was hen o ganized in chap e s, and en iched wi h addi ional lea ning ma e ials ( ex s,
pic u es, schemes and audios) and asks (check and e ision ques ions, exe cises) o be easily app oached
h ough sui able ma ke s (ho spo s). These ideos we e hen in eg a ed in o a didac ical scena io a ound which
he eache o ches a ed a discussion wi h he whole class.
Each sma phone use (app en ice pas y cooks and cooks) ecei ed one pe sonal de ice o be used a he
wo kplace. They also we e ins uc ed on he use o a speci ic applica ion o index pic u es (PixelPipe), and
shown how o selec some o hese pic u es o build hei own ecipe book and o keep a lea ning jou nal
(Mau oux e al., 2013). We e e o his comple e sys em as he MOT. Using a p e-s uc u ed scheme p epa ed in
collabo a ion wi h he eache and p o essionals o he ield (see le side o Figu e 2), app en ices we e asked o
w i e and illus a e ecipes (by w i ing ex wi hin se e al ields – e.g. ing edien s, empe a u e, main s eps o he
ecipe, e c. – and a aching pic u es aken a he wo kplace, in o de o be e desc ibe and de ail he p ocedu es).
Fo each ecipe hey could de elop, in a linked page, hei e lec ions on he ac ion pe o med, he so-called
“lea ning jou nal” (see igh side o Figu e 2; No e 2). App en ices‟ e lec ions we e guided wi h h ee p omp s,
de i ed om he wo k o Kicken e al. (2009). They also had o egula ly sel -e alua e hei global le el o
mas e y o each ecipe and o w i e a summa y ea u ing he c ucial hings hey need o emembe when hey do
he ecipe. A space is le in he jou nal page o a commen o an e alua ion by he supe iso . A home page
allows he app en ices o keep an o e iew on he de elopmen o hei own p o essional compe ences.
Figu e 2. Recipe and lea ning jou nal in he MOT
Summa izing, he p esen s udy in ol es app en ices om h ee p o essions who expe ienced he use o mobile:
(1) he headband came a (and he ela ed ideos) o ca mechanics and cooks, and (2) he sma phone (and
ela ed MOT) by cooks and pas y cooks. In dep h, we aim a in es iga ing he usabili y o bo h de ices and
ela ed ools, ocusing on how he use s pe cei e he ease o use and also he use ulness o he mobile sys em
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a e ha ing had a chance o eally expe imen wi h i as pa o hei own aining.
Fo he expe imen s wi h headband came as, we in ol ed 19 app en ice ca mechanics (in hei second yea o
aining) and 8 cooks (in hei i s yea ) om wo di e en Voca ional Schools ( espec i ely Biasca and
T e ano); hey we e gi en a headband came a o be used o 1 o 4 weeks each, in u n. Conce ning he
sma phone, 15 app en ice pas y cooks (a whole second-yea class) om he Voca ional School o F ibou g as
well as app en ice 22 cooks (a whole i s yea class) om he Voca ional Cen e o T e ano ook pa in he
expe imen . An o e all iew o he sample is epo ed in Table 1.
Table 1. Dis ibu ion o he samples acco ding o p o essions and mobile de ices used
Sma phone use s
Headband use s
Pas y cooks
15
-
Cooks
22
8
Ca mechanics
-
19
Du ing implemen a ion o he sma phone ( om Janua y o July 2011), he class o cooks collec ed 349 ecipes,
e en hough wi h a conside able sca e (M=15.9, SD=17.8), and uploaded 1688 pic u es om hei own
expe iences o which 915 we e a ached o hei espec i e ecipes. The pas y cooks collec ed a o al o 534
ecipes (be ween Oc obe 2010 and July 2011), also wi h a conside able sca e (M=31.40, SD=31.80).
Among hose who used he headband came as, he app en ice ca mechanics collec ed a o al o 110 aw ideos
conce ning 34 di e en p o essional p ocedu es ( om Sep embe 2009 o July 2011) o a o al o 17 hou s and
42 minu es. The cooks collec ed 146 aw sequences ela ed o 18 di e en p o essional p ocedu es ( om Janua y
o July 2011) o a o al o 23 hou s and 53 minu es.
