The disinformation lifecycle: an integrated understanding of its creation, spread and effects

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Disco e Global Socie y
Resea ch
The disin o ma ion li ecycle: anin eg a ed unde s anding o i s
c ea ion, sp ead ande ec s
Kimbe leyK uij e 1· NeillBoFinlayson2· Bea iceCade 3· Sico ande Mee 2
Recei ed: 3 Feb ua y 2025 / Accep ed: 20 May 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025 OPEN
Abs ac
The p oli e a ion and de elopmen o social media pla o ms in ecen yea s has con ibu ed signi ican ly o he sp ead
o disin o ma ion. Police Au ho i ies a ound Eu ope ha e obse ed ha ha m ul o c iminal beha iou , s emming om
social un es , ha e speech, and iolen diso de a e egula ly p eceded by disin o ma ion campaigns. This begs he ques-
ion: How can p ac i ione s be be e p epa ed o he eal-wo ld consequences o malign disin o ma ion ac i i ies and o
po en ially e en mi iga e any c iminal consequences? The i s s ep in p ope ly coun e ing disin o ma ion is o enhance
he unde s anding o he complex phenomenon. The e o e, his a icle pu s o h a new heo e ical amewo k, called he
‘C5 In e ac ion Model’, ha explains he c ea ion, sp ead and impac o disin o ma ion, syn hesising academic heo y o
p o ide p ac ical guidance on disin o ma ion dynamics. The mul idisciplina y model ep esen s a li ecycle and con ains
i e main elemen s: Con ex , Causes, Con en , Consequences, and Cycle o Ampli ica ion. They a e each o ganised in o
wo u he laye s o (sub) ac o s, which we e de eloped o p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew and b eakdown o he
impo an elemen s o disin o ma ion. The C5 In e ac ion Model ep esen s one o he i s conce ed e o s o b ing
di e se insigh s oge he in o a comp ehensi e in eg a i e amewo k. The complexi y o he model shows ha his p o-
cess is non-line and ha he e a e a mul i ude o ac o s de e mining he li ecycle o disin o ma ion, making i a highly
complex phenomenon o esea ch. A key con ibu ion o his a icle is he ocus on he in e ac ion be ween di e en
elemen s ha in luence he p ocess o disin o ma ion— om c ea ion o consequences. Impo an ly, he li ecycle ou e
is p edominan ly in luenced by he social con ex in which i exis s.
1 In oduc ion
The apid de elopmen o social media pla o ms and online social ne wo ks in he pas decade has changed he way
people communica e wi h each o he . Use s ely on hese ools o sha e in o ma ion, connec wi h o he people, and
s ay in o med abou ending e en s. Despi e he po en ial bene i s o his, social media pla o ms ha e also con ibu ed
o an explosi e g ow h in he amoun o alse and in lamma o y in o ma ion being sp ead in he wo ld. Nowadays, he
p esence o such alsehoods online— e e ed o as disin o ma ion om he eon—is no only dis up i e o dis ac ing
o e e yday use s, bu i can also ha e an impac on he indi idual and beha iou al le el, con ibu ing o ha m ul o
e en c iminal beha iou on he pa o he ecei e s o he disin o ma ion messages. Fo example, du ing he COVID-19
pandemic, alse in o ma ion was widely sha ed ha unde mined us in public ins i u ions ac oss se e al coun ies. This
no only led o (some imes unlaw ul) p o es s, bu also o andalism o , o example, c i ical in as uc u e [1]. Resea ch
* Kimbe ley K uij e , kimbe ley.k uij e @ no.nl; Neill Bo Finlayson, neill_bo. inlayson@ no.nl; Bea ice Cade , Bea ice-cade @
ho mail. ; Sico ande Mee , sico[email p o ec ed] | 1Ne he lands O ganisa ion o Applied Scien i ic Resea ch (TNO), TheHague,
Ne he lands. 2TNO, TheHague, Ne he lands. 3Ai F ance KLM, Pa is, F ance.
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in o he Ge man ‘Reichsbü ge ’ mo emen showed ha exposu e o disin o ma ion na a i es can e en impac an indi-
idual’s jus i ica ion o he use o iolence agains he ou -g oup [2]. Disin o ma ion can hus ha e a p o ound impac
on bo h indi iduals and wide socie y.
Fi s ly, i is impo an o explain wha is mean by disin o ma ion. The Eu opean Union (EU) High Le el G oup on Fake
News and Online Disin o ma ion de ines i as “ alse, inaccu a e, o misleading in o ma ion designed, p esen ed and p o-
mo ed o in en ionally cause public ha m o o p o i ” [3, 4]. Deba e con inues in academic li e a u e abou he de ini ion,
concep ual bounda ies and ele ance o his dis inc ion be ween mis- and disin o ma ion. Howe e , a p ac ical dis inc ion
may be ha disin o ma ion is gene ally c ea ed and sp ead o economic gains o o poli ical o ideological goals, and
i can be exace ba ed by how di e en audiences and communi ies ecei e, ampli y, and engage wi h disin o ma ion
[3]. This is di e en o alsehoods being sp ead in good ai h by people conce ned abou heal h isks, accines o ech-
nology, o example. The isk o disin o ma ion includes h ea s o democ a ic poli ical p ocesses and alues, which can
speci ically a ge a a ie y o sec o s, such as heal h, science, educa ion, inance and mo e. Wha makes disin o ma ion
especially ha m ul is ha i can ake he o m o bo h a single message as well as mul iple in e ela ed messages, such
as a a ge ed disin o ma ion campaign.
Police Au ho i ies (PAs) ha e obse ed ha c iminal ac i i ies such as ha e speech, iolence, io s, and e o is a acks
a e egula ly p eceded by disin o ma ion campaigns. An in amous example is he Capi ol io s in he Uni ed S a es (US) in
Janua y 2021. A disin o ma ion campaign ha inc easingly gained a en ion on Facebook, claimed ha o me P esiden
Donald T ump was wo king agains a so-called ‘c iminal deep-s a e’ [5]. The disin o ma ion alleged ha membe s o his
deep s a e, eli e associa es o he US go e nmen , media, and business, we e ac i ely ying o unde mine him. Wi hin
his con ex , i was claimed ha P esiden -Elec Joe Biden had ‘s olen’ he elec ion om his opponen (and hen P esi-
den ) Donald T ump by elec ion aud. This na a i e e en ually led o a c owd o io e s s o ming he Capi ol building
in Washing on DC du ing a join session o Cong ess o o malise Biden’s elec ion ic o y. Fi e people we e killed in he
io s, including a police o ice , and many mo e people we e inju ed, including 135 police o ice s. A e wa ds, ques ions
a ose abou whe he he police we e adequa ely p epa ed o he io s [6].
The impac o disin o ma ion in s oking public diso de and iolence in he US has been el ac oss he wo ld. Based
on in e iews wi h i e Eu opean PAs, a sha ed need was o mula ed o imp o e eadiness o he ha m ul o e en c imi-
nal e ec s o disin o ma ion on he local le el.1 A p esen , PAs end o be sho on s a wi h ele an knowledge on
he disin o ma ion p ocess, which is undamen al when seeking o coun e i s damaging e ec s on social o de , sa e y
and secu i y. The e o e, he i s s ep in aiding no only hese PAs, bu p ac i ione s asked wi h handling he eal-wo ld
consequences o disin o ma ion mo e gene ally is o enhance hei unde s anding o he complica ing dynamics a ound
disin o ma ion, g ounded in academic heo y, while a he same ime p o iding p ac ical guidance.
This a icle was w i en wi hin he con ex o he EU unded esea ch p ojec VIGILANT which aims o de elop an in e-
g a ed pla o m o ad anced disin o ma ion iden i ica ion and analysis ools o co e disin o ma ion om majo sou ces.2
1.1 Li e a u e e iew
A emp s ha e been made o p o ide guidance and cla i y on he h ea o disin o ma ion o p ac i ione s, who a e
o en asked wi h dealing wi h i s eal-wo ld impac . Fo example, he RAND Co po a ion published guidelines o PAs
on how o comba misin o ma ion pa icula ly a ound he COVID-19 pandemic [7], while he EU issued a handbook o
p o ide local and egional au ho i ies wi h ecommenda ions on how bes o coun e disin o ma ion [8]. These publica-
ions ocus on coun e ing mis- o disin o ma ion, bu p o ide li le unde s anding o i s unde lying mechanisms, how i
sp eads, and i s consequences. Fu he mo e, he guidance o e ed in hese publica ions is a he p ac ical and he e o e
does no desc ibe he necessa y insigh s om academic li e a u e o adequa ely unde s and he beha iou al and cogni-
i e d i e s o disin o ma ion. An academic handbook on disin o ma ion, edi ed by A cos, Chi u and I an [9], does o e
such insigh s in o he dynamics o disin o ma ion. Howe e , o all ha i o e s in knowledge on he subjec , i in u n
misses he equi ed accessibili y and applicabili y o use by p ac i ione s. As such, his p o ides an oppo uni y o build
1 These in e iews we e ca ied ou wi hin he con ex o he VIGILANT p ojec .
2 The EU VIGILANT p ojec aims o add ess hese issues by de eloping an in eg a ed pla o m o ad anced disin o ma ion iden i ica ion and
analysis ools o co e disin o ma ion om majo sou ces, in all modali ies, and in mul iple languages. Func ioning as a ho ough heo e ical
base o he comple e VIGILANT p ojec , his a icle de elops a concep ual amewo k o disin o ma ion, which p o ides concep ual inpu
o he echnological ools ha a e de eloped in o he wo k packages o he p ojec . The model may also help p e en o e looking ele an
aspec s o disin o ma ion in la e phases o he p ojec . Fo mo e in o ma ion abou VIGILANT, see: h ps:// www. igil an p ojec . eu/.
