Young Poles in Times of Dramatic Change: Refugees, Identity and Social Engagement

YOUNG POLES IN TIMES OF
DRAMATIC CHANGE:
REFUGEES, IDENTITY
AND SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT
Félix K awa zek and Pio Golds ein
ZOiS REPORT
No. 2 / 2022 · Sep embe 2022
Sou ce: all pic u es aken by Pio Golds ein
YOUNG POLES IN TIMES OF
DRAMATIC CHANGE:
REFUGEES, IDENTITY
AND SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT
Félix K awa zek and Pio Golds ein
ZOiS REPORT
No. 2 / 2022 · Sep embe 2022
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
2
Con en
2 ____ Summa y
4 ____ In oduc ion
6 ____ Me hodology and key social indica o s abou young Poles
8 ____ Poli ical a i udes, elec o al choice and poli ical mobilisa ion
12 ___ A i udes owa ds people leeing om Uk aine
16 ___ Re ugees a he bo de wi h Bela us: A di e en o he
20 ___ Poland’s place in Eu ope
22 ___ Views on Polish his o y and na ional iden i y
25 ___ Conclusion
25 ___ Imp in
Summa y
Young people ha e expe ienced p o ound changes in he way Polish na ional
iden i y is exp essed in public since he conse a i e Law and Jus ice Pa y
(PiS) gained a - eaching con ol o Polish poli ics in 2015. This epo exam-
ines young people’s poli ical a i udes in conjunc ion wi h hei iews on he
a i al o o e wo million e ugees om Uk aine in 2022, and hei iews
on hose e ugees who ha e been ying o ge in o he EU h ough he Polish-
Bela usian bo de since 2021. Views on bo h e en s allow us o be e unde -
s and young people’s sense o Polishness. Mo eo e , opinions on na ional his-
o y a e cen al o unde s andings o iden i y, as a e young people’s pe cep-
ions o Poland’s place in Eu ope.
The ea s and unce ain ies young Poles exp ess a e analysed in an o iginal
online su ey conduc ed in Ma ch 2022 among 2 002 esponden s aged 16–34,
combined wi h insigh s om ocus g oup discussions conduc ed in May 2022
among a se o young pa icipan s and pa icipan s aged 65 and olde in he ci -
ies o Gdańsk and Lublin. Such a combina ion o me hodologies allows unique
insigh s in o he easoning behind he pa e ns ha a su ey can iden i y.
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
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The key indings a e as ollows:
– Nea ly hal o young people s a e ha Poland should le in as many e ugees
om Uk aine as necessa y. The p esence o Uk ainians in Poland since
he s a o he wa in Uk aine in 2014 and he esul ing pe sonal con ac s
a e an impo an ac o in he welcoming a i ude o and suppo o he
Uk ainian e ugees who ha e a i ed since Feb ua y 2022.
– The e is also o e all app o al o he poli ical suppo o Uk aine, in pa -
icula when i comes o supplying humani a ian assis ance. In addi ion,
nea ly 15 % o esponden s suppo he deploymen o Polish soldie s o
Uk aine.
– The welcoming a i ude is-à- is Uk ainian e ugees s ands in s a k con-
as o he suppo o he pushbacks o he mos ly Muslim e ugees who
ha e ied o en e Poland ia Bela us since 2021. The ela i e e hnic and
eligious homogenei y o Poland ha esul ed om Wo ld Wa II eeds in o
ea o o he s, pa icula ly Muslims. The e is, mo eo e , a he low suppo
o g an ing hose e ugees he igh o apply o asylum, wi h only 9 % o
young people s a ing ha hese people should de ini ely ha e he igh o
apply.
– Gende is c ucial when i comes o unde s anding he di e en iews on he
e ugees coming om Uk aine and he Middle Eas . Women a e mo e likely
o wan o see e ugees om Uk aine e u n as soon as i becomes possible
o Uk aine, whe eas men a e mo e likely o suppo a ha d line on e ugees
a he bo de wi h Bela us.
– Despi e he cu en go e nmen ’s in ol emen in memo y poli ics, he com-
mon Polish-Uk ainian his o y is p ac ically unknown o young Poles, and
e en when i is known i is conside ed la gely i ele an . Uk aine and Be-
la us a e o young Poles a di e en ‘Eas e n Eu ope’ han he Cen al Eu-
ope hey eel pa o .
– The in o mal help ha Polish people, including he younge gene a ion,
ha e o e ed o e ugees om Uk aine is ha d o quan i y. Many o e ed ac-
commoda ion in hei own homes, anspo a ion, o help in se ling in, bu
ew would conside his ‘humani a ian aid’ in he ea ly phase o he wa .
– Resen men and ea a e among he key emo ions d i ing he opinions
and sen imen s o many young people when hey alk abou hei a i udes
owa ds e ugees and ela ed changes in Polish socie y and poli ics. Young
Poles, and pa icula ly young women, a e signi ican ly mo e conce ned
abou wel a e issues such as access o childca e, heal hca e, and he si ua-
ion on he job ma ke han people o hei g andpa en s’ gene a ion. These
ea s and unce ain ies unde pin assessmen s o poli ics and a i udes o-
wa ds e hnic and social di e si y in Poland.

ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
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In oduc ion
Since he s a o Russia’s la ge-scale in asion in o Uk aine in Feb ua y 2022
an unp eceden ed numbe o people om Uk aine has a i ed in Poland.
Polish socie y and he go e nmen ha e been a he o e on o p o iding
assis ance o hem.1 This esponse o he consequences o wa in Uk aine is
key o unde s anding wha Poland s ands o in he ea ly 21s cen u y and
how young Poles hink abou hei own na ional iden i y a a momen when
con lic ing ideas abou wha i means o be Polish a e being p omo ed by
di e en poli ical and cul u al ac o s while he coun y is unde going p o-
ound economic and social change.
