Empowering sustainability assessment of energy storage

Empowe ing sus ainabili y assessmen o ene gy
s o age
Hüseyin E soy, *
aj
Manuel Baumann,
a
Me e E akca,
a
F ied ich Jaspe ,
a
Ma co Fe a o,
b
Vie a Pechanco ´
a,
c
Pa ick S uhm,
a
Mau izio Cellu a,
d
Sonia Longo,
d
Man edi Piccio o Maniscalco,
b
Roland Hischie ,
e
Chia a Bus o,
Alessand a Tacca,
Sebas ian Dickle ,
g
Pe a Zapp,
h
Ch is ina Wul ,
h
Yolanda Lechon,
i
Ma ina Haase,
a
Ma cel Weil,
a
Tom´
as B. Ramos
j
and S e ano Passe ini
k
Ene gy s o age (ES) plays a i al ole in deca bonizing ene gy sys ems, ye i s sus ainabili y implica ions
emain c i ical du ing i s apid deploymen ac oss mobile and s a iona y applica ions. This s udy p esen s
he fi s sys ema ic li e a u e e iew ocused on he assessmen me hods applied o ES sys ems in he
sus ainabili y con ex , by analyzing 205 pee - e iewed s udies om he pas fi e yea s. The e iew
iden ifies Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) and Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) as he mos commonly
employed me hods, wi h a s ong echnological ocus on hyd ogen-based sys ems and ba e ies. In
con as , a limi ed numbe o s udies conside social aspec s in he sus ainabili y con ex . An inc easing
end owa d in eg a ed economic and en i onmen al assessmen s is obse ed, hough hei cohe ence
is o en limi ed due o he absence o a s anda dized me hodological amewo k. Mos s udies apply
na ow sys em bounda ies, equen ly omi ing c i ical li e cycle s ages such as he use phase and end-
o -li e. This pape p o ides a me hodological o e iew o applied app oaches, summa izes key indica o s
and gaps, and offe s ecommenda ions o enhance he comp ehensi eness o ES sus ainabili y
assessmen s. Addi ionally, a ge ed sugges ions a e deli e ed o p ac i ione s, me hod de elope s and
policy ac o s o imp o e he quali y and applicabili y o u u e assessmen p ac ices.
1. In oduc ion
The ene gy ansi ion necessi a es widesp ead deploymen o
enewable ene gy a all scales o achie e clima e neu ali y and
suppo sus ainable de elopmen . By 2050, wind and sola PV a e
p ojec ed o supply app oxima ely 70% o global elec ici y
gene a ion, aising he o e all sha e o enewables o abou 90%
in he In e na ional Ene gy Agency's (IEAindex: IEA : In e na-
ional Ene gy Agency?>) Ne -Ze o Emissions by 2050 (NZE)
scena io.
1
Al hough he NZE oadmap was designed o align wi h
limi ing he global mean empe a u e inc ease o 1.5 °C –an
ou come now widely ega ded as highly ambi ious gi en cu en
ends –i con inues o se e as an au ho i a i e e e ence o
echnical benchma king, highligh ing he scale o he equi ed
ans o ma ion. No wi hs anding, an ene gy sys em la gely
dependen on uc ua ing enewables like PV and wind powe
equi es exibiliza ion op ions o balance supply and demand.
The expansion o ene gy s o age (ES) capaci ies is expec ed o
play a key ole in mee ing his need, le e aging bo h con en ional
and eme ging ES echnologies o ensu e g id s abili y and sys em
eliabili y. Consequen ly, he NZE scena io p ojec s a signican
global amp-up in ES deploymen un il 2050.
2
Pumped hyd o s o age (PHSindex: PHS : Pumped Hyd o
S o age?>) as a con en ional la ge-scale ES al e na i e has he
highes sha e o he o al global ins alled s o age capaci y,
eaching 181 GW in 2023, whe e he ba e y ene gy s o age
(BESindex: BES : Ba e y Ene gy S o age?>) shows a apid
inc ease in capaci y addi ions eaching app oxima ely 85 GW
a
Ins i u e o Technology Assessmen and Sys ems Analysis (ITAS), Ka ls uhe Ins i u e
o Technology (KIT), Ka ls uhe, Ge many. E-mail: hueseyin.e soy@ki .edu
b
Consiglio Nazionale delle Rice che –Ins i u e o Ad anced Ene gy Technologies
“Nicola Gio dano”(CNR-ITAE), Messina, I aly
c
Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zl´
ın (TBU), Zl´
ın, Czechia
d
Uni e si y o Pale mo, Pale mo, I aly
e
Empa - Swiss Fede al Labo a o ies o Ma e ials Science and Technology, S . Gallen,
Swi ze land
ENI S.p.A., I aly
g
Ins i u NOWUM-Ene gy, Fachhochschule Aachen, Aachen, Ge many
h
Juelich Sys ems Analysis (ICE-2), Fo schungszen um Jülich GmbH (FZJ), Jülich,
Ge many
i
Cen o de In es igaciones Ene g´
e icas, Medioambien ales y Tecnol´
ogicas (CIEMAT),
Spain
j
CENSE –Cen e o En i onmen al and Sus ainabili y Resea ch, CHANGE –Global
Change and Sus ainabili y Ins i u e, NOVA School o Science and Technology, NOVA
Uni e si y, Lisbon, Po ugal
k
Cen e o T anspo Technologies, Aus ian Ins i u e o Technology (AIT), Vienna,
Aus ia
Ci e his: Sus ainable Ene gy Fuels,
2025, 9,5749
Recei ed 26 h May 2025
Accep ed 11 h Sep embe 2025
DOI: 10.1039/d5se00750j
sc.li/sus ainable-ene gy
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Ene gy & Fuels
REVIEW
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capaci y.
2
The NZE scena io o ecas s a global BES capaci y
demand o 3–5 TW by 2050, including elec ic ehicles, u ili y-
scale ba e ies and behind- he-me e applica ions.
3
In
con as , hyd ogen-based s o age using elec olyze s emains in
i s ea ly s ages, p o iding 4 M H
2
wi h limi ed adop ion o da e.
Howe e , a subs an ial inc ease in low-ca bon hyd ogen
p oduc ion ( h ough elec olysis and ossil uels wi h ca bon
cap u e use and s o age (CCUS)) is p ojec ed in he NZE
scena io o supply 70 M H
2
by 2030, mainly suppo ing he
demand o he ha d- o-aba e indus y and hyd ogen-based uel
p oduc ion, as well as powe gene a ion.
1
These de elopmen s
unde sco e he c i ical ole o ES echnologies in acili a ing
a global ene gy ansi ion. Howe e , he scale o adop ion,
pa icula ly o BES and hyd ogen s o age, aises conce ns
ega ding cos s, supply chain cons ain s, esou ce a ailabili y,
and en i onmen al and social impac s.
4–6
Thus, unce ain ies
and isks associa ed wi h he long- e m sus ainabili y o hese
echnologies emain un esol ed.
Add essing hese challenges equi es comp ehensi e
knowledge gene a ion o he sus ainabili y aspec s o ES ech-
nologies o in o m decision-making and p omo e hei
esponsible in eg a ion. Gi en ha sus ainabili y is a mul i ac-
e ed challenge, i is necessa y o e alua e i s economic, en i-
onmen al and social dimensions in a sys ema ic and
anspa en way. This emphasizes he need o obus assess-
men me hods ha p o ide eliable in o ma ion o an icipa e
he long- e m impac s o decisions made oday.
7
Exis ing
sus ainabili y assessmen app oaches ha e been c i icized o
hei me hodological limi a ions, da a a ailabili y and quali y,
as well as hei con ex ual adap abili y and compa abili y, all o
which impac hei effec i eness in guiding decision-making.
8,9
While cu en me hods o e alua ing he sus ainabili y aspec s
o ES echnologies ha e no able limi a ions, hey emain he
p ima y ools a ailable o p o iding aluable insigh s. Gi en
he g owing signicance o hese echnologies and hei apid
la ge-scale adop ion, such e alua ion has become mo e c i ical
han e e .
This s udy seeks o p esen an o e iew o he me hodologies
employed in he sus ainabili y assessmen o ES echnologies,
wi h a ocus on he economic, en i onmen al and social
dimensions o sus ainabili y, in o de o obse e he me hods
used and how hey a e applied in p ac ice. Hence, a sys ema ic
e iew was conduc ed o analyze published pee - e iewed
li e a u e om he pas  e yea s in e ms o me hods, ech-
nological scope, impac dimensions, and indica o s. The
collec ed in o ma ion om he s udies is used as a basis o
suppo discussion in e ms o s a e-o - he-a assessmen
me hods, iden ied esea ch gaps, me hodological ecom-
menda ions and he capaci y o he me hods o add ess he
sus ainabili y o ES as a whole.
The ndings offe aluable insigh s o esea che s, indus y
s akeholde s and policymake s, suppo ing in o med decision-
making and os e ing c oss-disciplina y dialogue on ES
sus ainabili y issues. By iden i ying bo h s eng hs and limi a-
ions o cu en assessmen p ac ices, his e iew con ibu es o
he ongoing de elopmen o mo e effec i e and holis ic
sus ainabili y e alua ion amewo ks o ES echnologies.