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on his wo k by de eloping accessible and p ac ical guidance on he dynamics o disin o ma ion ha s ikes a balance
be ween heo y and p ac ice.
The e a e nume ous amewo ks and models ha a emp o make sense o he disin o ma ion phenomena in aca-
demic li e a u e. Owing o he ela i e no el y o his ield o esea ch, he e is a s ong line o esea ch on de elop-
ing axonomies and ypologies o concep s ela ing o disin o ma ion (e.g. [10]), while o he s ha e sough o p o ide
amewo ks o he mul imodal na u e o disin o ma ion con en [11]. Indeed, much o he ecen academic esea ch on
disin o ma ion has ocused on he echnical aspec s o de ec ion, whe he i is employing language models o design
mul imodal de ec ion sys ems (e.g. [12]) o mo e heo y-d i en de ec ion models ha analyse w i ing ea u es o con-
en (e.g. [13]). Fu he mo e, s eps a e being aken o de elop mo e sophis ica ed compu a ional [14] o au oma ed
[15] amewo ks and me hods o de ec ion. Al hough hese a e use ul echnical solu ions o de ec ing and analysing
disin o ma ion con en , hey do no p o ide a sa is ac o y heo e ical explana ion o he dynamics ha unde pin he
c ea ion, sp ead and e ec o disin o ma ion.
One o he mos comp ehensi e amewo ks on disin o ma ion is DISARM (DISin o ma ion Analysis & Risk Manage-
men ): an open-sou ce amewo k designed o iden i y and coun e disin o ma ion [16]. I p o ides bo h a concep ual
and p ac ical unde s anding o disin o ma ion by comp ising a s uc u ed me hodology o iden i ying, analysing, and
mi iga ing he ac ics and echniques used by p oponen s o disin o ma ion [17]. Simila o his, Kozy eya e al. [18]
de eloped a oolbox o indi idual- ocused in e en ions which p o ides a comp ehensi e concep ual o e iew o how
o coun e misin o ma ion. Bo h amewo ks achie e an e ec i e syne gy o heo y and p ac ical guidance. Howe e ,
he ocus emains on he wha (de ec ing and coun e ing disin o ma ion) and no he why (unde lying mechanisms o
disin o ma ion sp ead). An unde s anding o he la e is p ecisely wha p ac i ione s need in o de o mo e e ec i ely
ca y ou he o me .
The e is a conside able body o esea ch in he social and beha iou al sciences ha p o ides amewo ks o analysing
he unde lying d i e s o disin o ma ion. Fo he mos pa , howe e , hese ela e o he dissemina ion o di usion o dis-
in o ma ion in online social ne wo ks (e.g. [19]), o en employing compu a ional me hods (e.g. [20]). Tha said, F oehlich
[21] de eloped a amewo k ha gi es insigh on he c ea ion, dissemina ion and e ec s o disin o ma ion. Ye , he ocuses
speci ically on he legi ima ion and sus ainmen o disin o ma ion,how people’s own c i ical hinking and he powe o
cogni i e au ho i ies can sus ain belie in ‘ ake news’.3 Simila ly, A ayankalam and K ishnan [22] a emp ed o syn hesise
his a he agmen ed body o esea ch on disin o ma ion h ough a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew, ocusing pa icula ly
on he “psychosocial an eceden s o i s sp ead” and subsequen impac . The au ho s conclude, based on hei e iew, ha
u he esea ch is needed o es ablish a much-needed heo e ical and me hodological g ounding o unde s anding
disin o ma ion, highligh ing he impo ance o aking in o accoun beha iou al, social and en i onmen al ac o s [22].
The amewo k de eloped by Geo ge, Ge ha and To es [23] does p o ide a comp ehensi e mul i-disciplina y he-
o e ical g ounding o he unde lying dynamics o he c ea ion (including he unde lying mo i es) and subsequen
sp ead o disin o ma ion o ‘ ake news esea ch’. The au ho s ocus on (1) dis inc ela ionships ha cause he message
o accele a e, pe pe ua e and e en ually cause socie al impac ,and (2) he oles ha di e en ac o s—like c ea o s and
consume s—play. Al hough his amewo k help ully illus a es he main elemen s o a gene al disin o ma ion p ocess,
some impo an gaps we e iden i ied. The impo ance o con ex in he p ocess was lacking. Acco ding o Hamelee s
[24], con ex is key when i comes o unde s anding he ac o s, in en ions, and echniques behind disin o ma ion. Fo
ins ance, i is impo an o conside he ole ha di e en h ea s, poli ical challenges, media ecosys ems and speci ic
e en s can ha e on he sp ead and impac o disin o ma ion such as, o example, he cu en hyb id h ea en i onmen
[25].4 Mo eo e , he desc ip ion and aming o he eal-wo ld (o en c iminal) implica ions o disin o ma ion in Geo ge
e al.’s [23] amewo k miss he nuance and de ail equi ed o adequa ely explain he escala o y ein o cing ela ionships
be ween he ac o s ha unde pin he dynamics o disin o ma ion.
E iden ly, mul iple disin o ma ion amewo ks exis om a ious disciplines such as communica ion s udies, psy-
chology, poli ical science, sociology, and compu e science. This ple ho a o esea ch ca ies he isk o agmen a ion,
as esea che s o en ocus on isola ed aspec s o he p oblem. The e is a gap in hecu en li e a u e on disin o ma ion
heo y o a uly mul idisciplina y concep ual o heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding he causes, con en s and
3 Disin o ma ion is o en e e ed o as ‘ ake news’, bu his is an inadequa e e m because disin o ma ion o en in ol es con en ha is no
comple ely ‘ ake’ bu ab ica ed in o ma ion blended wi h ac s and p ac ices ha go well beyond any hing esembling ‘news’ [3]. Ne e he-
less, he p esen a icle includes he e iew o li e a u e using he e m ‘ ake news’ in addi ion o o he e ms o disin o ma ion p ecisely
because i is o en inco ec ly used as a e m o disin o ma ion in gene al.
4 Fo mo e in o ma ion on con ex , see chap e 3.1 Con ex .
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consequences o disin o ma ion ha inco po a es beha iou al, cogni i e and communica ion science pe spec i es. Fu -
he mo e, as men ioned p e iously, he e is a need o such a amewo k o be p ac icable and applicable o laymen o
p ac i ione s, pa icula ly hose on he on line o sa e y and secu i y wo k. Gi en hese gaps, he pu pose o his pape
is o de elop a comp ehensi e amewo k ha explains he c ea ion, sp ead and impac o disin o ma ion, syn hesising
academic heo y o p o ide p ac ical guidance o p ac i ione s.
1.2 Resea ch p oblem
The e is need o g ea e unde s anding, knowledge and expe ise abou disin o ma ion wi hin he au ho i ies asked
wi h dealing wi h he eal-wo ld consequences o he phenomenon. Based on he p ac ical and heo e ical discussions
as desc ibed abo e, his a icle se s ou o answe he ollowing esea ch ques ion: “Which concep ual elemen s cons i-
u e he disin o ma ion p ocess ha can escala e o ha m ul o e en c iminal beha iou s?”. I aims o con ibu e o (1)
p ac ice, by aiding p ac i ione s o unde s and and he eby being able o espond adequa ely o disin o ma ion, as well
as o (2) heo y, by de eloping a concep ual model ha demons a es he ela ionships be ween he di e en elemen s
o disin o ma ion and how i s impac is a ec ed by di e se ac o s.
The ollowing chap e explains he esea ch me hodology. In Chap e 3, he de eloped ‘C5 In e ac ion Model’ is p e-
sen ed, including a de ailed desc ip ion o i s a ious elemen s. Chap e 4 discusses he indings, ca ego ised along wo
lines: i s academic con ibu ion and i s p ac ical ele ance, as well as some limi a ions. The a icle ends wi h Chap e 5,
which includes he conclusions o his esea ch epo .