O e he las yea s, young Poles ha e been exposed o a conce ed e o
by he conse a i e Polish go e nmen headed by Law and Jus ice (P awo i
Sp awiedliwość, PiS) o a icula e a new ision o Polish iden i y. Since abou
2015, he poli ics o na ional iden i y ha e inc easingly cen ed on he Ca h-
olic Chu ch and been in o med by an essen ialised and eleological ision
o Polish his o y. A hei co e, he his o ical na a i es p opaga ed by PiS
s ess he coun y’s endu ing he oism bu also he su e ing and ic imhood
1 ‘Uk aine Re ugee Si ua ion’, Ope a ional Da a Po al, UNHCR, 23 Augus 2022, h ps://da a.
unhc .o g/en/si ua ions/uk aine
FIGURE 1
Loca ion o ocus g oups and numbe o su ey pa icipan s in oi odeship
Sou ce: ZOiS
zachodniopo-
mo skie
75
dolnośląskie
126
kujawsko-
pomo skie
116
lubelskie
130
lubuskie
41
łódzkie
115
małopolskie
201
mazowieckie
285
opolskie
53
podka packie
161
podlaskie
61
pomo skie
132
śląskie
195
świę ok zyskie
64
wa mińsko-
mazu skie
68
wielkopolskie
179
Gdańsk
Lublin
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
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ha can be p ojec ed on o Wo ld Wa II in pa icula . On he o he hand,
young people ha e been pa o he b oade social and demog aphic change
he coun y has unde gone, e lec ed, among o he hings, in he laicisa ion
o socie y, he inc eased in e na ional mobili y o young Poles, as well as
mo e isible e hnic di e ences in he popula ion. Uk ainians in pa icu-
la ha e been a signi ican pa o he public space since 2014 and many
companies, in addi ion o se e al municipal go e nmen s, ca e ed o hei
new cus ome s by p o iding Uk ainian (and some imes Russian) e sions o
websi es, hi ing Uk ainian- and Russian-speaking s a , o adding Uk ain-
ian as an in e ace language o di e en machines.
The a i al o la ge numbe s o Uk ainians in he sp ing o 2022, one conse-
quence o Russia’s wa agains Uk aine, u he al e ed Poland’s social and
linguis ic make-up a a momen when he go e nmen had been engaged
in conce ed na ion-building e o s o nea ly a decade. A he same ime,
Poland b ie ly ook cen e s age in Eu opean poli ics as he coun y led calls
o s ong suppo o Uk aine. I emains unce ain, howe e , whe he
he new poli ical weigh which Poland and some o he o me Eas e n bloc
coun ies ha e gained, will pe sis .
400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
Females Males
Sou ce: S a is ics Poland
400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
Females Males
Sou ce: S a is ics Poland
FIGURE 2
Popula ion by sex and age in 2021
Size and s uc u e and i al s a is ics in Poland by e i o ial
di ision. As o June 30, 2021
FIGURE 3
In o ma ion a he Ci y Council o
Łódź Ci izen Se ice Poin s a ing:
“We speak Uk ainian”, “We speak
Russian” – July 2021
Sou ce: S a is ics Poland, h ps://s a .go .pl/en/ opics/popula ion/popula ion/popula ion-size-
and-s uc u e-and- i al-s a is ics-in-poland-by- e i o ial-di ision-as-o -june-30-2021,3,30.h ml
Sou ce: pho og aphed by Pio Golds ein
Female
Male
60
30
70
40
10
80
50
20
85 and mo e
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
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Me hodology and key social indica o s abou
young Poles
We conduc ed an online su ey in es iga ing he poli ical and social a -
i udes o young people aged 16–34 li ing ac oss Poland. The su ey was
ielded in ea ly Ma ch 2022, igh a e he Russian in asion o Uk aine, al-
lowing us o include ques ions on how young people assess he si ua ion in
Uk aine and he a i al o e ugees om Uk aine o Poland. To gene a e he
sample, we se quo as o gende , age, he egion o esidence, as well as he
size o he se lemen in which esponden s li ed. A o al o 2 002 espond-
en s pa icipa ed in he su ey, which was conduc ed by ARC Rynek i Opinia,
a company wi h one o he la ges online panels in he coun y.2
In e linked wi h he su ey, we conduc ed a se ies o ocus g oup discus-
sions in he i s hal o May 2022 in Lublin and Gdańsk, wo ci ies ha di e
conside ably in e ms o hei economic condi ions, poli ical cul u e and ge-
og aphic loca ion. Wi h a popula ion o 338,000 and si ua ed nea he bo de
wi h Bela us and Uk aine, Lublin is a conse a i e s onghold wi h a highly
isible Ca holic Chu ch — he Ca holic Uni e si y o Lublin is he coun y’s
mos impo an Ca holic uni e si y. Gdańsk, wi h popula ion o mo e han
480,000, is one o Poland’s economic cen es and si ua ed on he Bal ic Sea
wi h a di e se cul u al li e and a much mo e p og essi e poli ical ou look.
In each ci y we o ganised six ocus g oups — h ee wi h young people aged
18–34 and h ee wi h people aged 65 and o e ( TABLE 1). Pa icipan s we e
ec ui ed by ARC Rynek i Opinia wi h a iew o including dis inc a i udes
o Poland becoming mo e mul icul u al. In pa icula , we p e-sc eened e-
sponden s’ a i udes o he impo ance o Ca holicism o belonging o he
Polish na ion, he inc eased e hnic di e si y o Poland, and hei iews on
he a i al o e ugees ia Bela us and om Uk aine. The e was a gende
balance in each g oup and a o al o eigh pa icipan s ook pa in each o
hem.