2. Me hodology
To ensu e a sys ema ic and comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew o
sus ainabili y assessmen me hods o ES, he ollowing sea ch
s a egy was employed o iden i y ele an s udies. The sea ch
was conduc ed using Lens Schola ly†, an academic da abase
ha indexes pee - e iewed jou nal a icles, con e ence
p oceedings and o he schola ly publica ions. The ollowing
Boolean sea ch s ing was used o e ie e ele an s udies:
Ti le: (“sus ainabili y assessmen ”OR “sus ainabili y e alu-
a ion”OR “li e cycle”AND (en i onmen al OR economic OR
social OR “public accep ance”)) AND (“ene gy s o age”OR
“ba e y”OR “hyd ogen”OR “ammonia”OR “ he mal ene gy
s o age”) AND yea _published: (2019 OR 2020 OR 2021 OR 2022
OR 2023 OR 2024).
The e ms “sus ainabili y assessmen ”OR “sus ainabili y
e alua ion”we e included in he i le sea ch o cap u e s udies
ocusing on assessmen me hods. The addi ion o “li e cycle”
ensu ed he inclusion o assessmen s employing li e cycle
hinking, as his app oach is used equen ly o sus ainabili y
assessmen s. The ph ases (en i onmen al OR economic OR
social OR “public accep ance”) we e inco po a ed in o he
sea ch s ing o ensu e ha s udies add essing a leas one o
he h ee pilla s o sus ainabili y we e cap u ed. In his con ex ,
“public accep ance”is conside ed as a sub-aspec o he social
dimension, since some s udies add ess accep ance wi hou
explici ly aming i as a social c i e ion. The e ms (“ene gy
s o age”OR “ba e y”OR “hyd ogen”OR “ammonia”OR
“ he mal ene gy s o age”) aimed o se he echnological scope
o he assessmen s. Specic e ms such as ba e y, hyd ogen o
ammonia we e included, since in many s udies hey a e no
combined wi h he keywo d “ene gy s o age”. Since he s udy
aims o p o ide an o e iew o he assessmen landscape, he
l e on he ime ame co e ed he las  e yea s (2019–2024) o
cap u e ecen ad ancemen s and up- o-da e me hods in
sus ainabili y assessmen o ES.
The ini ial sea ch que y e u ned 424 s udies, which we e
subjec ed o a mul i-s age l e ing p ocess conside ing he
inclusion o exclusion c i e ia. The main inclusion c i e ion was
ha he s udy employs an assessmen me hod o he sus ain-
abili y e alua ion o ES echnologies only on a leas one
sus ainabili y dimension. Fi s , a manual e iew o i le and
abs ac was done based on he gi en c i e ia. Ae his
enemen he numbe o collec ed s udies was educed o 205
ia exclusion o i ele an s udies, non-pee e iewed s udies
and duplica es. Fu he p ocessing and da a ex ac ion we e
conduc ed wi h he assis ance o a icial in elligence, using
a cus om- ained GPT model, which was de eloped on he basis
o Cha GPT. Using he model ollowing p edened a ibu es
we e ex ac ed om s udies, and double-checked o ensu e
consis ency and accu acy:
†The Lens schola ly wo ks Me aReco ds include he ollowing p ima y da a
sou ces: C oss e , PubMed, OpenAlex and Mic osoAcademic (discon inued),
wi h SI da a om addi ional da a sou ces including Unpaywall, OpenCi a ions,
DOAJ, ORCID, ROR, PMC and publishe s such as Sp inge Na u e.
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Main echnological ca ego y (e.g., elec ochemical, chem-
ical, he mal ene gy s o age),
Assessed echnology (e.g., Li-ion ba e y, hyd ogen,
ammonia, comp essed ai ene gy s o age),
Assessed sus ainabili y dimensions iden i ying he
p ima y, seconda y, and e ia y ocus on economic, en i on-
men al, o social assessmen s,
Applied assessmen me hods,
Assessed sys em bounda ies and chosen indica o s.
All ex ac ed in o ma ion was sys emically o ganized, and
inconsis encies we e esol ed h ough i e a i e enemen s, o
ins ance unica ion o indica o o impac ca ego y e mi-
nology. Fo anspa ency easons, he aw and ened collec-
ion, and ex ac ed da a is p o ided in he SI.
3. Ene gy s o age wi hin
a ansi ioning global ene gy sys em
A sus ainable ene gy ansi ion equi es measu es on bo h he
supply and demand sides. The widesp ead oll ou o enew-
ables can be conside ed as he mos undamen al s ep o his
ansi ion, inc easing he sha e o wind and sola powe
gene a ion. Howe e , hei uc ua ing gene a ion cha ac e is-
ics can cause misma ches be ween demand and supply, which
mus be in balance a any ime o gua an ee sa e ene gy p o i-
sion. Imbalances mus be ackled by exibili y capabili ies a
diffe en le els in o de o a oid supply secu i y and eliabili y
issues.
ES echnologies a e one o he exibili y op ions ha can
mi iga e such misma ches by imely decoupling o demand and
supply. Fu he mo e, he phase-ou o ossil-based exibiliza-
ion op ions (e.g., na u al gas, coal, oil e c.) unde pins he
po en ial o ES o g an he equi ed exibili y. Since he exi-
bili y equi emen s o a ious se ices dic a e diffe en ech-
nical ea u es, a ailable and eme ging ES echnological
al e na i es need o be econside ed o enhancing sus ain-
abili y while ensu ing he se ice- ela ed echnical c i e ia.
Hence, one canno iden i y a single echnology ha can ull
he equi emen s o all applica ions, bu a he a mix u e o
complemen a y echnologies is needed. Fig. 1 p o ides
a concise echnical o e iew o con en ional and eme ging ES
echnologies based on he classica ions and acili ies lis ed in
he Da abase o he Eu opean S o age Technologies and Facil-
i ies.
10
The o e iew includes echnologies ha a e ca aloged,
ope a ional, o unde de elopmen , e e ing o hei echnical
ea u es, applica ion elds and co esponding ene gy sys em
ac o s. The echnical ea u es, p ojec applica ion elds and
se ices p esen ed a e ela ed o he ma u i y o he echnology,
hence o imma u e echnologies p ojec ions a e inco po a ed
o he bes knowledge o au ho s. In e ms o applica ion elds,
egional de ia ions migh occu due o diffe ences in he
ma ke s uc u e and alue ecogni ion o ES se ices.
As indica ed in Fig. 1, ES echnologies demons a e dis inc
ea u es (e.g., eac ion ime, cha ge/discha ge p ole, o ene gy-
o-powe a io) enabling hem o p o ide se ices on all le els o
he ene gy sys em, including gene a ion, ansmission, and
dis ibu ion.
10,11
PHS (bo h off- i e and open-loop) is a long-
s anding o m o mechanical ES, and emains he p ima y, cos -
efficien and eliable non- ossil exibili y op ion. Toge he wi h
Comp essed/Liquied Ai Ene gy S o age (CAES o LAES), hese
mechanical ES sys ems will con inue o p o ide se ices o he
mi iga ion o sho - and mid- e m (i.e., hou s o days) supply
deci s, including gene a ion suppo and bulk s o age, ans-
mission and dis ibu ion se ices as well as ancilla y se ices
whe e high-ene gy and high-powe capaci ies a e equi ed.
11,12
The main challenge o expanding he capaci y o hese ech-
nologies beyond echno-economics is associa ed wi h ecological
and geog aphical cons ain s, as well as social accep ance
limi ing hei use.
13
Chemical ES echnologies, such as Powe - o-Hyd ogen
(P2Hindex: P2H : Powe - o-Hyd ogen?>), Powe - o-Ammonia
(P2Aindex: P2A : Powe - o-Ammonia?>), and Powe - o-
Me hane (P2Mindex: P2M : Powe - o-Mehane?>), a e consid-
e ed p omising due o hei high g a ime ic ene gy densi y
(hyd ogen z120 MJ kg
−1
, ammonia z18.6 MJ kg
−1
, me hane
z50 MJ kg
−1
; lowe hea ing alues), hei abili y o s o e ene gy
o e long du a ions (weeks o mon hs), and hei ease o
anspo abili y
14
mainly in he Powe - o-X con ex . Powe - o-X
echnologies aim o con e excess enewable elec ici y in o
s o able and anspo able chemicals and ene gy ca ie s.
Hence, besides hei ole in he deca boniza ion o he ha d- o-
aba e indus ial sec o s (e.g., s eelmaking, chemicals) hese
echnologies a e expec ed o p o ide addi ional exibili y o he
ene gy sys em by p o iding mid- o long- e m ES se ices due o
hei la ge s o age capaci ies, exibili y, and scalabili y.
15
The
main key pe o mance indica o s (KPIs) hinde ing wide adop-
ion o chemical ES applica ions can be named as high cos s
(bo h uel p oduc ion and u iliza ion in as uc u e and
p oduced uel cos ), as well as low ound- ip con e sion effi-
ciencies (20–40%).
16
Besides elec ici y s o age, hese chemical
ES sys ems may also help o mee u u e demand o uels used
in hea applica ions, pa icula ly as con e sion echnologies
ad ance such combined hea and powe engines o hyd ogen.
In his way, hey can subs i u e con en ional uels in sec o s
whe e elec ica ion is no possible o easible.
Elec ochemical ES echnologies include a wide ange o
solid-s a e, ow, and semi-solid sys ems, ca ego ized acco ding
o he physical s a e o he eac an s. Wi hin solid-s a e sys ems,
Li-ion and lead-acid ba e ies a e he mos common, ollowed
by Na-ion ba e ies as an eme ging p omising al e na i e.