2 Me hodology
Wi h he aim o collec ing as many key elemen s o he disin o ma ion phenomenon as possible, he de eloped C5
In e ac ion Model (discussed in Chap e 3) is p ima ily based on insigh s acqui ed om exis ing academic li e a u e om
a ious disciplines, including communica ion and media s udies, sociology, and psychology. The i s s ep in he li e a u e
e iew was o build he basic ounda ions o he model, such as he main ac o s in he p ocess o disin o ma ion and
how hey ela e o each o he .5 To limi he numbe o a icles o be scanned, he ocus o his pa o he e iew was on
exis ing li e a u e e iews and me a-analyses because hey al eady o e a comp ehensi e e iew o a ce ain academic
ield and ensu e a s a e-o - he-a analysis. This me hodological choice can be seen as a limi a ion because al eady syn-
hesized da a was e-analysed again. Howe e , due o ime cons ain s his was s ill p e e ed and he newly combined
da a was none heless able o c ea e some hing new. Keywo ds such as ‘ e iew disin o ma ion causes’, ‘disin o ma ion
e iew con en ’ and ‘ ake news io s’ we e used o sea ch ele an li e a u e; mainly ia Google Schola . Mo eo e , when
conside ed use ul, s and-alone academic pape s and ela ed li e a u e we e also included h ough snowballing, a com-
mon ac i i y in li e a u e esea ch ha consis s o iden i ying new a icles quo ed in he pape s al eady analysed. The lis
o academic a icles includes pu ely heo e ical pape s as well as mo e p ac ical ones, including case s udies.
The da a was hen analysed using he G ounded Theo y Me hod [26]. This me hod ensu es ha new heo ies o models
a e buil based on he sys ema ic collec ion o da a. By using a coding sys em, he li e a u e was hema ically assembled
in o g oupings o a icles ela ed o he same aspec o disin o ma ion. Fo ins ance, an a icle p o iding insigh s on he
pla o ms used o c ea e and/o sp ead con en was coded unde “Channels”, which was subsequen ially ca ego ised
unde he code “Con en ”. This hema ic analysis allowed he au ho s o b eak down and g oup di e en aspec s o he
collec ed li e a u e. To measu e in e - a e eliabili y, he coding was ca ied ou in wo main phases, whe eby he codes
we e checked by ano he au ho and hen con i med o discussed in o de o adjus whe e app op ia e. While no o -
mal in e - a e eliabili y coe icien s (e.g., Cohen’s Kappa) we e used, coding was i e a i ely e ined h ough collabo a-
i e discussions aimed a achie ing consensus, ollowing p inciples o e lexi e hema ic analysis [27]. Coding was also
acili a ed by co esponding i wi h i e ini ial use cases6 p o ided by he PAs o he VIGILANT p ojec , which ensu ed
he coding emained ele an o p ac ical applica ion. A ques ionnai e was c ea ed and o ganised in o ou pa s: (1)
5 51 a icles we e analysed o speci ically he concep ion o he model. Fo epo ing pu poses, a o al o 120 a icles we e used, including
he 51 o he ini ial li e a u e e iew. Addi ional e e ences we e o ins ance added o jus i y he me hodology o he backg ound in o ma-
ion o he comple ed wo k.
6 Fi e PAs a e a membe s o he VIGILANT p ojec : Ca alonia (Spain), Es onia, Ge many, G eece and Moldo a. Each o hem p o ided a use
case o a ealis ic scena io in which hey encoun e ed disin o ma ion.
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desc ip ion abou he use case, (2) ques ions abou ele an ac o s, (3) he ela ionship o c iminal beha iou , (4) he
in es iga i e p ocess, and (5) he ( echnical) suppo hey would ha e wan ed. In addi ion, wo use cases in collabo a-
ion wi h he Ca alonian police we e w i en ollowing he same ques ionnai e as well as h ee addi ional use cases we e
c ea ed based on open-sou ce in o ma ion abou (1) The Du ch Willem Engel Cou case, (2) The US Capi al io s, and (3)
a New Zealand cou case on disin o ma ion. These en dis inc and s uc u ed use cases ed in o ma ion o he au ho s’
unde s anding on di e en disin o ma ion p ocesses. This i e a i e p ocess, comple ed as pa o he G ounded Theo y
Me hod, allowed he au ho s o g adually cons uc he concep ual model. Once his had been comple ed, s eps we e
aken o alida e he model by applying i o a disin o ma ion use case de eloped in conjunc ion wi h he Ca alonian
Police wi hin he VIGILANT p ojec .
The main codes became clea qui e ea ly in he analysis p ocess as a icles and codes we e hema ically g ouped, and
la e also became he main elemen s o he C5 In e ac ion Model: Con ex , Causes, Con en , Consequences, and Cycle o
Ampli ica ion. Causes, Con en , and Consequences had al eady been sugges ed by he expe s engaged in he p oposal
phase o he VIGILANT p ojec , which we e e lec ed in me a-analysis a icles like Geo ge e al. [23] and A cos e al. [25].
As a esul o he i e a i e li e a u e e iew, he codes Con ex and Cycle o Ampli ica ion we e iden i ied as main con ib-
u ing ac o s. Fi s , Con ex was added as mul iple a icles e e ed o con ex ual ac o s such as social con ex [28], he
hyb id h ea en i onmen [25] and na ional policy and legal di e ences wi h ega ds o disin o ma ion [29]. Since he
con ex is o en neglec ed in disin o ma ion esea ch [22], e en hough i is i al in in luencing he pa h o disin o ma ion
messages, i is one o he wo codes ha we e chosen o emphasize mo e. The second code is he Cycle o Ampli ica ion.
This was mainly inspi ed by Geo ge e al. [23], who c ea ed a amewo k o help d i e u u e esea ch on disin o ma ion.
A e inding wha Geo ge e al. [23] e e o as he cycle o ampli ica ion, he au ho s ecognized (pa s o ) ha elemen
in o he a icles as well. Fo example, when Zhang and Gho bani [28] e e o social con ex , hey ac ually a gue ha i
hea ily in luences o wha ex en messages a e dissemina ed, hence o wha ex en i is ampli ied.
Once he basic ounda ion o he model was cons uc ed (i.e. he i e ‘Cs’ and he gene al p ocess o disin o ma ion), a
second li e a u e e iew o empi ical s udies was hen conduc ed o iden i y, de elop and explain he sub ac o s o each
main ac o . This was necessa y because al hough he me a-analyses p o ided use ul b oad o e iews o he phenomena
o disin o ma ion, a mo e g anula app oach was needed o be e unde s and and desc ibe he speci ic mechanisms
o each sub- ac o and why i is ele an o he o e all model. Fo ins ance, unde he main code Causes, he ollowing
subcodes we e used: C ea o s and Mo i es. In u n, hey could ha e hei own subcodes as well. Fo example, unde he
subcode Mo i es was a lowe le el o codes: Poli ical and Financial. Al hough a dis inc ion was made be ween he use
o o e a ching li e a u e e iews and empi ical s udies in his p ocess, he e is some o e lap be ween he wo ypes o
li e a u e e iewed o his pape in explaining and suppo ing ce ain sub ac o s. This was done in o de o simul ane-
ously p o ide he necessa y le el o de ail equi ed o unde s and he speci ic mechanisms o disin o ma ion in he
sub ac o s, while also ensu ing i is unde s ood wi hin he wide con ex o disin o ma ion and i s impac on socie y.
The e o e, when explaining and jus i ying (sub-) ac o s in he main body o his pape , heo e ical and empi ical e idence
is a imes in e wined.
By using his laye ing in he coding, a use ul o e iew and s ep-by-s ep b eakdown o he impo an elemen s o dis-
in o ma ion could be iden i ied. Mo eo e , he model was e ined by u ning he analysis a ound; he au ho s zoomed
ou , unde ook a high-le el analysis o all he subcodes b eakdown and we e able o de ec he o e a ching hemes: he
main C5 elemen s and subsequen ac o s could hen be ei he e-a i med o al e ed (Fig.1).
Fig. 1 The coding p ocess
A cle X
A cle X
A cle X
Subcode
(ex: channels)
Subcode
(ex: o ms)
Subcode
( ex: s a egies)
Code
(ex: Con en )
Themac analysis
e e s o

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The main codes co espond o so-called ‘C5 elemen s’ in he model, while he subcodes co espond o ac o s and
sub ac o s. A imes, i was necessa y o ewo k mul iple aspec s o elemen s based on he au ho s’ own disc e ion, which
i sel was based on indings in he li e a u e. The ex en o which codes and subcodes we e c oss- e e enced and hei
occu ence in he li e a u e also in luenced whe he hey we e in eg a ed in o he model. As he igu e abo e demon-
s a es, one a icle could be ele an o mul iple (sub-)codes, as i can discuss di e en opics. On he o he side, some
ini ial subcodes we e dele ed because hey we e no e lec ed s ongly enough in he li e a u e. Finally, i should be no ed
ha he lis o ac o s is no exhaus i e, and hei desc ip ions a e no all-encompassing because disin o ma ion, along
wi h he online in o ma ion en i onmen , is cons an ly e ol ing and highly dependen on con ex ual ci cums ances.