Among he young people who pa icipa ed in ou su ey, 70 % con inue o
s a e ha hey a e a ilia ed wi h he Roman Ca holic Chu ch. This compa es
2 Many hanks o Ka alin Baye o he excellen esea ch assis ance on his p ojec .
Mul icul u alis An i-mul icul u alis Mixed
18 – 34 Lublin / Gdańsk Lublin / Gdańsk Lublin / Gdańsk
65 + Lublin / Gdańsk Lublin  /  Gdańsk Lublin / Gdańsk
TABLE 1
Resea ch Design o Focus G oup Discussions
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
7
wi h oughly 90 % o he gene al popula ion acco ding o o icial go e n-
men al da a.3 Ano he 12 % indica e ha hey a e a heis , while 6 % say hey
do no belong o any denomina ion. In Poland he e is no Chu ch ax and
he e is he e o e li le incen i e o indi iduals, o en bap ised in in ancy,
o disen oll om he chu ch egis e , a p ocess ha is, mo eo e , discou -
aged and o en made di icul by local cle gy. As a esul , people may s a e
hei eligious a ilia ion e en i hey do no p ac ise o belie e.
Figu es o a endance a eligious se ices a e consis en wi h he gap be-
ween sel -decla ed eligiosi y and eligious p ac ice. In ou sample, he la -
e is hea ily pola ised. Roughly 40 % o esponden s men ion ha be o e
he pandemic hey pa icipa ed in se ices on a egula basis, a leas once
a mon h, whe eas ano he 52 % ha dly e e a ended chu ch. Fo he en i e
popula ion i is now es ima ed ha only a ound 37 % a end Sunday mass
egula ly.4 I is wo h men ioning ha he online se ices o e ed a he
heigh o he Co id-19 pandemic did no ca ch on, wi h a majo i y o espond-
en s (62 %) men ioning ha hey p ac ically ne e pa icipa ed in hem and
only 14 % pa icipa ing once a mon h o mo e equen ly.
Du ing he pandemic, an agonisms deepened be ween he Chu ch and
young people and especially women, when he o me suppo ed cul u ally
conse a i e legisla ion aimed a igh ening he al eady e y es ic i e
abo ion law. Young people we e mo e likely o hold chu ch hie a chies e-
sponsible o his de elopmen and dis anced hemsel es om he ins i u-
ion. An online p o es encou aging apos asy ( o mal exi om he Roman
Ca holic Chu ch) o med pa o he p o es s a e 22 Oc obe 2020, when he
law egula ing access o legal abo ion was u he limi ed.
The hash ag #apos azja sp ead on social media alongside de ailed ins uc-
ions on how o lea e he ins i u ion. Some chu ch buildings we e sp ayed
by p o-choice ac i is s and se ices we e in e up ed in pa ishes ac oss he
coun y.5 Slogans calling o limi s o he in ol emen o he chu ch in na-
ional poli ics we e widesp ead and, ema kably, some young people ied
o e-de ine wha being eligious means o hem and p opose e sions o
eligiosi y dis anced om he cle gy. In ou su ey, a ound 250 people who
sel -iden i y as Ca holic say ha hey ag ee wi h p o es slogans ‘Sepa a ion
o Chu ch and s a e!’ and ‘Jesus would ma ch wi h us’.
The amily has u ned in o a zone o poli ical con lic which young people
may choose o a oid consciously ( FIGURE 5). In ac , he ex en o which poli-
ics a e discussed wi h amily membe s di e s hugely among he espond-
en s, and jus o e one qua e o hem indica e a high le el o ag eemen
on poli ical ma e s wi hin he amily. This is signi ican o in e gene a-
ional ansmission and con inui y. I is he mo e u ban and educa ed mem-
be s o he young gene a ion in pa icula ha end o disag ee wi h hei
3 ‘Religious denomina ions in Poland 2015-2018’, S a is ics Poland, 28 Feb ua y 2020, h ps://
s a .go .pl/en/ opics/o he -s udies/ eligious-denomina ions/ eligious-denomina ions-in-po-
land-2015-2018,1,2.h ml
4 A kadiuszG uszczyński,‘Kościół aciwie nychw eko dowym empie’,wybo cza.pl,1July2022,
h ps://wa szawa.wybo cza.pl/wa szawa/7,54420,28638870,37-polakow-chodzi-w-niedziele-do-
kosciola- o-o-wiele-mniej.h ml
5 Ma iannaSzczygielskaandPio Golds ein,‘Th eekeywo ds obe e unde s and hePolish
abo ionp o es s’,ZOiSSpo ligh 41 / 2020,7No embe 2020,h ps://www.zois-be lin.de/en/
publica ions/ h ee-keywo ds- o-be e -unde s and- he-polish-abo ion-p o es s
FIGURE 4
“Jesus would walk wi h us”
Slogan on a p o es agains igh en-
ingo  heabo ionlaw,Oc obe 2021
Sou ce: pho og aphed by Pio Golds ein
An agonisms deepened
be ween he Chu ch
and young people.
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
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Di e ences by gende a e pa icula ly elling he e. Women a e signi ican ly
mo e likely o indica e ha Uk ainian e ugees should be accep ed on he
assump ion ha hey will e u n o Uk aine as soon as possible, whe eas
men a e signi ican ly mo e likely o indica e ha he e ugees should ha e
he oppo uni y o emain in Poland. Religious people a e signi ican ly less
likely o wan Uk ainian e ugees o ha e he oppo uni y o in eg a e in o
Poland in he longe e m.
The ocus g oups shed u he ligh on his ma e : ques ions abou speci ic
aspec s o in eg a ion made many o he pa icipan s uncom o able. While
discussing a ision o se e al millions o Uk ainians s ill li ing in Poland
in wo yea s, we asked whe he in such a si ua ion (1) Uk ainian young
people should be allowed o w i e hei Ma u a ( inal high-school exams) in
Uk ainian o Russian and (2) whe he Uk ainians li ing in Poland should
be allowed o es ablish hei own poli ical pa ies. While many pa icipan s
belie ed i would be be e o Uk ainian young people o w i e hei inal
exams in hei own languages, he e was s ong opposi ion o he idea ha
Uk ainians could ha e hei own poli ical pa ies in Poland.