17
Flow
sys ems encompass se e al echnologies such as anadium
edox-ow (VRFB), zinc–b omine and i on–ch omium ba e ies,
wi h VRFBs cu en ly appea ing o be mos p omising due o
hei la ge p ac ical ene gy and powe capaci ies. Me al-ai
ba e ies (e.g., Li-ai , Zn-ai ) ep esen ano he elec ochemical
al e na i e, al hough in e ms o ma ke eadiness hey emain
among he leas ad anced echnologies, wi h echnological
eadiness le els ypically in he ange o 3–4. In gene al,
ba e ies a e conside ed o be less sui able o long s o age
du a ions, mainly due o sel -discha ge losses and economic
easibili y. Howe e , la ge-scale Li-ion ba e y ES applica ions
a e being inc easingly deployed ac oss he globe. The la ge-
scale deploymen is mainly d i en by hei apid eac ion
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imes, high con e sion efficiencies (∼90%), scalabili y, and
declining cos s, making hem highly sui able o discha ge
du a ions anging om minu es up o a ound 10 hou s in
s a iona y applica ions. They can be si ua ed bo h in g id and
cus ome ene gy managemen applica ions encompassing
a wide ange o se ices.
18
Elec ical ES echnologies, such as Supe conduc ing
Magne ic Ene gy S o age (SMES) and Supe capaci o s (SC), offe
possibili ies o ansmission applica ions due o hei quick
esponse ime (i.e., milliseconds) and high powe densi y (i.e.,
SC =510–3300 W kg
−1
whe eas Li-ion =250–340 W kg
−1
),
19
suppo ing main enance o powe quali y.
20
No ing ha SCs a e
conside ed bo h as an elec ochemical and elec ical ES ech-
nology, hey a e eme ging o use pa icula ly in ansmission
g id se ices whe e e y high powe densi y is equi ed o e y
sho du a ions. SMES p o es simila echnical cha ac e is ics
bu has a limi ed applica ion o p o iding ancilla y and
cus ome ene gy managemen se ices, since he high cos
associa ed wi h he cooling effo s emain a d awback.
21
The mal ES (TES) echnologies, which a e oen conside ed
among he oldes o ms o ene gy s o age, include sensible,
la en , and he mochemical hea s o age. They can be applied
ac oss mul iple scales – om indus ial p ocesses o p i a e
end-use s – o he supply o he mal loads as well elec ici y
gene a ion in concen a ed sola powe (CSP) sys ems. TES
sys ems a e p o en o effec i ely s o e hea wi h efficiencies up
o 90%. Howe e , he equi ed s o age du a ion and cha ac-
e is ics o he hea sou ce a e c i ical ac o s when choosing he
Fig. 1 Technical p ope ies and se ice applica ions o ene gy s o age echnologies. Ac o s indica ed in b acke s indica e ha se ice can be
pa ly p o ided/benefi ed by he named p o ide /beneficia y. (Based on da a adap ed om e . 10 (CC BY 4.0)).
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ype o s o age media and con e sion pa h, since hea losses
show a la ge a ie y based on sensible, la en and he mo-
chemical me hods. Sensible TES is widely deployed as he mos
con en ional app oach, pa icula ly using mol en sal s as he
s o age medium in CSP plan s. La en hea s o age wi h Phase
Changing Ma e ials (PCMs) is an inc easingly p omising op ion
offe ing highe hea capaci y and lowe he mal losses. PCMs
a e now oen applied ei he in combina ion wi h mol en sal s
o as hyb id laye s in CSP sys ems. Besides ma u e PCMs (sal
hyd a e o pa affins), many new ma e ials and sys ems a e
unde de elopmen .
19
Fu he mo e, hese echnologies offe
po en ial o c oss-sec o al ES se ices in a Powe - o-Hea
con ex (elec ici y, hea ing and cooling), depending on he
equi ed ope a ional empe a u e ange.
22
Beyond he indi idual use o he diffe en s o age echnol-
ogies, he e is inc eased explo a ion o hyb id ES concep s, wi h
he expec a ions ha he limi a ions o one ES echnology a e
compensa ed by ano he (e.g., a combina ion o he ex ended
li espan and low cos o VRFBindex: VRFB : Vanadium Redox
Flow Ba e y?> wi h he apid esponse and high ene gy densi y
o Li-ion ba e ies).
23
Such hyb id ES echnologies migh help o
expand he ange o se ices offe ed (i.e., se ice s acking) ia
imp o ed pe o mance.
24
In summa y, ES echnological choices necessi a e ho ough
conside a ion o echnological ea u es and he pe o mance o
al e na i es which ulll he equi emen s o he se ices wi hin
a ce ain applica ion. Hence, a single echnology-cen e ed
discussion is no use ul, and diffe en s o age echnologies
complemen each o he in he ene gy sys em. The b ie ech-
nical o e iew o he ES sys ems p o ided he e should se e o
build he links be ween he echnological- and applica ion-
ela ed aspec s and sus ainabili y.
4. Sus ainabili y assessmen o ene gy
s o age
Sus ainabili y assessmen s p o ide a c i ical ounda ion o
a gumen s in ES decision-making. Thei ou comes ha e he
po en ial o inuence discussions on echnological ad ance-
men s, in es men s a egies and policymaking. Howe e , he
effec i eness o sus ainabili y assessmen s can only be ensu ed
i hey a e conduc ed comp ehensi ely and p oduce obus and
eliable esul s. Despi e hei signicance, sus ainabili y
assessmen s cu en ly lack a s anda dized amewo k wi h
clea ly dened ules and assessmen p ocedu es. To some
ex en his is ela ed o he indi idual design equi emen s o
assessmen s in hei specic con ex , which includes ES
assessmen s. Se e al key p inciples ha e been de eloped o
guide assessmen p ocesses, and ensu e ha assessmen s ull
hei ole. These key p inciples a e ou lined as a guiding ision,
essen ial conside a ions, adequa e scope, a well-s uc u ed
amewo k wi h measu able indica o s, anspa ency, effec i e
communica ion, con inui y and capaci y, and ac i e s ake-
holde pa icipa ion, which a e explained b iey in he
ollowing.
25
A guiding ision e e s o a long- e m s a egic amewo k
ha denes o e a ching goals, p inciples and desi ed ou comes
se ing as a no ma i e e e ence poin , such as he UN
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, o he ene gy ansi ion in he
ES con ex . Fig. 2 p esen s an o e iew o ES echnologies and
hei ole in he ene gy sys em, linking ene gy supply, ene gy
demand, and sus ainabili y assessmen app oaches consid-
e ing ene gy ansi ion as a guiding ision.
Se ing a guiding ision enables he deni ion o essen ial
conside a ions, such as gene a ion/demand ela ion, pe o -
mance c i e ia, applica ion equi emen s, a ailable al e na i es
and hei echnical ea u es, bu also deli e s ans e able
in e ences abou economic, en i onmen al and social sys em
componen s and hei in e dependencies, as illus a ed in
Fig. 2. Fu he mo e, he links be ween he echnical and
sus ainabili y sphe es need o be buil ia conside a ion o
cu en ends, d i e s o change, isks, and unce ain ies and
ac i i ies which migh cause c oss-bounda y impac s. The scope
o ES sus ainabili y assessmen s should desc ibe how bo h
sho - and long- e m effec s o he decisions will be add essed
conside ing spa ial ac o s in he local and global con ex .
Fu he mo e, a concep ual amewo k needs o be adop ed o
de eloped which inco po a es and links he a o emen ioned
aspec s, which will hen allow iden ica ion o indica o s, da a
managemen s a egy, scena io de elopmen and models. The
mos commonly used concep ual amewo ks a e T iple Bo om
Line (TBL), UN Sus ainabili y De elopmen Goals (SDGs), Li e
Cycle Sus ainabili y Assessmen (LCSA), Global Repo ing
Ini ia i e (GRI) Sus ainabili y Repo ing F amewo k, En i on-
men al, Social and Go e nance (ESG) Disclosu e F amewo ks
(e.g., Sus ainabili y Accoun ing S anda ds Boa ds, In eg a ed
Repo ing F amewo k), Sus ainabili y Balanced Sco eca d,
En i onmen al and Social Impac Assessmen (EIA/SIA) as well
as D i e s-P essu e-S a e-Impac -Response (DPSIR).
26–32
A
compa a i e o e iew o he mos widely applied sus ainabili y
concep ual amewo ks is p o ided in Table 1, highligh ing
hei dis inc i e ocus, scope, and applica ion wi h illus a i e
examples in he con ex o ene gy s o age sys ems and
echnologies.
The amewo ks diffe om one ano he based on he goal
and scope o he assessmen . Fo ins ance, LCSA quan ies
impac s h oughou a p oduc 's li e ime, while EIA/SIA in eg a e
sus ainabili y conside a ions in o p ojec planning, and GRI o
ESG amewo ks s i e o s a egic alignmen and anspa ency
in he co po a e wo ld. Fo ES sus ainabili y assessmen s he
concep ual amewo ks should p o ide guidance o iden i ying
co e indica o s, a ge alues and benchma ks, as well as da a
managemen s a egies including he iden ica ion o eliable
da a sou ces and collec ion me hods. T anspa ency and effec-
i e communica ion a e con inuous companions o sus ain-
abili y assessmen s o bo h he use s o he esul s and affec ed
s akeholde s. The s akeholde s mus be in ol ed in bo h
assessmen s udy de elopmen and in e p e a ion o ensu e
ele an indica o s a e chosen o add ess hei needs accu a ely.