This a icle ocuses on he mos impo an and hema ically ele an ac o s and hei in e ela ionships.7
3 The C5 in e ac ion model
The coding o ele an li e a u e highligh ed i e main aspec s o disin o ma ion ha cons i u e he C5 elemen s: Con ex ,
Causes, Con en , Consequences, and he Cycle o Ampli ica ion. Al hough he ole o he Cycle o Ampli ica ion has been
iden i ied in mul iple ecen a icles, emphasising he impo ance o i o he de elopmen o disin o ma ion is one o he
main con ibu ions o his model. This model (see Fig.2) ou lines he in e ac ions and in e ela ionships be ween hese
i e ac o s and i s sub ac o s. The model also seeks o emphasise ha , due o he na u e o he ela ionships be ween
hese ac o s, he same piece o con en can ha e di e en consequences, depending on which ac o s a e a play and
o wha ex en . This is impo an when ying o de elop an unde s anding o how disin o ma ion campaigns can lead
o ha m ul o e en iolen consequences.
The C5 In e ac ion Model (shown in Fig.2) depic s he i e elemen s ha play a ole when exposu e o disin o ma ion
con en leads o cogni i e and beha iou al e ec s:
Fig. 2 The C5 in e ac ion model
7 All ini ial, he way hey we e ound and subsequen ly coded a icles o he concep ion o he model we e o ganised in an Excel shee
which will be made a ailable upon eques .
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1. The Con ex (social, cul u al, poli ical, o economic ac o s, impo an e en s, o ele an ends).
2. The Causes (c ea o s and hei mo i es).
3. The Con en ( he ailo ed piece o disin o ma ion).
4. The Consequences (sho and long- e m e ec s on he consume and socie y).
5. The Cycle o Ampli ica ion ( he in e ac ion o ecei e suscep ibili y, dissemina ion ac o s, and he possible in e en-
ions o coun e he cycle).
The ollowing sec ions desc ibe each o he main elemen s o he C5 In e ac ion Model, i s ac o s and sub ac o s,
in mo e de ail. Each sec ion s a s wi h a isualisa ion o p esen an o e iew o he b eakdown o each elemen . The
co esponding ac o s and sub ac o s a e only mean o display ha hey a e g ouped oge he in di e en laye s: each
elemen (C in he da kes colou ), can be ca ego ised in a laye o b oad ac o s (sligh ly ligh e colou ), which in u n can
be ca ego ised in o mo e de ailed sub ac o s (ligh es colou ). Fo ins ance, looking in o C1 Con ex could mean analys-
ing ‘Se ing’ which can be done by in es iga ing he ‘ egion’ and/ o ‘pe iod’. This lis is indica i e and non-exhaus i e. I
co e s he main elemen s o disin o ma ion. Mo eo e , many in e ela ions exis be ween he ac o s and sub ac o s.
The mos ele an ones a e desc ibed in he ollowing sec ions.
3.1 Con ex
As p e iously discussed, disin o ma ion is conside ed o be a ‘con ex -bound phenomenon’; which is o say ha he con-
ex in which he disin o ma ion exis s is undamen al o unde s anding he ac o s, in en ions, and echniques behind he
manipula ion [24]. Indeed, as a gued by Zhang and Gho bani [28], social con ex is a c ucial de e minan o he ex en
o which messages a e dissemina ed, o wha ex en hey a e ampli ied and wha e ec s hey may ha e. Despi e his,
howe e , he impo ance o con ex is o en o e looked in academic li e a u e on disin o ma ion [22]. Con ex e e s
o any hing ela ed o he social, cul u al, poli ical, o economic se ing o en i onmen , including impo an e en s o
ele an ends, in he wide socie y(see Fig.3).
C1 Con ex
Se ing
Region Pe iod Sys em
Socie al
ends
Hyb id
h ea s
Poli ical
clima e
Media
ecosys em
E en s
Poli ical Social B eaking
news
Fig. 3 A b eakdown o he C1 elemen con ex
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3.1.1 Se ing
This is pe haps he mos impo an con ex ual ac o ha in luences he po ency o disin o ma ion is he se ing in
which i is sen and ecei ed. The geog aphical egion o pe iod in which a disin o ma ion campaign is waged will
de e mine wha he disin o ma ion looks like, wha i says, how i is p esen ed, and who i a ge s. Se ing, he e o e,
in insically in luences he c ea ion, dissemina ion, ampli ica ion, and e ec s o disin o ma ion.
The speci ic egion in which he disin o ma ion is dissemina ed is a undamen al sub ac o o conside . As Hump ech
[30] demons a ed, he con en and s yle o disin o ma ion changes om coun y o coun y. Fo example, online disin-
o ma ion in he US and he Uni ed Kingdom (UK) is p edominan ly poli ically pa isan, whe eas in Ge many and Aus ia
sensa ionalis s o ies p edomina e o e poli ical con en [30]. This can also be explained by he unique poli ical sys ems
in he US and he UK, discussed in mo e de ail below o poli ical sys em. Fu he mo e, Hump ech [30] ound ha online
disin o ma ion in English-speaking coun ies ends o a ge poli ical ac o s, whe eas in Ge man-speaking coun ies,
he main ocus is immig an s. As such, o he egion-speci ic indica o s a e impo an o conside when assessing he
con ex ual condi ions o disin o ma ion, such as how esilien a socie y is, le els o populism, pola isa ion, media us ,
ime spen on social media pla o ms, media li e acy, and he s eng h o he public b oadcas ing se ice. Fu he mo e,
he cul u al con ex o a egion can be a use ul de e minan o how e ec i e disin o ma ion will be, how suscep ible
people a e and he ex en o which i can sp ead (see Chap e 3.1.5).
Aside om egional di e ences, he speci ic pe iod in ime in which disin o ma ion is dissemina ed is an impo an
con ex ual sub ac o . O e all, disin o ma ion campaigns ha a e being waged oday can be conside ed o ake place in
he so-called disin o ma ion o ‘pos - u h’ age [31] which e e s o he p esen e a o co up in o ma ion en i onmen s
[32]. Wi hin his e a, mo e con en ious pe iods ake place ha eed disin o ma ion, like he COVID-19 pandemic [7]. The
WHO (Wo ld Heal h O ganisa ion) e en called he inc ease in disin o ma ion due o COVID-19 an in e na ional ‘in odemic’.
Since he e was a lo o insecu i y a ound COVID-19, which scien is s could no p o ide an immedia e esponse o, i was
e ile g ound o c ea e and sp ead disin o ma ion [33].8 In esponse, he WHO launched a special pla o m o policymak-
e s, academics and public heal h p o essionals o come oge he wi h media o ganisa ions, social media pla o ms and
ci il socie y o de ise a new amewo k on how o deal wi h he COVID-19 in odemic [34].
Pe haps he mos impo an sub ac o o se ing is he poli ical sys em. This b oadly e e s o he o mal, cons i u-
ionally ensh ined ins i u ions, p ocesses and s uc u es ha cons i u e a s a e and i s poli ical o de [35]. This is dis inc
om he sub ac o poli ical clima e which e e s o mo e empo al poli ical discou ses a a pa icula ime, a he han
he mo e s a ic and pe manen egime o ins i u ions and p ocesses ha comp ise a poli ical sys em.9 As compa a i e
esea ch shows, he ype o poli ical sys em (non-democ a ic e sus democ a ic egimes) is a s ong de e minan o he
likelihood o disin o ma ion sp ead [36]. Such esea ch on di e en ypes o democ acies speci ically is, un o una ely,
sca ce.10 Ne e heless, i should be acknowledged ha , o ins ance, he igid wo-pa y sys em used in he US, and o a
lesse ex en in he UK, is unique compa ed o o he ad anced democ acies in Eu ope which gene ally ope a e unde a
mul i-pa y sys em. Simila ly, he UK’s i s -pas - he-pos elec o al sys em is also unique compa ed o he p opo ional
ep esen a ion sys ems a ou ed by o he Eu opean s a es. The e o e, he way in which disin o ma ion mani es s, sp eads
and akes e ec may be a y depending on he pa icula ype o democ a ic sys em.