The Polish go e nmen was one o he mos ou spoken suppo e s o a i m
esponse o he Russian assaul on Uk aine igh om he ea lies days o
he wa . Ini ially, he Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies ha , along-
side he Bal ic s a es, called o decisi e ac ion agains Russia mo ed in o
Eu ope’s poli ical cen e and success ully shaped he agenda o Eu opean
poli ics. In a symbolically impo an mo e, P esiden And zej Duda was he
i s Eu opean leade o add ess he wa ime Uk ainian Pa liamen in pe -
son du ing a su p ise isi in May 2022, when he emphasised ha he con-
cession o Uk ainian e i o y would be a blow o he Wes , also implying
ha Poland is a c i ical en i y in ha ‘global Wes ’.
The o icial poli ical line o e laps wi h he a i udes o la ge sec ions o he
popula ion, and o young people in pa icula . I espec i e o gende , in-
come o place o esidence, young people unequi ocally expec hei coun-
y’s leade ship o suppo Uk aine ( FIGURE 12).
Beyond he ea ly consensus on suppo o Uk aine, he su ey also in es-
iga es how esponden s hink Poland should suppo Uk aine ( FIGURE 13).
1495
1146
297
25
Humani a ian aid
Mili a y aid (supply o weapons)
Sending Polish soldie s o Uk aine
O he
FIGURE 13
How should Poland suppo Uk aine?
W jaki sposób Polska powinna pop zeć Uk ainę?
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34,
Poland, Ma ch 2022
Suppo Russia
0.5% S ay neu al
16.4%
Suppo Uk aine
83.1%
Suppo Russia S ay neu al Suppo Uk aine
FIGURE 12
How should Poland beha e in iew
o he cu en wa be ween Russia
and Uk aine?
Jak Pana / Pani zdaniem Polska powinna
zachować się w sy uacji obecnej kon on-
acji mili a nej między Rosją a Uk ainą?

ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
15
Suppo o humani a ian aid is unanimous, while mo e han hal o e-
sponden s a e in a ou o supplying mili a y aid. Howe e , mo e di ec in-
ol emen in he o m o sending Polish soldie s o Uk aine is suppo ed by
jus 300 people in a sample o 2,002.
The spon aneous mobilisa ion in suppo o hose leeing he wa was a pa -
icula ly no ewo hy ea u e o he Polish esponse o he a i al o e ugees.
Acco ding o da a om CBOS, a ound wo- hi ds o Poles men ioned ha
hey helped Uk ainians.9 When we asked esponden s wha hey pe sonally
would be p epa ed o do in he cu en si ua ion in Ma ch 2022, mo e han
hal s a ed ha hey would be p epa ed o send money o hand o e ood
pa cels. O he o ms o suppo we lis ed we e ha dly e e chosen, including
pa icipa ion in an i-wa p o es s in Poland ( FIGURE 14). Asked abou an i-
wa p o es s in he ocus g oups, pa icipan s c i ically ema ked ha such
p o es s would in no way help hose leeing he wa and would be a was e
o ene gy. Meanwhile, people ac oss Poland engaged in helping Uk ainians
di ec ly, by hos ing hem in p i a e homes, b inging p ams o ain s a ions,
and a anging supplies o ood and basic necessi ies o hose who had jus
a i ed o we e passing h ough Poland.
Religiosi y is a majo ac o in p edic ing lowe le els o suppo o s a e-
o ganised humani a ian aid. Weal h o po e y a e also impo an p edic-
o s he e: hose esponden s wi h he lowes disposable income and hose
who a e he bes o a e also less likely o suppo sending humani a ian
aid. Suppo o mili a y aid is explained by wo ac o s in pa icula : i
9 ‘Opinions abou he Russian in asion o Uk aine’, CBOS Public Opinion Resea ch Cen e , Ma ch
2022, h ps://www.cbos.pl/EN/publica ions/ epo s/2022/038_22.pd
2.2%
17.3%
13.4%
2.6%
5.2%
56.2%
1.6%
1.5%
Re usal o answe
I don' know/ha d o say
I will no do any hing
O he
I will join he an i-wa
p o es s in Poland
I will dona e money /
send ood pa cels
I will go o Uk aine o
p o ide humani a ian aid
I will go o Uk aine and ake pa
in he a med esis ance mo emen
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
FIGURE 14
Wha a e you pe sonally likely o do o he de ence o Uk aine?
Co najp awdopodobniej Pan / Pani osobiście z obi dla ob ony Uk ainy?
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
16
is highes among esponden s who do no ha e child en and lowes among
hose who indica ed hey would o e o a - igh poli ician K zysz o Bosak.
Wha ’s mo e, esponden s li ing in he eas e n pa o Poland a e less likely
o app o e o mili a y aid. This could be linked o he ea ha Poland i sel
could ge d awn in o he con lic o o a p e e ence o keeping weapons
o he de ence o Poland, a he han gi ing hem away. Indeed, opposi ion
o sending Polish soldie s is pa icula ly p onounced among suppo e s o
Bosak, a poli ician who has been emphasising he need o ocus on Poland’s
own p epa edness o wa ins ead o suppo ing Uk aine. Focus g oups
ha e u he con i med ha bo h young and old Poles a e opposed o di ec
mili a y in ol emen , mos ly because o conce ns o he people who would
be sen o igh . The only pa icipan o ou ocus g oups who said ha he
answe o his ques ion was no ob ious, was himsel a p o essional soldie .