Bea ing in mind he assessmen p inciples, one also needs o
iden i y he alues (subjec i e opinions, e.g., s ong o weak
sus ainabili y) and sus ainabili y p inciples (i.e., p ecau iona y
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p inciple, i e e sibili y, egene a ion, subs i u abili y, c i ical
loads e c.) o de e mining he app oach o sus ainabili y.
25
This
hen needs o be aken a s ep u he , se ing a decision con ex
h ough he deni ion o he assessmen objec (i.e., policies/
measu es, ins i u ions, goods o se ices), which migh inu-
ence he ele an ac o s, scale, complexi y, unce ain ies,
iming, impac s and s a egies majo ly.
The co e o a sus ainabili y amewo k is me hodological
choice, which is inuenced by he gi en p inciples, app oach,
and decision con ex . This s ep includes iden ica ion o sui -
able assessmen me hodologies, me hods, ools, and indica-
o s, ollowed by unce ain y managemen . Since his e iew
ocuses on assessmen me hods, in he ollowing subsec ions
he applied me hods in he li e a u e on ES sus ainabili y a e
sys ema ically e iewed conside ing hei economic, en i on-
men al and social dimensions. 205 s udies a e analyzed based
on hei echnological ocus, applied assessmen me hods and
indica o s, in o de o explo e he cu en assessmen land-
scape. A me hodological compa ison is p o ided in SI Table 1,
which o ganizes sus ainabili y assessmen me hods in o
economic, en i onmen al, and social dimensions, ou lining
hei pu poses, applica ions, s eng hs, limi a ions, and illus-
a i e examples in he con ex o ene gy s o age sys ems. Fo
he de ailed o e iew o he collec ed s udies, used me hods,
and indica o s, eade s a e asked o e e o he SI.
4.1. Economic assessmen o ene gy s o age
The sus ainabili y ans o ma ion o he global ene gy sys em
depends on he a ailabili y and efficien use o nancial
esou ces, which makes economics an essen ial pilla o
sus ainabili y. This ans o ma ion equi es conside a ion o
he in e nal cos s o ES sys ems (i.e., expenses di ec ly incu ed
by a business, indi idual, p ocess o p oduc ion o consump-
ion), bu also o he ex e nal cos s (cos s imposed on hi d
pa ies o socie y) o mi iga e ad e se sus ainabili y impac s.
The e o e, an analysis o ES economics mus accoun o
pe spec i es beyond p o abili y, conside ing ex e nal cos s
s emming om he en i onmen al and social impac s bo n by
o he pa ies. Thus, i is c ucial o conduc comp ehensi e
economic assessmen s o p o ide a s ong base o suppo o
balanced decision-making which p o ec s he in e es s o
in ol ed s akeholde s.
Con en ionally, economics has been a de e minan c i e ion
o decisions, hence an ex ensi e li e a u e on he economic
assessmen o ES sys ems exis s, wi h a ying le els o g anu-
la i y. An o e iew o he collec ed s udies is p o ided in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 In oduc o y figu e, o e iew o h ee main sus ainabili y assessmen dimensions and co esponding me hod selec ion o ES echnol-
ogies. No ice, he ba e y is ep esen a i e o all ene gy s o age echnologies.
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Bea ing in mind he sea ch s ing used o iden i y ele an
s udies, 14 we e iden ied which solely apply economic
assessmen s in he sus ainabili y con ex , bu his numbe
inc eased o 90 when including s udies which apply economic
assessmen s in combina ion wi h o he me hods, o as pa allel
assessmen s. The hea map p o ided in Fig. 3 shows he u ilized
economic indica o s and assessmen me hods pe ES ech-
nology, no ing ha an indi idual s udy may include mul iple
indica o s, echnologies and assessmen me hods. As can be
obse ed, he as majo i y o he collec ed s udies ocus on
hyd ogen and hyd ogen-based enewable uels, as well as
Table 1 Compa ison o key sus ainabili y concep ual amewo ks, highligh ing hei p ima y ocus, scope, applica ion le els, s eng hs, limi-
a ions, and illus a i e examples in he con ex o ene gy s o age sys ems and echnologies
F amewo k P ima y ocus Scope & co e age Le el o applica ion S eng hs Limi a ions ES example
TBL Balancing economic,
en i onmen al, and
social dimensions
B oad, quali a i e O ganiza ional,
p ojec , policy
Simple, widely
ecognized,
in eg a es h ee
pilla s o
sus ainabili y
Lack o s anda dized
me ics, isk o
supe cial adop ion
(“g eenwashing”)
Assessing ba e y
manu ac u ing  ms
on p o abili y,
en i onmen al
oo p in (e.g.,
emissions), and
communi y well-
being
SDGs Global de elopmen
p io i ies (17 goals,
169 a ge s)
Global, c oss-
sec o al
Na ional,
o ganiza ional
alignmen
P o ides sha ed
global agenda,
widely endo sed,
measu able a ge s
High-le el; may be
difficul o
ope a ionalize a
 m/p ojec le el
Linking ene gy
s o age deploymen
o SDG 7 (affo dable
and clean ene gy)
and SDG 13 (clima e
ac ion)
LCSA Holis ic e alua ion
ac oss li e cycle
(en i onmen al,
social, economic)
P oduc /p ocess
o ien ed
Ope a ional, p ojec ,
p oduc design
Comp ehensi e
assessmen ;
quan i a i e
Da a-in ensi e;
me hodological
complexi y
LCA o Li-ion
ba e ies, co e ing
aw ma e ial
ex ac ion,
p oduc ion, use
phase, and ecycling
GRI S anda dized
sus ainabili y
epo ing
B oad: economic,
en i onmen al and
social disclosu e
O ganiza ional
(co po a e epo ing)
Widely adop ed,
enhances he
anspa ency and
compa abili y
Repo ing bu den,
may encou age
compliance o e
pe o mance
Annual
sus ainabili y epo s
o ba e y
manu ac u e s
de ailing emissions,
labo condi ions,
and communi y
impac s
ESG
disclosu e
amewo ks
In es o - ocused
sus ainabili y
pe o mance
(en i onmen al,
social, go e nance)
Financial
ma e iali y, isk,
go e nance
O ganiza ional
(p ima ily co po a e/
nancial ma ke s)
Aligns sus ainabili y
wi h nancial
ma ke s; imp o es
in es o decision-
making
Na owe ocus on
nancial ma e iali y;
less a en ion o
b oade socie al
impac s
ESG a ings o ene gy
s o age  ms o
assess in es men
isks (e.g., supply
chain go e nance in
cobal sou cing)
SBSC In eg a es
sus ainabili y in o
s a egic
managemen and
pe o mance
measu emen
O ganiza ional
s a egy, KPIs
O ganiza ional
(s a egic planning
and con ol)
Links sus ainabili y
o business s a egy;
enables moni o ing
O ganiza ion-
cen ic; may o e look
b oade sys emic
issues
Inco po a ing
en i onmen al KPIs
in o pe o mance
dashboa ds o g id-
scale s o age
companies
EIA/SIA An icipa ing and
mi iga ing
en i onmen al and
social impac s o
p ojec s
P ojec -specic P ojec ,
in as uc u e,
de elopmen
planning
Legally manda ed in
many ju isdic ions;
p e en i e app oach
Oen eac i e; scope
may exclude long-
e m o cumula i e
impac s
EIA/SIA o
cons uc ing la ge-
scale ba e y s o age
acili ies assessing
land use, emissions,
and communi y
accep ance
DPSIR Causal amewo k
o analyzing
en i onmen al and
socio-economic
in e ac ions
En i onmen al
sys ems ocus
Policy and esea ch
(mac o le el)
Use ul o sys em-
le el analysis; policy-
ele an
Complexi y; limi ed
a en ion o
economic/
o ganiza ional
decision-making
Modeling how
demand o s o age
(d i e ) c ea es
p essu es on mining,
al e s en i onmen al
s a es, and elici s
egula o y esponses
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ba e ies. I can hus be seen ha hese a eas domina e in line
wi h cu en echnological de elopmen s.
The me hodological app oaches in he e iewed assessmen s
p edominan ly employ Techno-economic Assessmen /Analysis
(TEA) and Li e Cycle Cos ing (LCC) me hods. The main
easons o his p e e ence include ease o applica ion,
s aigh o wa d assessmen p ocedu es, da a a ailabili y, he
exis ence o suppo ing ools, and ela i ely low ime equi e-
men s. Howe e , he ex en o which hese ad an ages hold is
la gely de e mined by he dep h o analysis unde aken in he
s udy. TEA is no a s anda dized me hod, and mul iple
app oaches exis . Techno-economic easibili y is oen assessed
using enginee ing cos es ima ion and analogy-based
app oaches, wi h a ocus on Capi al Expendi u e (CAPEX) and
Ope a ional Expendi u es (OPEX). CAPEX ypically encom-
passes di ec , indi ec , xed, and wo king capi al cos s, while
OPEX co e s xed and a iable cos s, including powe - and
ene gy-capaci y- ela ed ope a ion and main enance (O&M)
expenses.
19
Es ima ing CAPEX and OPEX is essen ial o
unde s anding he cos s uc u e o ES sys ems and mus be
con ex ualized wi h espec o echnological specica ions and
applica ion equi emen s. These s eps a e equen ly he mos
ime-consuming and da a-in ensi e, owing o incomple e
in o ma ion, limi ed endo inpu , o a lack o applica ion-
specic da a. Gi en he impo ance o CAPEX and OPEX, he
economic model mus accu a ely cap u e he ela ionship
be ween echnological pe o mance and ope a ional
pa ame e s.