3.1.2 Socie al ends
Simila o he se ing, socie al ends also play a signi ican ole in de e mining he na u e o disin o ma ion. The concep
o Socie al T ends e e s o a mo e speci ic, empo al se o ends in socie y ha can in luence how disin o ma ion is
c ea ed, dissemina ed, ampli ied, and akes e ec . Fo ins ance, al hough EU coun ies may ha e a simila se ing ( egion
and pe iod), each coun y—and wi hin ha , each social g oup o poli ical class—will be acing di e en ypes o h ea s,
be exposed o di e en poli ical challenges, and be pa o di e en media ecosys ems, he eby in luencing he na u e
o disin o ma ion o which hey a e exposed.
8 Mo e abou he ampli ica ion p ocess can be ound in C5 3.1.5 Cycle o Ampli ica ion.
9 Mo e abou poli ical clima e can be ound in C1 3.1.1.2.5.
10 Howe e , conside able esea ch has been conduc ed measu ing phenomena such as pola isa ion in di e en poli ical con ex s, such as
Eu opean mul i-pa y sys ems (e.g. [132]).
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The a ge s o disin o ma ion a e o en unawa e ha such illegi ima e uses o digi al media a e in ac ela ed o wide
hyb id h ea s and in o ma ion wa a e ac i i ies [25]. Hyb id h ea s e e o ac i i ies o an ad e sa ial ha a e di icul
o de ec , a ibu e and hence o coun e ac and emain below he h eshold o wa . In ha con ex disin o ma ion
campaigns a e popula o sow disco d amongs popula ions h ough o example p oxies o make i di icul o see he
ue sou ce. In ecen yea s, o eign ac o s and hei p oxies ha e begun weaponising in o ma ion o ul il hei ne a ious
mo i es and o ce ully al e public belie s o pe cep ions abou a ce ain pe son, e en , o body [37]. This is o en e e ed
C2 Causes
C ea o s
O ganisa ion /
Indi idual
Non-human/
Human S a e / Non-s a e
Mo i es
Ideological Financial
Fig. 4 A b eakdown o he C2 elemen causes
C3 Con en
Fo ms
Tex Headlines Visuals
Channels
Social
media
News
websi es In luence s
S a egies
Pe suade Unde mine Exploi
Fig. 5 A b eakdown o he C3 elemen con en
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o ha e speech, does all unde he ju isdic ion o law en o cemen . Fu he mo e, hese consequences can in u n lead
o changes o he con ex in which he disin o ma ion akes place, c ea ing a eedback loop be ween Consequences
and Con ex , as deno ed in Fig.2.
3.4.1 Mic o e ec s
Mic o-le el e ec s ela e o cogni i e e ec s expe ienced a he indi idual-le el as a esul o exposu e o disin o ma ion,
which could ap in o sha ed g ie ances. In o he wo ds, he psychological impac o disin o ma ion on an indi iduals’
cogni ion. As seen in Chap e 3.1.3, he s a egy o a disin o ma ion campaigns is o en o unde mine popula ions, cas -
ing doub s and sowing di ision o allow o he po en ial o pe suasion, whe he ha be shi s in a i ude o beha iou .
Conside ing ha he scope o his pape is abou disin o ma ion ha can lead o ha m ul o e en c iminal beha iou s, he
ollowing sec ion is w i en on ha assump ion ha he ini ial p ocess o cas ing doub s and unde mining audiences has
al eady aken place, he e o e a i udes and beha iou change may hen be possible o in luence. I is impo an o ca ea
his wi h he ac ha i is ex emely di icul o asce ain causal links be ween disin o ma ion and a i udinal and beha -
iou change; howe e , hey emain impo an conside a ions when analysing possible consequences o disin o ma ion.
A undamen al goal o disin o ma ion is pe suasion. Resea ch shows ha disin o ma ion, dissemina ed ia online
social ne wo ks in pa icula , is e ec i e in a ec ing poli ical a i ude change in indi iduals [85]. The ways in which
belie s become es ablished in indi iduals a e nume ous (iden i y, poli ical knowledge e c.), howe e people o en ely on
cogni i e sho cu s o o m belie s and make sense o he as in o ma ion en i onmen [23]. Fo ins ance, an o -ci ed
explana ion o he pe suasi e powe o disin o ma ion is con i ma ion bias: an indi idual’s endency o eac posi i ely
o in o ma ion ha ma ches hei p io belie s [23]. Ano he explana ion o pe suasi eness conce ns he Elabo a ion
Likelihood Model heo y which posi s ha indi iduals p ocess in o ma ion h ough wo pa hs: (1 a cen al pa h o a gu-
men e alua ion ha equi es high cogni ion,and (2 a pe iphe al pa h ha elies on heu is ics and equi es less cogni ion
[86, 87]. The ex en o which in o ma ion is pe suasi e depends on which pa h he in o ma ion is e alua ed h ough.
F om pe suasion comes con ic ion. This e e s o “ he inco po a ion o a gi en ake news na a i e in o an indi idual’s
men al model as a deeply held belie ” [23, 23].
Ul ima ely, one o he main desi ed e ec s o disin o ma ion is o en beha iou change, di ec ly o indi ec ly. Recen
esea ch by Bas ick [88] ound ha e en limi ed exposu e o disin o ma ion (less han i e minu es) was enough o al e
indi iduals’ unconscious beha iou . In a poli ical con ex , i has been shown ha exposu e o disin o ma ion—pa icu-
la ly i i was poli ically cha ged and in en ionally ab ica ed—had a posi i e e ec on elec o al suppo o populis
pa ies, ega dless o p io suppo [89]. Populis pa ies a e no he only ones who engage in disin o ma ion, al hough
i does end o s em mainly om pa ies on he ex emi ies o he poli ical spec um [46, 90, 91]. Al hough disin o ma-
ion alone canno explain g ow hs in populism, o example, he e a e signs ha disin o ma ion has he po en ial o
in luence unconscious beha iou change, which can he e o e lead o changes in conscious beha iou s such as o ing
and demons a ing.
3.4.2 Meso e ec s
Indi idual-le el e ec s can agg ega e o gene a e g oup-le el e ec s, o he wise known as ‘meso e ec s’.
As disin o ma ion sp eads and pollu es an in o ma ion en i onmen , e ec s a he indi idual le el will e en ually
impac g oups and communi ies, po en ially leading hem o engage in umou , conspi acy o e en seek ou ex eme
iewpoin s. Because o he di isi e na u e o disin o ma ion [92], people will end o connec e en mo e wi h hei in-
g oup (‘ hei own’,people wi h simila belie s and expe iences) and widen he gap wi h he ou -g oup (‘ he o he ’). This is
called a ec i e pola isa ion [93]. Suscep ible membe s o g oups may ein o ce and legi imise each o he ’s belie s. Social
dynamics can in luence and s eng hen in-g oup/ou -g oup pe cep ion, which lies a he co e o pola isa ion p ocesses,
can lead o o ganised ex emism, and is common in disin o ma ion campaigns. The g oup becomes a ac o o in luence
on he cogni ions and beha iou s o i s membe s, leading o a po en ial h ea o indi idual au onomy and neu alising
indi idual c i ical hinking [88].
Fu he mo e, he collec i e pola isa ion and adicalisa ion p ocess p o ides psychological sa e y and u he mo i a-
ional igge s o indi iduals o mobilise and engage in collec i e beha iou s, including ci il un es and po en ially io-
lence. I is well es ablished ha communica ion lows and in o ma ion con ols a e “indispensable ing edien s o iolen
con lic ” [94], and he e is g owing e idence ha alse o conspi a o ial in o ma ion can be a ca alys o g oup iolence.
Fo example, esea ch has shown ha he sp ead o disin o ma ion on Wha sApp in India could be a con ibu ing ac o

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o an inc ease in lynchings and iolence as use s we e being p edisposed o ha e a ce ain g oup and encou aged o
engage in iolence ei he mo i a ed by p ejudice o by umou [95]. Fu he mo e, an analysis o da a om mo e han 150
coun ies wo ldwide showed ha he dissemina ion o disin o ma ion is among he d i e s o domes ic e o ism [96].
Tha said, as men ioned p e iously, he causal links be ween disin o ma ion and o line un es o iolence a e di icul
o g asp and he e a e coun less mi iga ing ac o s ha mus be conside ed when assessing beha iou in luencing and
change. Collec i e beha iou can also mean inac ion. Audiences exposed o a lo o disin o ma ion may expe ience he
phenomenon o “in o ma ion lea ned helplessness” whe eby people a e so engul ed in alse in o ma ion ha hey simply
gi e up ying o asce ain he u h [97].
3.4.3 Mac o e ec s
Indi idual-le el e ec s can agg ega e o gene a e g oup-le el and hen socie al-le el e ec s. This is e e ed o as ‘mac o
e ec s’.