Resen men and ea a e wo s ikingly conspicuous emo ions in opinions
oiced by ocus g oup pa icipan s and help o unde s and he su ey e-
sul s. The obse a ion ha some o he ecen ly a i ed Uk ainians a e
ac ually well o was made se e al imes. Indeed, some pa icipan s we e
uncom o able wi h he ac ha he e ugees om Uk aine unse le hei
own concep ions o a e ugee — a pe son who is poo and eady o li e o
wo k unde any condi ions. The a i al o weal hy Uk ainians played in o
exis ing class ensions and esen men s. A s a emen by an olde pa icipan
in Lublin illus a es his iew:
‘‘Rich people led he e — he poo , he ue pa io s, s ayed he e, hey
igh and die. And hose [who came] do no need o ake any money om
he Polish go e nmen , because hey a e ich.’
(Pa icipan #8, male, Lublin, Senio s – An i)
Younge pa icipan s a e conce ned abou an icipa ed compe i ion on he
job ma ke and he access o wel a e and se ices, pa icula ly childca e
and heal hca e, a o ded o Uk ainians. In he wo ds o one pa icipan :
‘‘They ha e be e access o he heal h se ice han we do and ha ’s no cool’
(Pa icipan #5, emale, Lublin, Young – Mix).
Re ugees a he bo de wi h Bela us:
A di e en o he
In s a k opposi ion o he welcoming a i ude o Polish socie y owa ds peo-
ple leeing om Uk aine, hose e ugees ha ha e ied o en e Poland ia
he bo de wi h Bela us ha e been me wi h signi ican hos ili y. The Polish
go e nmen has been c i icised by opposi ional ac i is s and in e na ional
poli icians o i s iolen pushbacks a he bo de , whe eas he go e nmen
i sel has claimed i is de ending Eu ope by no le ing Muslim e ugees
en e he Eu opean Union. This he o ic was e lec ed in a sho English-
language clip made by he O ice o he P ime Minis e showing e ugees
h owing s ones a Polish bo de gua ds alongside blu ed images o peo-
ple in uni o ms s anding behind he e ugees on he Bela usian side o he
bo de . The ilm sugges ed ha he e ugees a e dange ous and ha hei
The a i al o weal hy
Uk ainians played in o
exis ing class ensions
and esen men s.
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
17
appea ance has mo e o do wi h Bela usian/Russian p o oca ions han wi h
he e ugees’ need o asylum.10 The clip was shown — wi h Polish sub i-
les — a he beginning o ou ocus g oups, and whe eas he mul icul u alis
g oups iden i ied i as a piece o p opaganda, he an i-mul icul u alis s and
mixed g oups ook he clip a ace alue, e lec ing bo h he pa icipan s’
iews and hei unc i ical app oach o s a e-p oduced media.
Among he young esponden s he e is a clea iew ha hose non-Eu opean
e ugees should no be allowed o apply o asylum ( FIGURE 15). Roughly in
line wi h iews in he gene al popula ion,11 only 9 % say ha hese e ugees
should de ini ely ha e he igh o apply, which is also wha hey a e en i led
o unde he Gene a Con en ion.
Fu he analysis o hese iews illus a es ha suppo e s o Wa saw mayo
and Ci ic Pla o m p esiden ial candida e Ra ał T zaskowski, as well as sup-
po e s o MEP Robe Bied oń, who also an in he las p esiden ial ace, a e
signi ican ly mo e likely o g an e ugees he igh o apply o asylum — as
a e esponden s wi h lowe le els o educa ion.
Howe e , a he ocus g oups, pa icula ly hose wi h a mix o mul icul-
u alis s and an i-mul icul u alis s, pa icipan s a gued ha he e ugees
should ha e been allowed o apply o asylum had hey in ended o c oss
he bo de in he igh place, ha is a he o mal bo de c ossing, jus like
10 Chancelle yo  heP imeMinis e o Poland[@P emie RP_en],‘Wemus s and oge he  o
de endEu opeagains Lukashenko’shyb idwa …’[Twee ],Twi e ,21No embe 2021,h ps://
wi e .com/p emie p_en/s a us/1462330955851603969?lang=en
11 ‘Publicopinionon hec isison hebo de wi hBela us’,CBOSPublicOpinionResea chCen e ,
Decembe 2021, h ps://cbos.pl/EN/publica ions/ epo s/2021/160_21.pd
28.0%
39.7%
23.2%
9.0%
De ini ely no
P obably no
P obably yes
De ini ely yes
FIGURE 15
[...] Should he Polish au ho i ies allow mig an s (e. g. om A ghanis an,
some Middle Eas coun ies and A ica) s anded on he Polish-Bela usian
bo de o apply o asylum o no ?
Polska, Li wa, Ło wa i Es onia oska żają Biało uś o zo ganizowanie p ze zu u na ich e y o-
ia uchodźców – m. in. z A ganis anu, niek ó ych k ajów Bliskiego Wschodu o az A yki. Czy
polskie władze powinny pozwolić mig an om pozos ającym na g anicy polsko-biało uskiej
wys ąpić o azyl w Polsce, czy nie?
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
The e is a clea
iew ha hose non-
Eu opean e ugees
should no be allowed
o apply o asylum.
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
18
he Uk ainians. Mo eo e , some a gued ha Poland would need he igh
sys em o check who he e ugees we e and whe he i was sa e o le hem
in. Gi en hei assump ion ha Poland lacked such a sys em, and ha i was
unlikely o exis in he o eseeable u u e o echnological easons, his was
an a gumen o con enience. The iew mus ne e heless be widesp ead be-
cause a pa icipan om a ocus g oup whe e his iew was no oiced e-
jec ed his line o a gumen a ion:
‘‘I was a mis ake, a gumen s we e pu o wa d ha hese people a e no
checked, ha hey a e no leeing om wa . Now, when he con lic in
Uk aine b oke ou hese people we e no checked ei he , e en immi-
g an s om Bela us go h ough he same bo de . I don’ hink ha a
Muslim immig an is wo se han a Uk ainian one.’