Hence, as shown in Fig. 3, Le elized Cos o X (LCOX) is he
mos equen ly used indica o which inco po a es he a o e-
men ioned aspec s in TEAs o analyze o e all cos pe uni o
ene gy deli e ed o e li e ime (e.g., le elized cos o elec ici y,
le elized cos o hyd ogen, le elized cos o hea ) in agg ega ed
e ms. I allows compa isons and benchma king o echnolo-
gies unde iden ical ope a ional condi ions and/o applica ion
based on he same ene gy ec o .
33
Classically, TEAs use he
Fig. 3 Applied economic assessmen me hods (n=90) ac oss a ious ene gy s o age echnologies. The hea map p esen s he equency o
occu ence o he op 10 mos equen ly used economic assessmen indica o s o diffe en ene gy s o age echnologies. The colo g adien
ep esen s he equency o occu ence, wi h g een indica ing highe equency and ed indica ing lowe equency. No e ha an indi idual s udy
may include mul iple indica o s, echnologies and assessmen me hods.
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le elized cos app oach wi h a s ong ocus on in e nal cos s,
excluding in e naliza ion o he ex e nal cos s.
Due o he inc easing p ominence o clima e change, some
s udies inco po a e cos s like g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and ca bon aba emen cos (see Fig. 3). Conside ing he s udies
iden ied, indica o s ha accoun o ex e nal cos s emain
unde u ilized. This is pa icula ly so o ex e nal en i onmen al
and social cos s. Fu he mo e, a key obse a ion is he insuffi-
cien ocus on he end-o -li e (EoL) phase when conside ing li e
cycle s ages. In mos cases, his phase is limi ed o disman ling
and disposal, and oen o e looks he impac s o ecycling aw
ma e ials.
Addi ionally, a se o s udies use classic dynamic in es men
calcula ion-based indica o s such as Ne P esen Value (NPV) (n
=21), annui y, and In e nal Ra e o Re u n (IRR) (n=17) in
s a ic o dynamic models o agg ega e hose pa ame e s o e he
sys em's li e ime conside ing he ime alue o money. Payback
Pe iod (PBP) is ano he indica o ha is widely conside ed o
hyd ogen/hyd ogen-based enewable uels since he CAPEX
equi ed o he uel p oduc ion, supply, and u iliza ion in a-
s uc u e equi es high ini ial in es men cos s. Mo eo e ,
Minimum Selling P ice (MSP) and To al P oduc ion Cos (TPC)
a e equen ly used in assessmen s o hyd ogen/hyd ogen-
based enewable uels. Such indica o s a e oen selec ed o
specic echnologies because hey p o ide a con enien basis
o compa ison and benchma king wi hin he same ca ego y.
Howe e , his app oach limi s compa abili y wi h o he ypes o
echnologies ha may p o ide simila se ices (see Fig. 3).
Hyd ogen-based uels a e also gene ally ega ded as expensi e
al e na i es unde cu en uel p ice benchma ks. Hence MSP
and TPC a e also applied o compa ison wi h ossil-based
op ions. Ne e heless, as hese indica o s do no cap u e he
downs eam u iliza ion o such uels, hey offe only limi ed
compa abili y, o ins ance in he decision-making con ex
when used as he only economic KPI.
LCC is iden ied as he second mos widely-applied
app oach o economic assessmen s, p edominan ly applied
o ba e ies and hyd ogen/-based ES. This is likely due o he
apid eme gence o hese echnologies and he signicance o
hei li ecycle s ages. Mo eo e , LCC is oen p e e ed due o i s
p ac icali y in le e aging Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) models.
LCC e e s o he o al cos o owne ship (TCO), by including
cos s om aw ma e ials o acquisi ion o EoL. Gene ally, i is
widely used o es ima ing he o al cos o a sys em, p oduc ,
se ice o in as uc u e o decision-making on long- e m
in es men s. Al hough i sha es simila i ies wi h TEA, i s
dis inc ea u e lies in he mo e de ailed in eg a ion o li e cycle
hinking. Unlike le elized cos , LCC inco po a es he ideal cos s
o each li e cycle s age, including eplacemen s, disposal and
ecycling.
Among he conside ed s udies, LCC is commonly applied o
ba e ies since he li e cycle-o ien ed app oach allows he
inco po a ion o cos s associa ed wi h aw ma e ials and
manu ac u ing, bu also inco po a es echnical pe o mance
c i e ia such as capaci y ade, cycle deg ada ion and sys em
li espan o he use phase. Unde iden ical ope a ional condi-
ions, LCC enables a ai compa ison o diffe en ba e ies o
assis decisions in echnological choices. Fu he mo e, a ia-
ions o LCC, such as en i onmen al LCC (E-LCC), ull en i-
onmen al LCC (FE-LCC), and socie al LCC (S-LCC), in e nalize
en i onmen al and social cos s using mone iza ion o app oxi-
ma e he ac ual o al cos .
34
Howe e , hese a ia ions o LCC
a e no applied e y equen ly wi hin he collec ed s udies in
he ES con ex . These a ia ions a e use ul o cap u ing he ull
spec um o ac ual cos s. Howe e , hey equi e a mo e complex
app oach, since mone a y alua ion elies on de ailed li e cycle
in en o y da a, and many en i onmen al and social impac s
lack s anda dized high quali y o egion-specic da ase s. The
lack o uni e sally ag eed mone iza ion amewo ks also makes
he esul s less compa able and some imes dispu ed.
O he , less equen ly used me hods a e Socio-economic
Assessmen (SEA) including scal analysis, Inpu /Ou pu
Me hod (o Mul i- egional Inpu -Ou pu MRIO), cos -bene
analysis, and isk-bene analysis. These e alua e he
economic easibili y and socie al bene s o ES p ojec s
conside ing diffe en pe spec i es (manu ac u e , cus ome o
socie y).
35
Howe e , none o hese me hods we e cap u ed in he
li e a u e sea ch o ES sys ems. These me hods a e oen no
employed because mos s udies adop a sec o -o ien ed
pe spec i e a he han p oduc - o se ice-specic mic o-le el
assessmen s. The p e ailing mo i a ion is ypically case-
specic easibili y in he collec ed s udies, a he han e alu-
a ing cumula i e sec o al impac s.
Conside ing he me hods p esen ed he e, i is e iden ha
he necessa y me hods o ho oughly analyze he economics o
ES sys ems exis and a e well-de eloped, i no u ilized o hei
ull ex en . Based on he obse a ions de i ed om he analysis,
he ollowing gene al and specic ecommenda ions a e made
o enhance economic assessmen s o ES sys ems:
(i) G anula i y: enhance he le el o de ail and g anula i y in
economic assessmen s by imp o ing da a quali y and a ail-
abili y, while balancing his agains p ac ical cons ain s such
as ime and esou ce expendi u e.
The alue o highe - esolu ion inpu da a has been shown in
s udies o ba e y ES in powe ma ke s, whe e e enue and cos
ou comes diffe ed subs an ially when indi idual se ices such
as equency egula ion, ese e capaci y, and ol age suppo
we e conside ed sepa a ely.
36
Simila ly, esea ch on ehicle- o-
g id applica ions has demons a ed ha using eal-wo ld du y
cycle da a e ealed deg ada ion and economic alues which
we e no cap u ed by agg ega ed p oles.
37
(ii) Case specic conside a ions: selec ion o assessmen
me hods ha enable inco po a ion o economic aspec s ela ed
o he specic ma ke egion, egula o y amewo k, and
owne ship model o he ES p ojec , as hese signican ly
inuence easibili y and in e dependen sus ainabili y aspec s.
Fo example, LCC o he mal ES sys ems showed ha
economic easibili y depends s ongly on egional ma ke ules
and se ice emune a ion schemes.
38
Simila ly, hyb id ba e y–
uel-cell sys em assessmen s highligh ed he ole o local policy
and owne ship s uc u es in shaping ou comes.
39
The deca-
boniza ion o shipping h ough al e na i e uels u he illus-
a es how egula o y amewo ks, such as he IMO's emission
a ge s, di ec ly condi ion economic easibili y.
40
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used in each da abase. In SHDB, cha ac e iza ion ac o s a e
exp essed as quali a i e isk le els (e.g., low, medium, high, e y
high) a he coun y–sec o le el, indica ing he likelihood o
a social issue occu ing bu no i s magni ude. By con as ,
PSILCA employs quan i a i e cha ac e iza ion ac o s linked o
ac i i y a iables such as wo king hou s, alue added, o
numbe o employees, allowing social impac s o be exp essed
in measu able uni s (e.g., hou s o child labo pe unc ional
uni ). This makes SHDB pa icula ly use ul o ho spo iden i-
ca ion, whe eas PSILCA suppo s mo e de ailed and compa-
able quan ica ion o social impac s.
Beyond S-LCA, o he me hods such as Social Foo p in /Social
Handp in , Social Impac Assessmen (SIA), Social Re u n on
In es men (SROI), accep abili y s udies, and Socio-Economic
Impac Assessmen (SEIA) a e used o social assessmen s.
Howe e , hese me hods a e no cap u ed in his e iew by he
o mula ed sea ch s ing, since hey ha e a co po a e-, sec o -,
o coun y-o ien ed pe spec i e a he han ocusing di ec ly on
ES echnology in he applica ion con ex . A b ie in oduc ion o
hese me hods is p o ided in he SI.