2.2 Da a Collec ion and Measu es
In o de o answe ou esea ch ques ions, we submi ed o all he pa icipan s a i e-sec ion ques ionnai e,
aiming a explo ing: (1) he o e all pe cei ed ease o use, (2) he lea nabili y, (3) he de ailed pe cei ed ease o
use, (4) he use ulness o he de ices, and inally (5) he use ulness o he ools (MOT and hype ideo).
The i s sec ion o he ques ionnai e ocused on pa icipan s‟ o e all pe cep ion o he ease o use o he wo
de ices; app en ices we e asked whe he hey ound hem eally easy o use o no and whe he hey needed
somebody o suppo hem du ing he use o he de ice a he wo kplace. Ques ions he e had o be answe ed by
choosing only one among h ee op ions (Easy o use; Easy, bu wi h suppo ; Di icul o use).
In he second sec ion, he use s‟ poin o iew on he lea nabili y o he de ice i sel was collec ed in a dedica ed
sec ion. Rega ding he headband, we asked app en ices i hey had aced di icul ies o: (1) swi ch he de ice on
and o ; (2) eco d ideo; (3) ame he de ice in he igh way; (4) wea he headband came a, including he
“case” and he bel on he head; (5) cha ge i ; and (6) i hey had aced any o he kind o di icul ies. Conce ning
he sma phone, we asked in o ma ion abou he oubles hey ound in: (1) aking pic u es using he came a
i ing in eg a ed in he de ice (a 3G iPhone model); (2) sending pic u es h ough he i ing applica ion; (3)
accessing he pic u e s o e on he pla o m; (4) dele ing pic u es; (5) associa ing pic u es and ecipes; and inally
(6) adding new ecipes. One can no ice ha in his la e case we could no comple ely sepa a e he use o he
de ice om he use o he ela ed ool because pic u es aken a e hen uploaded in he dedica ed en i onmen .
Fo his sec ion, he app en ices had o selec an op ion(s) om among he abo e ci ed op ions ha co esponded
o hei expe ience.
In he hi d sec ion, we submi ed he six i ems on pe cei ed ease o use o he TAM scale (on a 7-poin Like
scale, om –3, I don‟ ag ee a all, o +3, I ully ag ee) o all he app en ices o he sample (ca mechanics, cooks
and pas y cooks).
In he ou h sec ion, we submi ed i ems on he o e all use ulness o he de ices. We chose he UTAUT model,
in o de o also include u he con ex ual elemen s (No e 3). Also in his case he i ems we e based on he same
7-poin Like scale. On he one hand, we mainly conside ed he i ems on he key cons uc s o he model wi h a
di ec e ec on accep ance and use excluding he E o expec ancy dimension, which is al eady well conside ed
in he TAM: pe o mance expec ancy, social in luences and acili a ing condi ions. On he o he hand, ega ding
he indi ec cons uc s, we chose o use a leas one i em in o de o gua an ee o e all co e age o he alida ed
scale dimensions (see Table 2). In addi ion, a eliabili y analysis was conduc ed o he scales using C onbach‟s
Alpha: conside ing all he i ems o ou ques ionnai e, we go a good deg ee o eliabili y (α=.785).
Jou nal o Educa ion and T aining S udies Vol. 2, No. 1; 2014
172
Table 2. UTAUT i ems selec ed o build he i ing ques ionnai e
In he las sec ion, inally, we submi ed speci ic i ems aimed a in es iga ing whe he such a complex ool could
be use ul in mul iple con ex s (school, job o bo h). In de ail, conce ning he MOT, we conside ed he app en ices‟
poin o iew on: (1) he pe cei ed ease o use, by TAM (six i ems); (2) he choice o e ms o desc ibe i ,
h ough a se o eigh wo ds (see he Resul s sec ion); (3) he pe cei ed use ulness o lea ning. This was done
using an ad hoc co pus o i ems aimed a a be e unde s anding o how app en ices pe cei ed he use o he
MOT o lea ning aking in o accoun he lea ning loca ions whe e hey a e in eg a ed. Examples o i ems ela ed
o he MOT we e: “The sys em helps me o emembe wha I lea ned a he wo kplace”, “The sys em helps me o
iden i y he links be ween wha I ha e lea n a school and wha I ha e lea n a he wo kplace”, “The sys em
helps me o make links among di e en expe iences li ed a he wo kplace”. Fo his addi ional scale we go a
e y good deg ee o eliabili y (α=.951). In he case o headband came as, in o de o desc ibe he use ulness o
he hype ideo ool p oduced by he eache s o be used in class, we submi ed a se o se en speci ic i ems,
which also p o ed o ha e a good deg ee o eliabili y (α=.860). Examples o i ems ela ed o he hype ideo
we e: “I ind i use ul o he school”, “I ind i use ul o he wo kplace”, and “I allows me o sha e wha I
usually do a he wo kplace wi h my pee s”.