(Pa icipan #7, male, Lublin, Young – P o)
The con o e sial pushbacks a e la gely suppo ed by he young people,
wi h only a ound one-qua e opposing hem and ano he 18 % o he iew
ha hey should ha e been e en mo e se e e ( FIGURE 16). I is in pa icula
hose young people who li e in he coun y’s eas e n oi odships who ag ee
wi h pushbacks, bu also men, he olde people in ou sample, and hose who
o ed o Bosak o Duda. Rema kably, women we e mo e likely o exp ess a
desi e o e en s onge pushbacks.
The Ca holic Chu ch in Poland go in ol ed in a ious ways, and some p ies s
and Ca holic ac i is s (e. g. membe s o KIK-Club o Ca holic In elligen sia)
ied o alle ia e he su e ing a he Polish-Bela usian bo de . Fo ins ance,
one independen Ca holic ounda ion paid o pos e s a bus s ops wi h he
ollowing quo e by a p ies which e e enced he Polish adi ion o lea ing
28.8%
30.0%
10.0%
8.0%
14.6%
8.7%
Fully app op ia e
Ra he app op ia e
Ra he inapp op ia e, he pushbacks
should ha e been mo e o ce ul
Fully inapp op ia e, he
pushbacks should ha e been
much mo e o ce ul
Ra he inapp op ia e, he e should
ha e been ewe pushbacks
Fully inapp op ia e, he e should no
ha e been any pushbacks a all
FIGURE 16
How do you e alua e he go e nmen ’s ac ions pushing back mig an s
o Bela us, which c i ics say is illegal and a iola ion o human igh s?
Polski ząd za eagował s osując wobec mig an ów p ocedu ę pushbacku na Biało uś,
co zdaniem k y yków jes niezgodne z p awem i s anowi na uszenie p aw człowieka.
Jak Pan / Pani ocenia akie działania ządu?
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
19
a pla e o an unexpec ed gues a dinne on Ch is mas E e: ‘I we don’ s a
being open o o he s, we can h ow ha emp y pla e p epa ed o he Ch is -
mas able ou he window.’ Howe e , he e was no o icial line in suppo o
e ugees and i was down o indi idual p ies s and o he chu ch membe s
o decide on hei s ance. When we asked young Poles in he su ey whe he
hey would ha e wan ed he chu ch o be in ol ed, he mos common iew
is ha he e should be no engagemen on he bo de . One can imagine ha
p o- e ugee engagemen by he Chu ch would be di icul o accep o ha
pa o socie y which ea s Muslims and looks o ways o legi imise a he
han con on hese iews.
Ou ocus g oups wi h an i-mul icul u alis s and o a la ge ex en also hose
wi h ‘mixed’ pa icipan s con i med he an i- e ugee sen imen s. Pa ici-
pan s would ypically jus i y hei opposi ion o welcoming he e ugees
om he Bela usian bo de by claiming ha i was dange ous and b inging
hei easoning in line wi h he a gumen s ha ha e been used by an i-mi-
g an and an i- e ugee mo emen s in Wes e n Eu ope. Fo ins ance, pa ici-
pan s o ou ocus g oup wi h an i-mul icul u alis you h in Gdańsk a gued:
‘‘I don’ wan o come o as a acis , bu yes, ha is a eal h ea .’
‘‘No one has made his up, hey ha e ea ned hemsel es he epu a ion
hey ha e.’
‘‘They do no ca e abou in eg a ion, hey wan o build hei encla es,
hei laws, hei ai h, hei ideas, and his is dange ous.’
(Pa icipan s in Gdańsk, Young – An i)
On he o he hand, in he mul icul u alis g oups we hea d opposing opin-
ions. On some occasions, he pe cei ed h ea o a ‘Muslim in asion’ was
jux aposed wi h he h ea o local adicalisa ion:
‘‘E e y eligion and e e y eligious ana icism is ha m ul. When I hea
ha we All-Polish People [Wszechpolacy — also he name o a a - igh
mo emen ] a e going o de end ou adi ional alues agains Muslim
e ugees, I am mo e a aid o hese Ca holic Poles han o Islamis s. Fo
me, e e y eligion in i s ana ic e sion is a h ea , bu I do no hink
ha Islam is wo se han Ca holicism. I ea i he same, because i we
can li e among adical Ca holics, we can li e among Muslims.’
(Pa icipan #2, emale, Lublin, Young – P o)
Asked di ec ly abou di e ences in he app oach o Uk ainian e ugees and
hose ying o en e h ough he Polish-Bela usian bo de , pa icipan s
would mos ly pu o wa d wo a gumen s: he pe cei ed cul u al dis ance
and he closeness o he wa in Uk aine ha has b ough abou he e ugee
mo emen . The ac ha many al eady knew some Uk ainians e iden ly
also played an impo an ole in accep ing e ugees om ha coun y.
‘‘We we e a aid mainly o he cul u al di e ence and he e he cul u al
di e ence is e y small [...] We can see wi h ou own eyes wha is hap-
pening he e, many Uk ainians ha e al eady come o us and se led
down, so we know hese people, in my wo k he e a e many people om
Uk aine.’
(Pa icipan #4, emale, Gdańsk, Young – Mix)

ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
20
‘‘In [ he case o he si ua ion a he bo de wi h] Bela us, he message was
no ha he e is a wa , ha people a e dying, ha some hing e ible is
happening o hem. He e we ha e a comple ely di e en message, ha
o wa ...’
(Pa icipan #6, male, Gdańsk, Young – P o)
Poland’s place in Eu ope
The discou se o he conse a i e Polish go e nmen posi s a undamen al
opposi ion be ween Poland’s na ional iden i y and he Eu opean Union. I
is common, no only among membe s o he go e ning PiS, o claim ha
Poland p ese es a ue sense o Eu opeanness and ha he EU’s poli ical
ins i u ions a e a h ea o Poland’s cul u e. When young people a e asked
whe he hey hink ha Polish na ional iden i y is h ea ened by Eu opean
in eg a ion, howe e , hey end o no hink ha his is he case ( FIGURE 17).