E en hough echnology accep ance is no pa o he a o e-
men ioned social assessmen me hods, on he social dimen-
sion, echnology accep ance is a e y ele an aspec , which can
di ec ly affec he ealiza ion o an ES p ojec . The public
beha io al esponses, including hose om p essu e g oups,
can signican ly impac he success o ES p ojec s. This is
pa icula ly ele an o echnologies wi h di ec public isi-
bili y, such as la ge s o age uni s, whe e conce ns may a ise
ega ding isual impac s, pe cei ed heal h and sa e y isks, and
b oade sus ainabili y implica ions (e.g., eec ed in ini ia i es
like he ba e y passpo ).
100
Despi e i s impo ance, echnology
accep ance emains a eld wi hou a uni e sally ag eed deni-
ion. Many s udies equa e accep ance wi h a i udes, simul a-
neously conside ing bo h a i udinal and beha io al
dimensions.
101
In a echnological con ex , accep ance can be
unde s ood as an a i ude owa ds echnology, which may
mani es in beha io s which ei he suppo o oppose specic
p oposals. Resea ch in his eld ypically elies on in e iews
and su eys, demanding a high le el o expe ise in hei design
and e alua ion. In echnology accep ance s udies, eliance on
in e iew- and su ey-based da a p esen s an addi ional chal-
lenge: he insigh s a e oen highly con ex -specic, shaped by
cul u al, social, and egional condi ions, and hus no easily
ans e able o o he cases. This limi s he a ailabili y o
p ocessable da a o b oade assessmen s o social accep ance
o ES echnologies. Possible solu ions include he de elopmen
o ha monized su ey ins umen s, c oss-coun y compa a i e
s udies, and in eg a ion o such p ima y da a in o open-access
da abases o enable mo e consis en and compa able e alua-
ion o ES echnology accep ance ac oss diffe en se ings.
Unde s anding echnology accep abili y is c ucial o p ac i-
ione s, policymake s, and decision-make s, as insigh s in o
public pe cep ions can guide mo e in o med decisions and
acili a e he success ul adop ion o ES echnologies wi hin he
b oade amewo k o sus ainable de elopmen ini ia i es.
(i) Ou analysis demons a es ha S-LCA is he mos
equen ly used me hod o assessing he social impac s o ES
sys ems. Gi en he c i ical ole o social aspec s in sus ain-
abili y, he e is a g owing demand o mo e comp ehensi e
assessmen s. The concen a ion o s udies on ba e ies and
hyd ogen highligh s a esea ch gap: o he ES echnologies (e.g.,
mechanical s o age, he mal s o age, o o he powe - o-X
pa hways) emain unde explo ed, pa icula ly wi hin social
assessmen s. B oadening he scope o u u e assessmen s o
hese echnologies would p o ide decision-make s wi h a mo e
balanced e idence base o iden i y he mos app op ia e solu-
ions unde specic egional bounda y condi ions. Many o he
gene al ecommenda ions gi en in he p e ious sec ions also
apply o social assessmen s o ES echnologies, o example, he
impo ance o a clea goal and scope deni ion, comp ehensi e
sys em bounda ies, obus da a managemen , conside a ion o
use phase, use o consis en unc ional uni s, and he in eg a-
ion o sensi i i y and unce ain y analyses. Conside ing he
a ailable me hods, he ollowing addi ional ecommenda ions
need o be conside ed when add essing he social dimension o
ES sus ainabili y: s akeholde s: in eg a ion o s akeholde
pa icipa ion in o he assessmen p ocess o cap u e di e se
social pe spec i es and inc ease he legi imacy and ele ance o
he ndings.
Social impac s o ES echnologies a e oen highly con ex -
dependen , shaped by local communi ies, wo ke s, supply
chain ac o s, and policy amewo ks. Ea ly and ac i e in ol e-
men o hese g oups ( h ough e.g., co-cons uc ion, pa icipa-
o y wo kshops, o s uc u ed in e iews) helps o ensu e ha
he assessmen add esses issues o eal conce n and p esen s
esul s in a o m use ul o decision-making. Such pa icipa ion
no only enhances anspa ency and accep ance o he s udy bu
also educes he isk o o e looking ulne able g oups o egion-
specic conce ns ha may o he wise emain hidden.
(ii) Ex ending he echnological scope: encou age he applica-
ion o S-LCA beyond cu en ly dominan echnologies o
ensu e a mo e balanced ep esen a ion o social impac s ac oss
he ES landscape.
The p esen concen a ion o s udies on a ew echnologies
lea es gaps in unde s anding he social implica ions o o he ES
al e na i es. B oadening he scope o social assessmen s would
p o ide decision-make s wi h a mo e comp ehensi e e idence
base.
(iii) Mixed me hods: de elop and apply mo e comp ehensi e
and consis en amewo ks, inco po a ing bo h quali a i e and
quan i a i e indica o s o imp o e compa abili y and
obus ness.
While quali a i e app oaches such as in e iews and su eys
cap u e con ex -specic insigh s and s akeholde pe cep ions,
quan i a i e da abases (e.g., SHDB o PSILCA) p o ide s uc-
u ed, p ocess-le el in o ma ion. Combining hese app oaches
allows s udies o bene om he me hodological s eng h o
each, whe e quali a i e me hods add dep h, nuance, and legi -
imacy, and quan i a i e me hods ensu e consis ency, scal-
abili y, and compa abili y ac oss echnologies and egions.
Le e aging he me hodological capaci ies o complemen a y
app oaches (see SI) can hus enhance he o e all eliabili y and
decision-use ulness o social assessmen s o ES echnologies.
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(i ) Comp ehensi e da abase: s eng hen he le el o de ail in
modelling supply chains, especially o aw ma e ials and
componen manu ac u ing, by imp o ing access o and use o
dedica ed social impac da abases.
This ecommenda ion is di ec ed p ima ily a ool and
da abase de elope s, who should aim o imp o e he ep e-
sen a i eness and anspa ency o he da ase s unde lying
social assessmen ools. Howe e , p ac i ione s mus also be
awa e o he limi a ions o a ailable da a in he specic con ex
o hei s udy. While a e age p ocesses and p oxy da a can be
use ul o app oxima ing eal-wo ld condi ions, hei limi a-
ions in ep esen ing ac ual social dynamics need o be clea ly
acknowledged and discussed. Making hese cons ain s explici
helps o a oid o e in e p e a ion o esul s and ensu es ha
conclusions emain c edible o decision-making.
( ) In e dimensional ela ions: u ilize exis ing economic and
en i onmen al li e cycle da a and models, which migh be
help ul in enhancing he co e age and dep h o social assess-
men s, especially in cases o da a sca ci y o high unce ain y.
Since many p ocesses and supply chains a e al eady well-
cha ac e ized in en i onmen al LCA and echno-economic
analyses, hese da ase s can se e as aluable p oxies o s uc-
u al e e ences o iden i y ele an ac o s, ho spo s, and impac
pa hways in social LCA. In eg a ing such in e dimensional
in o ma ion can help o s eamline da a collec ion, imp o e he
comple eness o sys em modelling, and enable mo e consis en
compa isons ac oss he h ee sus ainabili y dimensions. Ca e
mus be aken, howe e , o ensu e me hodological cohe ence
and a oid o e ex ending assump ions beyond hei in ended
scope.
( i) Supply chain anspa ency: p omo e g ea e anspa ency
om indus y ac o s ega ding labo condi ions, sou cing
p ac ices, and go e nance measu es, as such disclosu es a e
essen ial o accu a e social impac analysis.
Simila o he poin on da a ep esen a i eness, his ecom-
menda ion is di ec ed a da a p o ide s, who a e oen also
among he key s akeholde g oups in ol ed. A clea unde -
s anding o supply chains is c ucial because social impac s a e
no only sec o -specic bu a e also s ongly shaped by egional
condi ions. Imp o ed aceabili y o supply chains allows
assessmen p ac i ione s o iden i y he ele an s akeholde
mo e accu a ely, which in u n enhances he alidi y and
con ex ual ele ance o he assessmen esul s.
( ii) Obse ing dynamic condi ions: be awa e o he con ex -
dependen and dynamic na u e o social da a in S-LCA.
Social impac s a e s ongly inuenced by empo al and
egional ac o s such as changes in labo egula ions, go e -
nance quali y, ma ke dynamics and cul u al no ms. As a esul ,
da a ha a e accu a e a one poin in ime o in one loca ion
may quickly become ou da ed o un ep esen a i e elsewhe e.
P ac i ione s should he e o e ea social da a as ime- and
con ex -sensi i e, complemen ing hem wi h egula upda es,
scena io analyses, o sensi i i y es ing o cap u e possible
changes o e ime. Recognizing his dynamic cha ac e helps o
a oid misleading conclusions and s eng hens he obus ness
o social assessmen s o ES echnologies.
5. In eg a ed sus ainabili y
assessmen s
Gi en he mul idimensional cha ac e o sus ainabili y,
assessmen s limi ed o a single dimension a e insufficien o
suppo in o med decision-making in he con ex o ES sys ems.
While a ange o ES echnologies exis s o mee he se ice
demands o di e se applica ions, no single echnology can
uni e sally sa is y all applica ion-specic equi emen s. As
highligh ed abo e, he in e dependencies o echnical,
economic, en i onmen al and social dimensions a e c ucial o
decisions. Imp o emen in one dimension can esul in unin-
ended impac s in ano he , also known as bu den shiing.