3. Resul s
3.1 O e all Ease o Use
Mos app en ices (see Table 3) ound he ools easy o use (sma phone use s=75.7%; headband use s=59.3%) o
a leas easily usable wi h somebody‟s suppo (sma phone use s=24.3%; headband use s=37.0%). Only one
app en ice (wi hin he cook g oup) conside ed he headband de ice di icul o use.
Table 3. Dis ibu ion o pa icipan s‟ answe s o he o e all ease o use ques ions
Dimension
UTAUT i ems wi h explici e e ences
Pe o mance expec ancy
1 ou o 4 i ems
I ind his sma phone/headband use ul in my job/ o ac i i ies a school.
A i udes owa ds using echnologies
4 ou o 4 i ems
I like wo king wi h he sma phone/headband.
Using he sma phone/headband is a good idea.
Using he sma phone/headband is un.
The sma phone/headband makes wo k mo e in e es ing.
Social in luence
3 ou o 4 i ems
People who in luence my beha io (chie , colleagues, and eache s) hink ha I
should use he sma phone/headband.
My boss encou aged me o use he sma phone/headband a he wo kplace/My
boss has been help ul in he use o he sys em.
My colleagues helped me o use he sma phone/headband.
Facili a ing condi ions
4 ou o 4 i ems
Sma phone/headband use obs uc ed my de elopmen a he wo kplace.
Sma phone/headband use is compa ible wi h daily li e aspec o he job.
I can use he sma phone/headband i I ha e an assis ance/guide a my disposal.
I can use he sma phone/headband i someone explains o me how o use i .
Sel -e icacy
1 ou o 4 i ems
I he e was no one a ound o ell me wha o do as I go I could use he
sma phone/headband.
Anxie y
1 ou o 4 i ems
I eel app ehensi e abou using he sma phone/headband.
Beha io al in en ion o use he sys em
1 ou o 4 i ems
I in end o use he sma phone/headband (i I ha e i a my disposal).
Sma phone
Headband
To
(37)
Cooks
(22)
Pas y cooks
(15)
To
(27)
Ca mechanics (19)
Cooks
(8)
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Easy o use
28
75.7
17
77.3
11
73.3
16
59.3
13
68.4
3
37.5
Easy, bu wi h suppo
9
24.3
5
22.7
4
26.7
10
37.0
6
31.6
4
50.0
Di icul o use
0
0.0
0
0
0
0
1
3.7
0
0
1
12.5
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3.2 Lea nabili y o Mobile De ices
Resul s ega ding he speci ic ope a ions o be pe o med, and he likelihood o expe iencing di icul ies doing
hem, a e gi en in Table 4. I can be seen ha app en ices seldom men ioned di icul ies. Conce ning he
sma phone and he MOT, he mos o en admi ed di icul y conce ned associa ing pic u es wi h ecipes (27.0%
and e en 40.9% o he cooks men ioned i ) and uploading he pic u es o he pla o m (18.9% and 33.3%
men ions among pas y cooks. As ega ds he headband came as, almos hal o he ca mechanics men ioned
ha ing expe ienced no di icul y a all (47.4%) bu none o he cooks sha ed his imp ession. Bo h p o essions
aced some ouble in aming he came a (50.0% o cooks and 42.1% o ca mechanics), a ask which eques s
accu acy and p ecision a he beginning o he eco ding, and o a lesse ex en , in cha ging he sys em (18.5%
and 25.0% cooks app en ices).