The e is no clea -cu pic u e, wi h nea ly one- hi d ag eeing wi h he idea
ha Eu opean in eg a ion cons i u es a h ea o Polish iden i y.
Unpacking hose iews u he , i eme ges ha men and eligious people in
pa icula eel ha Polish iden i y is unde h ea in he con ex o EU’s in e-
g a ion. Gi en he con o e sy in Eu opean poli ics ha led o he emo al
o e e ences o Ch is iani y om EU ea ies, his is no su p ising. Sup-
po e s o T zaskowski eel he leas h ea ened in hei iden i y, whe eas
Bosak suppo e s eel pa icula ly unde h ea .
In ligh o he complica ed p eceden se by he UK in lea ing he Eu opean
Union, suppo o a Polish exi om he EU is ela i ely low, e en i i is a
FIGURE 17
In he con ex o Eu opean in eg a ion, do you hink
ha you Polish iden i y is cu en ly unde h ea ?
W kon ekście p ocesu in eg acji eu opejskiej, czy uważa
Pan / Pani, że Pana/Pani polska ożsamość jes obecnie
zag ożona?
7.0%
24.3%
42.7%
26.0%
To ally ag ee
Tend o ag ee
Tend o disag ee
To ally disag ee
Da en eihen2
74.6%
9.7%
5.2%
4.0%
6.4%
Remain a membe o he
Eu opean Union
Lea e he Eu opean Union
I would submi a blank
ballo pape
I would no o e
Don' know
Da en eihen2
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
FIGURE 18
Imagine he e was a e e endum in Poland omo ow
abou membe ship o he Eu opean Union. How would
you o e?
P oszę sobie wyob azić, że ju o miałoby się odbyć e e endum
do yczące członkos wa Polski w Unii Eu opejskiej Czy
głosowałby / głosowałaby Pan / Pani za ym, by Polska pozos ała w
Unii Eu opejskiej, czy za ym, by z niej wys ąpiła?
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
21
egula opic o deba e, in pa icula when ques ions o human igh s and
he ule o law in Poland su ace. Ne e heless, young Poles ha e a clea
iew on ha ques ion and only a ound 10 % would o e o lea e he EU (
FIGURE 18). This igu e is well below he na ional a e age o a ound 17 % in
Augus 2021.12 Men a e mo e likely o o e lea e han women, and e en i he
inancial posi ion o a esponden ’s household has no s a is ically signi ican
e ec , i is he wo se o who would o e lea e in he hypo he ical scena -
io. Opposi ion o he EU is pa icula ly s ong among esponden s li ing in
he coun y’s eas e n oi odships, whe eas suppo e s o T zaskowski and
Hołownia a e signi ican ly mo e suppo i e o EU membe ship. Unsu p is-
ingly, hose who o e o Bosak a e mos likely o o e o a Polexi .
Young Poles exp ess a e y s ong emo ional a achmen o Poland, hei lo-
cal egions and ci ies ( FIGURE 19). They also claim an emo ional a achmen
o he Eu opean Union and Eu ope in gene al, as well as o Cen al Eu ope.
Wha is ema kable in he con ex o he solida i y wi h Uk aine, howe e ,
is he much weake emo ional a achmen hey p o ess o ha e o Eas Cen-
al Eu ope — unde s ood o include Bela us and Uk aine. A a simila ly low
le el o he a he abs ac sel -iden i ica ion as a cosmopoli an ci izen o he
wo ld, his alue is po en ially impo an o unde s anding he long- e m
po en ial o solida i y wi hin Eas e n Eu ope.
12 Ma iaWilczek,‘Suppo inPoland o lea ingEUhighes ino e adecade, indspoll’,No es
om Poland, 3 Augus 2021, h ps://no es ompoland.com/2021/08/03/suppo -in-poland- o -
lea ing-eu-highes -in-o e -a-decade- inds-poll/
FIGURE 19
How emo ionally a ached a e you o ...
Ludzie mogą odczuwać óżny s opień p zywiązania do k aju, w k ó ym mieszkają, do swojego egionu i do Eu opy.
Na ile jes Pan / Pani emocjonalnie związany / związana z:
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
No a all
emo ionally a ached
No emo ionally
a ached
Emo ionally
a ached
Ve y emo ionally
a ached
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
None o he abo e, I eel like
a ci izen o he wo ld
My ci y in Poland
My egion in Poland
Poland
Cen al Eu ope (Poland, Czech
Republic, Hunga y, e c.)
Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope
(also Uk aine, Bela us, e c.)
The Eu opean Union
Eu ope (as a con inen )
No a all emo ionally a ached
No emo ionally a ached
Emo ionally a ached
Ve y emo ionally a ached
Eu ope (as a con inen )
The Eu opean Union
Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope (also
Uk aine, Bela us, e c.)
Cen al Eu ope (Poland, Czech
Republic, Hunga y, e c.)
Poland
My egion in Poland
My ci y in Poland
None o he abo e, I eel like a
ci izeno  hewo ld
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
22
468
282
189
180
68
57
41
24
18
USA
Hunga y
Uk aine
Ge many
Czech Republic
UK
Li huania
F ance
Slo akia
1221
284
66
20
19
17
Russia
Ge many
Bela us
USA
F ance
Hunga y
Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022Sou ce: Da a om ZOiS su ey o 2,002 people aged 16 – 34, Poland, Ma ch 2022
Poland’s geopoli ical posi ion signi ican ly de eloped a he beginning o
2022 when he coun y’s poli icians ook cen e s age in Eu opean poli ics as
ac o s in he wa in Uk aine. I is he e o e no su p ise ha young Poles oo
conside Russia o be Poland’s bigges enemy by a sizeable ma gin ( FIGURE
20+FIGURE 21). Ano he 14 % conside Ge many o be Poland’s bigges enemy
in in e na ional poli ics, p obably also e lec ing he o en imes polemical
discou se abou Ge many, linked o e e ences o Polish-Ge man his o y.