102
Oen a ade-offmus be ound and minimized be ween
diffe en c i e ia, which can be done wi h he aid o in eg a ed
sus ainabili y assessmen me hods wi h ac i e in ol emen o
s akeholde s. In p ac ice, in eg a ed assessmen s employ
analy ical me hods which co espond o each sus ainabili y
dimension. Howe e , hey a y in how hese me hods a e
combined and in eg a ed wi hin he o e all assessmen
amewo k. Side-by-side assessmen esul s mus be used o
decision-making o iden i y he ade-offs ia decision analysis
me hods. In hese assessmen s, in e p e a ion and communi-
ca ion o he esul s show a ia ion and should always
acknowledge he signicance o decision a ibu es and
objec i es.
The conduc ed li e a u e e iew iden ies 76 s udies which
conside bo h en i onmen al and economic assessmen s,
whe eas only one s udy assesses social and en i onmen al
dimensions, as illus a ed in Fig. 6. Since he p ima y aim o he
conduc ed li e a u e e iew was o in es iga e he assessmen
me hods applied in he eld o ES sys ems, he sea ch s ing did
no yield a b oad ange o s udies employing in eg a ed
assessmen s, and in pa icula , hose co e ing all h ee
dimensions o sus ainabili y wi hin he ES con ex . The limi ed
Fig. 6 Conside ed s udies, dis ibu ion o ocused sus ainabili y
dimensions.
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numbe o in eg a ed assessmen s can be a ibu ed o he
complexi y and esou ce in ensi y o conduc ing such s udies.
Pe o ming e en a single ype o high quali y assessmen
(economic, en i onmen al, o social) is al eady ime-consuming
and cos ly.
One impo an and c i ical obse a ion is ha assessmen
s udies which add ess mul iple sus ainabili y dimensions oen
conduc hese e alua ions independen ly, a he han employ-
ing side-by-side assessmen s. As a esul , me hodological in e-
g a ion ac oss dimensions is ypically omi ed, limi ing he
cohe ence and compa abili y o he ndings. Combining all
h ee dimensions equi es in e disciplina y collabo a ion, la ge
da ase s, and ex ended s udy leng hs, which may exceed he
p ac ical scope o con en ional esea ch p ojec s and publica-
ion o ma s. Ne e heless, highligh ing his gap is impo an ,
as decision-make s ul ima ely need mo e holis ic insigh s.
S epwise o modula in eg a ion o he h ee dimensions, o
coo dina ed mul i-ins i u ional effo s, may p o ide a mo e
easible pa h o wa d. Fo he sake o comple eness and o
p omo e in eg a ed assessmen s, he ein in eg a ion me hods
a e in oduced. To he au ho s' bes knowledge, he Li e Cycle
Sus ainabili y Assessmen (LCSA) amewo k and Ex ended
Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu Analysis (EMRIO) a e he po en-
ially applicable app oaches in ES sus ainabili y assessmen s,
oen suppo ed by Mul i-C i e ia Decision Analysis (MCDA) o
acili a e decision-making ac oss sus ainabili y dimensions.
LCSA is a comp ehensi e amewo k ha conside s he
en i onmen al, economic, and social dimensions o a p oduc ,
p ocess, o se ice.
103
LCA, LCC, and S-LCA me hods a e all
in eg a ed unde a unied goal and scope deni ion, ideally
inco po a ing s akeholde pe spec i es.
104–107
Addi ionally, he
in eg a ion o ci cula economy p inciples and ma e ial c i i-
cali y in o he LCSA amewo k has been ecen ly ecognized as
c ucial, conside ing esou ce efficiency conce ns, g owing
global supply chain isks and impo eliance.
108
While LCSA
se es as an indica i e app oach o decision-making, i s ull
po en ial can only be ealized h ough comp ehensi e sys em
bounda y deni ions and da a ha moniza ion.
109
This is
pa icula ly ele an o ES sys ems, whe e a ia ions in supply
chains and egional ene gy mixes can signican ly impac
sus ainabili y pe o mance. I adhe es o he con en ional LCA
amewo k bu includes a concluding s ep which p esen s
agg ega ed sco es o decision-making. In LCSA, he quali y o
assessmen esul s and decision-making se up in e ms o
s akeholde consolida ion play a majo ole. Each assessmen
mus en ail all ele an li e cycle phases and s akeholde
pe spec i es, pa icula ly he EoL, po en ially changing he
o e all pic u e ega ding en i onmen al impac s and esou ce
use.
MCDA is a s uc u ed app oach used o add ess decision-
making p oblems in ol ing mul iple c i e ia, s akeholde s,
and po en ial al e na i es by hei weigh ing and anking. In he
ES sus ainabili y assessmen con ex , MCDA is help ul o
compa ison o specic echnology al e na i es, in pa icula
h ough he use o Mul i-a ibu e Decision Making (MADMin-
dex: MADM : mul i-a ibu e decision-making?>) me hods
(he e MCDA is used as a synonym) which is oen used o
decision-making analysis in LCSAs. Use o mul i-objec i e
decision-making can also be ele an , bu is no conside ed
wi hin he scope o his e iew. MCDA is ca ied ou in wo
o e lapping phases: cons uc ion and exploi a ion. The
cons uc ion phase co e s goal, scope and al e na i es deni-
ion, iden ica ion and selec ion o c i e ia, selec ion o MADM
me hods, and s akeholde in e ace c ea ion. The exploi a ion
phase in ol es c i e ia pe o mance measu emen s, weigh s
elici a ion, c i e ia agg ega ion, and esul s compa ison. This
can be done using se e al me hods, such as compensa o y (e.g.,
analy ic hie a chy p ocess (AHP)) o ou anking me hods such
as he p e e ence anking o ganiza ion me hod o en ichmen
e alua ion (PROMETHEE).
110,111
These me hods allow o
comp ehensi e and i e a i e engagemen o s akeholde s.
112
In
any case, an MCDA mus be ca ied ou in a ca e ul way o
assu e he compa abili y o al e na i es and a oid non-p ac ical
applica ions wi hou a eal-wo ld con ex .
113
On a b oade scope, EMRIO inco po a es en i onmen al,
socio-economic, and social accoun indica o s in o he inpu –
ou pu ma ix in con as o MRIO which has a ocus on
economic ows.
114
This allows he simul aneous assessmen o
a ious sus ainabili y indica o s ela ed o he sec o al
economic ac i i ies in mac o-economic e ms. Common indi-
ca o s include socio-economic indica o s as alue-added and
employmen gene a ion, while en i onmen al indica o s en ail
global wa ming impac s, wi h he possibili y o use o he
impac ca ego ies (e.g., e es ial/ eshwa e acidica ion,
eu ophica ion, land use).
114–116
Social indica o s conside ed can
be bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e.
117
O he s ha e used
EMRIO o analyze dependence and go e nance, assessing isks
associa ed wi h a di e sied po olio o supplie s om coun-
ies wi h a ious go e nance le els.
115,116
In sum, EMRIO can be
used o mac o-le el assessmen s and o in es iga ing mul i-
plie , spill-o e and eedback effec s.
118
I is c i ical o all assessmen and decision-making s eps o
inco po a e ele an s akeholde pe spec i es in o de o ensu e
he ep esen a i eness o he s udy. Howe e , s akeholde
p e e ences depend s ongly on aspec s such as spa ial ac o s
and pa icipan ype; hence, hey may ha e limi ed empo al
alidi y as hey can change o e ime. He e, wo kshops in e-
g a ing indus y ep esen a i es, policymake s and communi-
ies can help o discuss esul s and ob ain u he inpu . This
may esul in conic ing ou comes, which complica es he
p o ision o a comp ehensi e pic u e and clea ecommenda-
ions. Howe e , his complexi y is inhe en in all decisions, and
consul ing all s akeholde g oups imp o es he accu acy o
ade-offs o a comp ehensi e pic u e on which a obus deci-
sion is buil .
6. Conclusions
Th ough he conduc ed li e a u e e iew, his wo k shows ha
all necessa y me hodological ools a e a ailable o add ess ES
sus ainabili y holis ically ac oss en i onmen al, economic, and
social dimensions. Howe e , hese me hods a e no used o
hei ull ex en , and ail o exploi hei ull capaci y o deli -
e ing di ec i e in e ences. This is mainly due o he way ES
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assessmen s udies a e designed, oen wi h a na ow scope
aimed a cla i ying doub s in a single dimension, while
neglec ing o he aspec s ha may be c i ical o decision-
making. In o de o ad ance he discou se on he sus ain-
abili y o ES sys ems and acili a e in o med decision-making,
comp ehensi e and mul idimensional assessmen s a e
essen ial.
Despi e he a ailabili y o app op ia e me hods, se e al
cons ain s hinde hei comp ehensi e applica ion, including
he absence o a uni e sal assessmen amewo k, dispa i ies in
me hodological ma u i y, limi a ions in da a a ailabili y, and
he high modelling effo s equi ed. While economic assess-
men me hods ha e adi ionally been conside ed he mos
es ablished, en i onmen al me hods such as LCA and MFA
ha e eached a compa able le el o de elopmen , owing o
ecen ad ancemen s in measu emen and es ima ion ech-
niques. In he social dimension, despi e he lack o me hodo-
logical pleni ude, no able p og ess has been made in ecen
yea s. Quali a i e me hods ha e inc easingly been com-
plemen ed by quan i a i e analyses, and he de elopmen o
social impac da abases has played a c ucial ole. This obse -
a ion is u he suppo ed by he cu en , bu s ill limi ed,
applica ion o S-LCA in he ES con ex .