As indi idual belie s become en enched and news consump ion becomes mo e pa isan, he p ospec o pola isa ion
in socie y becomes mo e likely. The mindse o ‘us s. hem’, o en ini ia ed a he indi idual-le el h ough pe suasion and
con ic ion, is easily ex apola ed o he socie al-le el once people o m g oups wi h o he like-minded indi iduals based
on a sha ed dis inc belie [23]. Pola isa ion occu s when hese g oups posi ion hemsel es in opposi ion o o he belie
g oups, which c ea es di ision and clea ages. Pola isa ion mos o en ela es o poli ical ideology o social iden i y, bu
i can be p edica ed on nume ous ac o s.
The nex s ep om pola isa ion is a e sion, de ined as “ he comple e epudia ion o opposing iews and hose ha
hold hem” [23]. Indi iduals who a e s ongly con ic ed in hei belie s and a e membe s o pola ised g oups can quickly
ansi ion om benignly a oiding opposi ional iewpoin s o ac i ely a acking hose who hold opposing iews, o supply
in o ma ion, con a y o hei own [23]. A e sion he e o e goes beyond me e pola isa ion ( o ming o pa isan g oups),
and is he p ocess by which hese g oups p oac i ely an agonise and esis hei opponen s.
Pola isa ion and a e sion can lead o a clima e o dis us in socie y, in which he di e gence be ween opposi ional
g oups causes an e osion o us . A a socie al le el, dis us can nega i ely impac a mul i ude o ac o s, such as poli i-
cal ins i u ions, he ule o law, he media, o socie y i sel [98]. An example o his ha ela es o disin o ma ion is he
phenomenon o hos ile media e ec s, discussed abo e, which is he culmina ion o pola isa ion and a e sion o c ea e
widesp ead suspicion and dis us o mains eam news agencies [23].
These e ec s, whe he a he mic o o mac o le el, a e he po en ial consequences o disin o ma ion. As men ioned
abo e, hese consequences can in u n in luence o change he na u e o he con ex in which he disin o ma ion akes
place, he eby c ea ing somewha o a eedback loop be ween he Consequences and Con ex ac o s in he C5 Model.
Fo ins ance, i a consequence o disin o ma ion is ha i in luence s indi idual a i udes, collec i e ac ion o le els o
pola isa ion in socie y hen his impac s he na u e o he con ex , whe he ha is in ega d o he se ing, socie al ends
o e en speci ic e en s ha ha e been ins iga ed as a esul o he disin o ma ion.
3.5 Cycle o ampli ica ion
The Cycle o Ampli ica ion e e s o he ela ionship be ween dissemina ion, o p opaga ion, and pe suasion, which is
usually he o e a ching goal behind disin o ma ion(see Fig.7) [23]. As such, his elemen demons a es he in e ac ion
be ween he i s ou elemen s: wi hin a ce ain con ex (C1), disin o ma ion messages a e c ea ed (C2), and based on i s
con en (C3), he suscep ibili y o i s ecei e s, (C5) and he dissemina ion (C5), e ec s a e c ea ed (C4), which in u n can
become causes in i sel o new disin o ma ion messages o campaigns. To coun e he e ec s o he cycle o ampli ica-
ion, p ac i ione s can employ in e en ions (C5). This e e s o any measu e ha is designed o mi iga e o p e en he
sp ead and impac o disin o ma ion on socie y. He e, we a e no conce ned wi h (psychological o sociological) e ec s
o disin o ma ion on socie y bu ins ead wi h po en ial in e en ions ha a e implemen ed o coun e he dissemina ion
o disin o ma ion o (in)di ec h ea s posed by disin o ma ion.
3.5.1 Suscep ibili y
I is impo an o no e ha suscep ibili y is no a se a iable and can cons an ly e ol e. This also means ha i is di icul
o es ablish exac p o iles o indi iduals who would ne e be suscep ible o disin o ma ion, because i can change o e
ime. Mo eo e , in gene al people ge in o ma ion h ough es imony and end o belie e in o ma ion by es imony,
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meaning ha hey only end o doub a a la e s age [99]. Suscep ibili y comes om a combina ion o ai s ha a e mo e
pe manen , like pe sonali y ai s [100], bu also om a ia ions o mood, emo ions, and s a e o mind. All indi iduals
a e, o some ex en , led and a ec ed by emo ions which in luence pe cep ion and eac ion o he p ocessed in o ma ion
[80]. Also, con ex plays a la ge ole in a ec ing one’s psychology. Fo example, some con ex ual ampli ie s may ha e
made mo e people ulne able o disin o ma ion du ing he COVID-19 lockdowns such as he cons an unce ain y o
he o e load o in o ma ion [79]. In sum, no e e y indi idual will be igge ed by he same piece o disin o ma ion and
i hey a e, hey will no be igge ed in he same way.16
One’s belie s a e ideological a achmen s, in o he wo ds, co e hough s ha in luence he a ional and emo ional
in o ma ion p ocess o an indi idual [68]. O , in o he wo ds: ha which an indi idual belie es o be ue. In he case o
disin o ma ion, Galeo i [99] a gues ha belie s in luence he suscep ibili y o he indi idual o accep o ejec a piece o
new in o ma ion, as hey will end o accep ideas ha a e aligned wi h exis ing belie s. This can mean ha disin o ma ion
abou some hing ha p e iously was no pa icula ly impo an o a pe son (e.g., how accines we e made in he con ex
o COVID-19), suddenly gene a es ac ion online. Resea ch indica es ha a low us in es ablished go e nmen al and
media ins i u ions u ns consume s o al e na i e media sou ces and makes hem mo e suscep ible o disin o ma ion
[101]. Galeo i [99] also highligh s ha he mo e conse a i e he belie s, he mo e he indi idual may belie e in disin o -
ma ion. Las ly, ein o ced ex eme belie s end o in luence pola isa ion and bina y hinking ( alse s ue, w ong s igh ).
Ano he ac o o in luence o suscep ibili y is ound in heu is ics and biases [86, 102]. The human b ain cons an ly
makes a high numbe o quick decisions, mos o hem unconscious. To educe he cogni i e e o , he b ain uses heu-
is ics, o sho cu s, o make quick, deeply oo ed, and almos au oma ed decisions [103]. When people a e con on ed
wi h a piece o in o ma ion, hey a e gene ally biased o belie e in i s alidi y, which is e e ed o as he u h bias [104]
and is simila o he es imony belie e e enced o ea lie [99]. Heu is ics and biases a e mos ly in luenced by belie s,
which hey also ein o ce. An example o his a e he ea lie discussed con i ma ion bias and he Elabo a ion Likelihood
Model heo y.17 The s eng h o he con i ma ion bias is also closely ela ed o con ex ual ac o s and indi idual cha -
ac e is ics [105].
E en a single exposu e o disin o ma ion can inc ease he pe cep ion o i s accu acy. This is also e e ed o as he
‘illuso y u h e ec ’ and can pe ain e en hough i is lagged as disin o ma ion a a la e s age [106]. Exposu e o dis-
in o ma ion in i sel is no a de e minan o suscep ibili y, bu when i occu s i s eng hens he e ec s o one’s belie s
and hei biases. By inc eased exposu e, belie s, pola isa ion, o e en adicalisa ion can be ein o ced. Simila ly, one’s
ela ionship o i s social ne wo k, and mos o en he need o belong can inc ease he suscep ibili y o gossip consump-
ion and engagemen and he e o e exposu e and he isk o consuming disin o ma ion [107].
3.5.2 Dissemina ion
Dissemina ion o p opaga ion e e s o he dis ibu ion o disin o ma ion [23]. This is enabled by online social ne wo ks
since hey make i easie o use s o sha e disin o ma ion. High i ali y me ics, including numbe s o likes o sha es,
and g oup no ms u he ampli y he dissemina ion [23]. This ac o is closely ela ed o he con ex as well. Fo exam-
ple, g owing dis us in media—as a con ex ual ea u e o he poli ical clima e in a gi en en i onmen —is seen as an
impo an in luence o he consump ion and dissemina ion o disin o ma ion [108].
Se e al au ho s con i m ha people’s social s a us is s ongly ela ed o hei p opensi y o sha e news con en
[109–111]. Speci ically, he use can eel ha hei social epu a ion is ein o ced by showing hei social ne wo k (which
can exis o se e al g oups) ha hey a e up o da e on he la es news. New and imp essi e in o ma ion, which is mos ly
consis en wi h he main cha ac e is ics o disin o ma ion, can lead o g ea e g oup accep ance [99].