On he o he hand, he ansa lan ic o ien a ion o young Poles a his mo-
men o con on a ion wi h Russia is p onounced. Nea ly a qua e o he
sample conside s he US o be Poland’s closes ally, ollowed by Hunga y,
Uk aine and Ge many. The high anking o Uk aine is ema kable when
compa ed o an ea lie su ey which ound ha only 0.7 % o young people
hough ha Poland should de elop close ela ions wi h Uk aine.13
Views on Polish his o y and na ional iden i y
The his o ical e en s ha young people conside ed pa icula ly impo -
an o oday’s Poland p o ide insigh s in o how young people unde s and
hei na ional iden i y, as well as illus a ing he each o he his o ical p o-
g amme he PiS go e nmen has de eloped o e he las se e al yea s.
13 FélixK awa zek,‘You hinPoland:Ou lookonLi eandPoli icalA i udes’,ZOiSRepo 4 / 2019,
h ps://www.zois-be lin.de/publika ionen/you h-in-poland-ou look-on-li e-and-poli ical-a i udes
FIGURE 21
In you opinion, which ONE coun y is Poland’s bigges
enemy in in e na ional poli ics?
Pana / Pani zdaniem, k ó y - JEDEN - k aj jes największym w ogiem
Polski w poli yce międzyna odowej?
FIGURE 20
In you opinion, which ONE coun y is Poland’s closes
iend in in e na ional poli ics?
Pana / Pani zdaniem, k ó y – JEDEN – k aj jes najlepszym p zyjacie-
lem Polski w poli yce międzyna odowej?
ZOiS Repo 2 / 2022 Young Poles in Times o D ama ic Change: Re ugees, Iden i y and Social Engagemen
23
As pa o he ocus g oup discussions, we ga e pa icipan s ca ds wi h
eigh his o ical e en s which we p e-iden i ied as pa icula ly signi ican
o Polish his o y in addi ion o one blank ca d. Pa icipan s we e pu in
pai s and asked o o de he e en s by he impo ance hey a ibu e o hem
o unde s anding wha Poland is oday. The eigh e en s no ed on he ca ds
we e: he Bap ism o Poland da ed o 966; he 1410 Ba le o G unwald, which
ended in he Polish-Li huanian ic o y o e he Teu onic O de ; he 1638
Ba le o Vienna, in which Polish o ces played a key ole in de ea ing he O -
oman a my; he 18 h-cen u y pa i ions o Poland, which las ed un il 1918;
Poland’s egained independence in he wake o Wo ld Wa I; Wo ld Wa II;
he Solida ność s ikes in he 1980s; and he coun y’s accession o he EU
in 2004. All hese e en s a e — o a ying deg ees — cen al in he coun y’s
his o ical discou se and p ominen in he eaching o his o y a school.
This app oach allowed us o unde s and he salience a ibu ed o his o ical
e en s by Poles wi h di e ging wo ld iews, assess whe he he e a e clea di -
e ences in his ega d be ween he ci ies o Gdańsk and Lublin, and see how
he choices o he young di e ed om hose o hei g andpa en s’ gene a ion.
Loca ion and local his o y ma e in pa icipan s’ assessmen s. In Gdańsk,
he Solida nośc s ikes, which mainly happened in ha ci y, and also he
Second Wo ld Wa , which s a ed wi h an a ack on Wes e pla e, pa o
Gdańsk, igu ed much mo e p ominen ly han in Lublin. In he mo e con-
se a i e Ca holic s onghold, pa icipan s chose he Bap ism o Poland
mos equen ly. While some would see he Bap ism as he e y i s s ep
linking Poland o Wes e n ci ilisa ion and say ha i was ‘a li le bi like
joining he EU in oday’s imes’ because ‘some coun ies we e al eady Ch is-
ian’, many o he s we e con inced ha ‘i i we en’ o he Bap ism, his
coun y would no exis .’
The olde gene a ion was mo e likely o conside joining he EU a u ning
poin in Polish his o y han he younge gene a ion, pa icula ly in Gdańsk.
One eason o his could be ha he young, who ha e li ed o mos o hei
li es in a Poland ha has been pa o he EU, ake membe ship o g an ed,
while olde gene a ions can compa e li e in he EU wi h hei expe ience
o communis imes. Some e en conside i o be ‘ he bigges ci ilisa ional
jump’, which allowed Poland o o e come being ‘in he ail o Eu ope’ (Pa -
icipan s 7 & 8, Gdańsk Senio s + Mix).
Regaining Polish independence in 1918 was anked high ac oss all g oups.
Pa icipan s linked his e en o ‘ eedom’ and he his o ical auma o he
pa i ions. I is also an e en ha has gained in public isibili y in Poland
in ecen yea s, wi h Independence Ma ches being o ganised in pa icula
by a - igh g oups on he anni e sa y. The impo ance a ibu ed o he
e en by ou ocus g oups is no su p ising in ligh o i s s ong p omo ion in
ecen yea s, seen, o ins ance, in he c ea ion o a special logo o celeb a e
i o he e ec ing o ‘independence benches’14 ac oss Poland. The his o ical
symbol o independence is p obably ecei ing g ea e a en ion gi en a pe -
cei ed h ea o Polish eedom and independence in he con ex o Russia’s
wa agains Uk aine.
14 ‘ŁawkaNiepodległości[IndependenceBenchP og amme]’,Minis e s woOb onyNa odowej,
h ps://www.go .pl/web/ob ona-na odowa/awka-niepodleglosci
The olde gene a ion
was mo e likely o
conside joining he
EU a u ning poin in
Polish his o y.