Fu he mo e, a c i ical obse a ion om he li e a u e is ha
mos exis ing assessmen s p io i ize highly deba ed aspec s,
pa icula ly en i onmen al o economic aspec s, a he han
emb acing sus ainabili y as a whole. The p e ailing objec i e is
oen o e alua e a specic echnological choice in o de o
demons a e en i onmen al sus ainabili y (mos ly ocusing on
clima e change impac s) a an accep able cos . This app oach
oen esul s in he exclusion o he social dimension and an
insufficien conside a ion o in e dependencies be ween
dimensions, which weakens he comp ehensi eness o he
sus ainabili y a gumen . Al hough i is encou aging ha en i-
onmen al and economic aspec s a e inc easingly assessed
oge he , many o hese s udies lack a guiding amewo k
capable o s ee ing he ndings owa d obus and in eg a ed
decisions. Su p isingly, none o he s udies e alua e social and
economic dimensions oge he , e en hough hese wo dimen-
sions a e s ongly in e connec ed since bo h S-LCA and SIA
me hods ha e a s ong economic o ien a ion.
To mo e owa ds emb acing sus ainabili y as a whole in
a mo e quan i a i e manne , u u e s udies could adop hyb id
amewo ks ha combine en i onmen al LCA, LCC, and S-LCA
in o LCSA as in oduced in Sec ion 5. Quan i a i e in eg a ion
can be suppo ed h ough MCDA, which allows weigh ing and
agg ega ion o indica o s ac oss dimensions, o by employing
common e e ence uni s such as ‘sus ainabili y sco es’
no malized pe unc ional uni . While each o hese app oaches
comes wi h me hodological challenges, hei applica ion would
help o explici ly conside in e dependencies. Gi en he
conside able ime and collabo a i e effo equi ed o conduc
ully in eg a ed s udies, side-by-side assessmen s can se e as
a p agma ic al e na i e o managing wo kload, p o ided ha
hey adop consis en goal and scope deni ions, sys em
bounda ies, and unc ional uni s. This consis ency enables
meaning ul compa ison and alignmen o esul s ac oss he
diffe en sus ainabili y dimensions.
I is e iden ha en i onmen al impac s a e equen ly
assessed in combina ion wi h echno-economic easibili y,
eec ing a endency owa d pa ial in eg a ion. While easi-
bili y s udies we e his o ically e alua ed solely in echno-
economic e ms, and sus ainabili y was p ima ily amed in
en i onmen al con ex s, his shiin app oach poin s o
a ecogni ion. While he lack o social assessmen s is no he
sole obs acle o in eg a ed sus ainabili y e alua ions, i does
emain a c i ical gap. Cases such as lead-acid ba e ies, which
a e en i onmen ally compe i i e o ce ain applica ions due o
high ecyclabili y bu aise se e e social heal h conce ns om
mining and in o mal ecycling, o Li-ion ba e ies, whe e child
labo isks in cobal supply chains unde mine o he wise
a o able en i onmen al assessmen s, illus a e how social
aspec s can o e u n o undamen ally quali y conclusions
de i ed om en i onmen al o economic analysis alone.
As unde lined by he TBL amewo k, consis en accoun ing
o all dimensions is he key o sus ainabili y. In he nea u u e,
egula o y mechanisms such as ESG a e expec ed o con ibu e
mo e subs an ially o es ablishing his balance. By p o iding
s anda dized social indica o s and e alua ion s uc u es, ESG
amewo ks can s imula e an inc ease in social impac analyses
and suppo he in eg a ion o he social dimension in o
sus ainabili y assessmen s.
In e ms o echnological scope o he assessmen s, ba e y
and hyd ogen-based sys ems a e he mos equen ly assessed
ES echnologies. This end co esponds wi h he inc easing
a en ion hese echnologies ecei e due o hei c i ical ole in
he ene gy ansi ion. A signican sha e o he s udies ocused
on unde s anding he en i onmen al and economic impac s o
hese sys ems. The ecommenda ions need o be aken in o
conside a ion o imp o e he quali y o hese assessmen s.
Achie ing high quali y assessmen s is essen ial o hei
efficien use in decision-making, which equi es addi ional
effo s o he ealiza ion o s onge collabo a ion be ween
egula o y bodies and academic ins i u ions. This coope a ion
should po en ially con ibu e o he p omo ion o mo e ans-
pa en , accessible, and comple e da a gene a ion p ac ices.
Fu he mo e, i is i al o inco po a e in e disciplina y
pe spec i es in o s udy designs in o de o close exis ing
knowledge gaps and gene a e assessmen -based e idence o
suppo complex decisions. To his end, s uc u ed s akeholde
engagemen amewo ks mus be employed o ensu e ha he
pe spec i es o policymake s, esea che s, indus y ac o s, and
socie y a la ge a e adequa ely ep esen ed.
On he policy and egula o y side, ecommenda ions should
ocus on es ablishing comp ehensi e sus ainabili y assessmen
amewo ks o ES sys ems, wi h clea ly dened ope a ional
s eps, s anda dized indica o s, and anspa en es ima ion
me hods. Finally, i is impo an o ecognize ha sus ainabili y
assessmen s in his eld emain la gely echnology-cen ic, wi h
limi ed a en ion gi en o sys em-le el pe spec i es ha
conside deploymen s a egies and hei b oade socio-
economic and en i onmen al implica ions. Expanding he
analy ical ocus beyond indi idual echnologies o he wide
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sys em con ex will be essen ial o enhance he ele ance,
c edibili y, and u ili y o sus ainabili y assessmen s mo ing
o wa d.
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion and me hodology: Hüseyin E soy, Manuel
Baumann, Me e E akca, F ied ich Jaspe , Ma co Fe a o, Vie a
Pechanco ´
a, Pa ick S uhm, Mau izio Cellu a, Sonia Longo,
Man edi Piccio o Maniscalco, Roland Hischie , Chia a Bus o,
Alessand a Tacca, Sebas ian Dickle , Pe a Zapp, Ch is ina
Wul , Yolanda Lechon, Ma ina Haase, Ma cel Weil, Tom´
as B.
Ramos, and S e ano Passe ini. In es iga ion: Hüseyin E soy,
Manuel Baumann, Tom´
as B. Ramos, and Ma cel Weil. Da a
Cu a ion: Hüseyin E soy. Fo mal Analysis: Hüseyin E soy and
Manuel Baumann. Visualiza ion: Me e E akca and Hüseyin
E soy. W i ing –o iginal D a: Hüseyin E soy, Manuel Bau-
mann, and all co-au ho s. W i ing – e iew & edi ing: Hüseyin
E soy, Manuel Baumann, Ma cel Weil, Tom´
as B. Ramos, and
F ied ich Jaspe . Supe ision: S e ano Passe ini, Tom´
as B.
Ramos, Ma cel Weil, and Manuel Baumann.
Conflic s o in e es
The e a e no conic s o decla e.
Da a a ailabili y
All da a suppo ing he ndings o his s udy a e a ailable
wi hin he a icle and i s SI les. As his is a e iew a icle, no
new expe imen al o compu a ional da a we e gene a ed. The
da ase s analyzed in he cou se o he e iew we e ob ained
om publicly a ailable pee - e iewed li e a u e, and all sou ces
a e ully ci ed. Should any addi ional in o ma ion be equi ed,
he co esponding au ho is a ailable o inqui ies. Supple-
men a y in o ma ion: (1) a PDF (“Supplemen a y In o ma ion:
Assessmen Me hod Compa ison and Addi ional Me hods o
Social Assessmen o Ene gy S o age”) con aining Supplemen-
a y Table 1— axonomy o sus ainabili y assessmen me hods
ca ego ized by hei p ima y ocus (economic, en i onmen al,
social) wi h illus a i e ene gy sec o applica ions—and
a chap e summa izing addi ional social assessmen me hods
no in oduced in he main manusc ip ; and (2) an Excel le
wi h six ables: SI-Table 1 ( aw collec ion o s udies o he
li e a u e e iew), SI-Table 2 (selec ed and l e ed s udies), SI-
Table 3 (main echnology g oups and clus u ed specic ene gy
s o age echnologies), SI-Table 4 (applied economic and social
assessmen s g ouped by echnology), SI-Table 5 (applied en i-
onmen al assessmen s g ouped by echnology), and SI-Table 6
(applied en i onmen al and social assessmen s g ouped by
echnology). See DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.1039/d5se00750j.
Acknowledgemen s
All au ho s acknowledge he suppo o he Eu opean
Commission unde he p ojec S oRIES wi hin he Ho izon 2020
Resea ch and Inno a ion P og amme unde G an Ag eemen
No. 101036910. Vie a Pechanco ´
a, Manuel Baumann and
Hüseyin E soy acknowledges ecei ed suppo unde Twin-
VECTOR p ojec wi hin he Ho izon Eu ope unde G an
Ag eemen No. 101078935. Ma cel Weil and F ied ich Jaspe
would like o hank he Clus e o Excellence POLiS (which is
unded by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG) unde
P ojec ID 390874152).
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5768 |Sus ainable Ene gy Fuels,2025,9,5749–5771 This jou nal is © The Royal Socie y o Chemis y 2025
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