Ce ain indi idual cha ac e is ics in luence o wha ex en someone is ulne able o no only consuming disin o ma-
ion bu sha ing i as well. Guess e al. [100] examined which indi idual-le el cha ac e is ics we e ele an wi h ega ds
o sha ing disin o ma ion on Facebook du ing he 2016 US p esiden ial campaign. A e con olling o o he demo-
g aphic cha ac e is ics, he au ho s ound ha poli ical a ilia ion and age signi ican ly in luenced who sha ed disin o ma-
ion. Conse a i es and olde people we e ound o sha e mo e [100]. Va ious o he s udies eplica ed he inding ha
16 In addi ion, indi idual cha ac e is ics a e discussed unde 3.1.5.2 Dissemina ion and con ex ual ac o s a e analysed unde 3.1.1 Con ex .
17 See 3.1.3.1 Mic o e ec s.
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ideologically and poli ically speaking, igh -wing o ien ed people a e mo e likely o consume and sp ead disin o ma ion
[68, 101, 112–114]. O he indi idual cha ac e is ics ha in luence disin o ma ion consump ion a e being widely chal-
lenged in academia, including age, gende , and in e ne usage [68].
Echo chambe s a e c ea ed when membe s o a communi y sha e disin o ma ion wi h each o he in speci ic (online)
g oups, which leads o o he membe s eading and sha ing ha same message as well. This phenomenon con ibu es
signi ican ly o he sp ead o disin o ma ion online [70, 115]. Rini [116] disin o ma ion eaches a use h ough he es i-
mony o ano he pe son, who sha ed i a e accep ing i as being ue. The es imony is ansmi ed, especially on social
media, o en in a biased way, since i comes om someone who has jus sha ed an ideology o exp essed a pa y a ach-
men . This in o ma ion will be accep ed and sha ed by a ecipien who ag ees wi h hese social alues [116]. Mo eo e ,
he sp eade s in his echo chambe migh unin en ionally con ibu e o he sp ead o disin o ma ion, since hey migh
jus be eage o pa icipa e in hei (online) communi y [28]. Disin o ma ion has ound inc eased exposu e on Facebook
and Twi e (now X) due o he seg ega ion o g oups and highly ad anced ecommenda ion algo i hms ha a e now
key ea u es o online social ne wo ks—al hough use s hemsel es s ill play a c ucial ole in he c ea ion o so-called
‘ il e bubbles’ o ‘echo chambe s’ [70].
3.5.3 In e en ions
In e en ions e e o e o s o mi iga e he amoun , sp ead, o impac o disin o ma ion. This includes he dis up ion
o he ampli ica ion cycle [23].
Disin o ma ion de ec ion is he ask o assessing he u h ulness o a ce ain piece o news. This can be done manually
by ac -checking expe s bu can also be done h ough au oma ed analyses using da a-mining and/o machine lea ning,
al hough hese echniques a e in hei in ancy [28]. Fac -checking o ms pa o he de ec ion p ocess by e i ying he
in o ma ion con ained in an alleged piece o disin o ma ion which, again, can be done manually o h ough au oma ed
means [117]. The ac -check is hen usually ad e ised by means o lagging, which simply ale s people o in o ma ion
alsehoods and s imula es c i ical hinking, as well as lowe ing he likelihood o use s’ “in en ions o sha e he a icle”
[25]. A speci ic ype o lagging is sou ce a ing, which in ol es he p o ision o addi ional in o ma ion online ela ed o
he sou ces o in o ma ion con ained in supposed disin o ma ion. Sou ce a ings in luence he belie abili y o a icles,
which makes eade s mo e scep ical o news s o ies on social media pla o ms and online news si es ega dless o he
sou ce’s c edibili y, while low sou ce a ings lowe ed he belie abili y o he a icle and educed eade engagemen [118].
Going beyond me e de ec ion, a aluable in e en ion in esponse o disin o ma ion is debunking. This is he p ocess
whe eby disin o ma ion is de ec ed, lagged, and he alse in o ma ion con ained in disin o ma ion is co ec ed o ebu -
ed [25]. Resea ch shows ha debunking disin o ma ion by p o iding a ebu al and in oducing co ec i e in o ma ion is
a mo e e ec i e han me ely labelling he a icle as disin o ma ion [119]. Howe e , in gene al, he e ec s o debunking
can a y conside ably and depend on many ac o s, including he le el o de ail included in he debunking in o ma ion,
he le el o easoning behind people’s belie in he in o ma ion, and he ime be ween he disin o ma ion publica ion
and he ebu al [119, 120]. AI can also be used in debunking e o s [121]. A s andou example o debunking in ac ion is
he ‘Debunk EU’ ini ia i e which inco po a es AI ools, olun ee s and jou nalis s o esea ch and debunk disin o ma ion
in he Bal ic S a es and beyond [122].
A mo e p oac i e coun e measu e o disin o ma ion is p e-bunking, some imes e e ed o as inocula ion. The goal is
o build socie al esilience agains he dange s o disin o ma ion, in o de o p e-emp i s e ec s. I people a e educa ed
abou he h ea o disin o ma ion— o example, h ough inc eased media li e acy [123]—and o ewa ned ha hey
may be a ge ed, hey will become immunised agains disin o ma ion [124, 125]. This also depends on a ious o he key
indica o s o socie al esilience-building, such as le els o populism, pola isa ion, media us , ime spen on social media
pla o ms and he s eng h o he public b oadcas ing se ice [126]. I p o es ha in e en ions can also in luence he
con ex e en ually. Fu he mo e, gene a ing social no ms a ound disin o ma ion epo ing and de ec ion can lead o
highe a es o such epo ing by indi iduals [127].
Ano he in e en ion o disin o ma ion is g ea e egula ion in online en i onmen s. As he h ea o disin o ma ion
has g own in ecen yea s, so oo ha e calls o mo e egula ion. Howe e , his is a con o e sial in e en ion ha is augh
wi h challenges and has spa ked conside able deba e as policymake s ankle wi h de eloping egula o y amewo ks
a na ional o egional le els [128, 129]. The EU’s S eng hened Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion 2022 compels sig-
na o ies o: demone ise he dissemina ion o disin o ma ion; gua an ee anspa ency o poli ical ad e ising; imp o e
coope a ion wi h ac -checke s; and acili a e g ea e access o da a o esea che s [130]. This comes as pa o g ea e
egula ion o disin o ma ion by he EU ia he Digi al Ma ke s Ac 2022, he Digi al Se ices Ac 2022, and he o hcoming
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A i icial In elligence Ac . Such egula ion is impo an as i dic a es he legal and no ma i e bounda ies wi hin which
online social ne wo ks, o example, can ope a e and he ex en o which hey a e equi ed o cu a e hei con en — he
g ea e egula ion, he mo e online social ne wo ks will be equi ed o cu a e hei con en o emo e disin o ma ion.
4 Discussion
Recen examples o social un es a ound he wo ld, like he s o ming o Capi ol Hill in he US in 2022, ha e illus a ed
how disin o ma ion can uel di ision and inci e iolence. I is he e o e i al o au ho i ies asked wi h dealing wi h he
eal-wo ld implica ions o disin o ma ion o unde s and he p ocess o how i is c ea ed, dissemina ed, and akes e ec in
socie y. The p esen a icle sough o ou line he disin o ma ion p ocess, om c ea ion o e ec s, o illus a e he p ocess
by which he sp ead o disin o ma ion can escala e o ha m ul o e en c iminal beha iou s. By syn hesising academic
li e a u e on disin o ma ion om a ious ields o esea ch, he aim was o p o ide p ac i ione s wi h an accessible and
p ac ical guidance on he dynamics o disin o ma ion ha s ikes a balance be ween heo y and p ac ice. The C5 Model
ou lines he in e ac ions and in e ela ionships be ween he i e main ac o s and i s a ious sub ac o s. This model can
be used in a e sa ile way by di e en use s. Mo eo e , he C5 Model con ibu es o a gap in he academic li e a u e by
combining a di e se se o insigh s on disin o ma ion in o one cohesi e amewo k. Ano he no el ea u e o his model
is ha i emphasises ha , due o he na u e o he ela ionships be ween hese ac o s, he same piece o con en can
ha e di e en consequences, depending on he con ex . The ollowing sec ions elabo a e on bo h he p ac ical and
academic con ibu ion o his a icle.
4.1 P ac ical con ibu ion
Based on in e iews wi h i e Eu opean PAs, a sha ed need was iden i ied o imp o e coun e measu es agains disin o -
ma ion ha can lead o c iminal beha iou s.18 Acco ding o he PAs, he i s s ep o imp o ing hei coun e -disin o -
ma ion capabili ies is o de elop an in-dep h unde s anding o he phenomenon. None o he PAs ha he au ho s con-
sul ed ha e a dedica ed eam a hei disposal o unde s and, p e en and coun e he ha m ul and po en ially c iminal
consequences o disin o ma ion. Some PA depa men s migh ha e one dedica ed o ice , bu i is he no m ha hese
du ies a e conduc ed alongside o he un ela ed police du ies. By de eloping a p ac ical amewo k ha b eaks down he
complex concep o disin o ma ion in o cons i uen elemen s, his esea ch will help acili a e a deepe unde s anding
o he phenomenon. I encou ages sys ema ic hinking p omp ing no only he in e iewed PAs, bu p ac i ione s in
gene al, o conside all s ages o he disin o ma ion li ecycle a he han ocusing on isola ed aspec s, and unde s and
how hese aspec s i in o he b oade pic u e o a campaign.