Table 4. Numbe and pe cen ages o pa icipan s men ioning ha ing had di icul ies wi h gi en ea u es o he ools
3.3 Pe cei ed Ease o Use o he Two Mobile De ices
In o de o e alua e he pe cei ed ease o use, we submi ed he whole TAM scale (six i ems, se en-poin
Like -scale, om –3 o +3). Taking in o accoun all he da a collec ed, bo h headband came as and sma phones
seem o be well conside ed by app en ices. Compa ing ca mechanics and cooks headband use s, no signi ican
di e ences eme ge and hei e alua ions a e qui e high (Mca mechanics=2.02, SDca mechanics=.68; Mcooks=2.15,
SDcooks=.60). I we compa e he cooks and pas y cooks sma phone use s, he sco es a e s ill qui e high, bu
lowe han hose o he headband use s (Mcooks=1.76, SDcooks=1.38; Mpas y cooks=1.78, SDpas y cooks=1.20).
Conside ing all he cooks, as you can see, he e a e no signi ican di e ences be ween sma phone and headband
use s (Mcooks sma phone=1.76, SDcooks sma phone=1.38; Mcooks headband=2.15, SDcooks headband=.60).
In sum, no signi ican di e ences appea nei he be ween he wo de ices wi hin a same p o ession (headband s
sma phone cook use s), no be ween di e en p o essions wi h espec o he same de ice (ca mechanics s
cooks o headbands; cooks s pas y cooks o sma phones), no be ween all he headband use s (ca mechanics
and cooks) and he sma phone use s (cooks and pas y cooks).
3.4 Use ulness o Mobile De ices
Da a collec ed h ough he selec ion o UTAUT i ems (Table 2) show signi ican di e ences among he headband
use s (cooks=8; ca mechanics=19) conce ning wo main dimensions, whe e he cooks had mo e posi i e
pe cep ions han he ca mechanics: pe o mance expec ancy (T es : (25)=-3.60, p< .05, = 0.58) and a i ude
owa ds echnology (T es : (25)=–3.26, p<0.05, =.55). No signi ican di e ences appea ed on any o he
emaining i e dimensions conside ed by he model. A a mo e desc ip i e le el, we can no ice (see Table 5) ha
he means conce ning he app en ice cooks a e always sligh ly highe han hose o he ca mechanics. Among
he sma phone use s an analogous di e ence eme ges be ween p o essions. Again, he cooks (M=2.00; SD=1.57)
sha e a signi ican ly highe pe cep ion conce ning pe o mance expec ancy (T es : (32)=2.97, p<0.05, =.46)
han do he pas y cooks (M=.25; SD=1.76), he same dimension whe e he cooks al eady su passed he ca
mechanics when hey we e wea ing a headband came a. No o he dimension om he UTAUT model shows
u he signi ican di e ences among sma phone use s. Resul s on he Anxie y dimension a e also consis en
wi h his iew, as hey con i m ha using hese de ices a he wo kplace is no associa ed wi h an inc ease in
anxie y; app en ice cooks e en show a e y low alue on his dimension, al hough wi h an impo an sca e
be ween hem (M=–1.05; SD=2.06).
Sma phone
To
Cooks
Pas y
cooks
Headband
To
Cooks
Ca
mechanics
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Taking pic u es
1
2.7
0
0.0
1
6.7
Swi ching
on-o
1
3.7
1
12.5
0
0.0
Uploading pic u es
7
18.9
2
9.1
5
33.3
Reco ding
3
11.1
2
25.0
1
5.3
Accessing pic u es online
6
16.2
5
22.7
1
6.7
F aming
12
44.4
4
50.0
8
42.1
Dele ing pic u es
4
10.8
3
13.6
1
6.7
Wea ing
3
11.1
1
12.5
2
10.5
Associa ing pic u es- ecipes
10
27.0
9
40.9
1
6.7
Cha ging
5
18.5
2
25.0
3
15.8
Adding new ecipes
2
5.4
2
9.1
0
0.0
No di icul ies
9
33.3
0
0.0
9
47.4