P ac ically, he C5 In e ac ion Model has been de eloped speci ically o he use o p ac i ione s h oughou he di e -
en phases o he coun e disin o ma ion p ocess. Fi s , i can be used p e en i ely. The model can be employed as cou se
ma e ial o each ellow colleagues abou he wo kings o he disin o ma ion li ecycle. This way, mo e o ice s will be
compe en in spo ing and ac ing on po en ially ha m ul disin o ma ion messages. Mo eo e , an unde s anding migh be
c ea ed abou ecu ing e en s (na ionally o in e na ionally) ha inspi e disin o ma ion (e.g. elec ions o e en s e ol ing
a ound pola ising opics in ha speci ic socie y). This can enable p ac i ione s o an icipa e disin o ma ion and mi iga e
i s e ec s on socie y. Second, he C5 In e ac ion Model can be used on an ongoing basis as a decision-suppo sys em. I
a piece o disin o ma ion is spo ed, he model migh help he o ice o hink o impo an elemen s ha a e ela ed o
ha speci ic message and he e o e aid in deciding whe he i would be wo hwhile o u he in es iga e. Thi d, he C5
In e ac ion Model can be used e ospec i ely o analyse he disin o ma ion p ocess a e e en s ha e al eady occu ed.
This can help wi h pos hoc analysis o speci ic si ua ions o imp o e u u e eadiness and esponsi eness.
4.1.1 Use case summa y
To exempli y he e icacy o he C5 In e ac ion Model, i was applied o a use case om Ca alonian au ho i ies. The appli-
ca ion illus a es how he model can be used o iden i y and unde s and he a ious p ocesses o a speci ic eal-wo ld
case o disin o ma ion ha led o ha m ul o c iminal beha iou (see Fig.8).
18 These in e iews we e ca ied ou wi hin he con ex o he VIGILANT p ojec .
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The Ca alonian use case conce ns a public Teleg am channel which sp eads ha e na a i es linked o a - igh ideolo-
gies among app oxima ely 1200 ollowe s. The adminis a o s o he Teleg am g oup used disin o ma ion as a ool wi h
he aim o pola ising he ecei e s and gene a ing a clima e o ha ed owa ds a ious g oups.
The igu e abo e summa ises how he model was applied o unde s and he Ca alonian case.19 The b eakdown o he
elemen s in he illus a ion shows ha he Ca alonian disin o ma ion campaign ook place in a con ex o poli ical en-
sions. The c ea o s used he social powe o he communi y and i s social ne wo k, con ained in he Teleg am channel.
The poli ical con ex was p obably he ca alys o like-minded people o join he Teleg am channel in he i s place,
hus c ea ing a a ou able en i onmen o he disin o ma ion o be ecei ed, and mos likely sp ead e en ou side o he
g oup, hus ec ui ing mo e membe s. The con en , which aligned wi h he membe s’ belie s, was mos likely a igge
o u he adicalisa ion o he g oup.
4.2 Academic con ibu ion
The ield o disin o ma ion esea ch is expanding apidly, wi h insigh s eme ging om disciplines such as communica ion
s udies, psychology, poli ical science, sociology, and compu e science. Howe e , his exponen ial g ow h also ca ies
he isk o agmen a ion, as esea che s o en ocus on isola ed aspec s o he p oblem. The C5 In e ac ion Model ep-
esen s one o he i s conce ed e o s o b ing hese di e se insigh s oge he in o one comp ehensi e, in eg a i e
amewo k. While p e ious amewo ks in academic li e a u e ha e explained aspec s o he disin o ma ion sp ead (e.g.
[19]), sus ainmen o e ec s (e.g. [21]), and ampli ica ion o messaging (e.g. [23]), he p esen a icle has sough o con-
nec all hese ac o s in o one comp ehensi e amewo k, while simul aneously demons a ing he in e ela ionships
and luid in e connec edness o he en i e p ocess o disin o ma ion c ea ion, sp ead, and e ec s. As a as known, no
simila comp ehensi e amewo k has been de eloped ye .
The C5 In e ac ion Model shows ha he e is no one ixed ou e ha a piece o disin o ma ion akes, making i a
highly complex phenomenon o esea ch. Mo eo e , he ou e is p edominan ly in luenced by he social con ex in which
i akes place, a ac o somewha neglec ed in p io li e a u e [22]. This p o ides a mo e nuanced app ecia ion o he
unde lying mechanisms o disin o ma ion which goes beyond con en ional models o communica ion ha deno e a
linea ela ionship be ween sende and ecei e (e.g., [131]). The C5 Model pu s oge he dispa a e pieces o he eno mous
puzzle o disin o ma ion esea ch. An example o his is he inco po a ion o he Cycle o Ampli ica ion, a ecen addi ion
o he body o disin o ma ion li e a u e [23], as a main ac o in he model explaining how he impac o disin o ma ion
is mi iga ed by he ampli ica ion cycle. Fu he mo e, as highligh ed in he li e a u e e iew, he e is a lack o wo k ha
explo es he links be ween disin o ma ion and po en ially ha m ul o c iminal beha iou , such as social un es , public
diso de and ha e speech, in a comp ehensi e and p ac ical manne .
4.3 Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
I should be no ed ha he C5 In e ac ion Model is no exhaus i e. The online en i onmen whe e disin o ma ion sp eads,
which also in e ac s wi h he physical wo ld, is cons an ly changing. The e o e, he ac o s ou lined in he C5 In e ac ion
Model should be hough o as hema ic labels unde which nume ous speci ic examples can be ca ego ised, a he han
igid, de ini i e concep s. Fu he mo e, he ca ego isa ions and desc ip ions o he (sub-) ac o s a e based on he au ho s’
cu en unde s anding o he disin o ma ion phenomenon, which is e e -changing and g owing. As such, con inuous
esea ch is needed o ensu e he concep ual model emains ele an and accu a e.
Simila ly, u he esea ch is equi ed o alida e he indings o his a icle. S eps ha e al eady been aken by he
au ho s o es he model, by way o use cases o suppo i s concep ual alidi y and h ough wo kshops wi h p ac i ion-
e s o ensu e i s p ac ical ele ance. Howe e , mo e igo ous alida ion o he model, bo h in e ms o heo e ical alidi y
and p ac ical implemen a ion, is equi ed o solidi y he indings o his a icle. A sugges ion would be o build on he
applica ion o he C5 In e ac ion Model o he Ca alonian use case. Mo e o such examples o p ac ical applica ions a e
needed o analyse in which ways he model can i in o cu en p ac ises and p ocesses o p ac i ione s. Howe e , his
would jus alida e he model’s e ospec i e appliance, whe eas—as discussed in he p ac ical con ibu ion sec ion— he
model could also be used p e en i ely and on an on-going basis. To es he p e en i e alue o he model, p ac i ione s
a e encou aged o s a using i o educa ional pu poses. These sessions could be obse ed and analysed by esea che s
19 A ull summa y o he Ca alonian case s udy can be made a ailable by he au ho s on eques .

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and he espec i e au ho i ies. The same goes o using he model as a decision-suppo sys em. Ques ions ha would
ocus on he p ac icali y, unde s andabili y and applicabili y o he model could guide such e alua ions. Also, a i al
dilemma emains: when does disin o ma ion become dange ous enough o p ac i ione s o ac upon? Fu u e esea ch
could analyse his ques ion, whe eby i is impo an o ake in o accoun indi idual socie ies legal and e hical amewo ks.
Ano he po en ial c i ique o his pape is he use o bo h heo e ical and empi ical s udies in he de elopmen
o he C5 In e ac ion Model. As s a ed in he me hodology sec ion, he ounda ions o he models—in o he wo ds,
he i e main ‘Cs’ and hei o de ing in he p ocess o disin o ma ion—we e de eloped using p ima ily me a-analyses
and exis ing li e a u e e iews. This allowed o a b oade analysis o he gene al disin o ma ion p ocesses. When
de eloping he sub ac o s, empi ical s udies we e elied upon mo e. As a o emen ioned, despi e his dis inc ion he e
emains some o e lap be ween hese wo ypes o li e a u e and he weigh gi en o each ype o sou ce is no clea .
Howe e , his was done in o de o simul aneously p o ide he necessa y le el o de ail equi ed o unde s and he
mechanisms o disin o ma ion, while also ensu ing i is unde s ood wi hin he wide con ex o disin o ma ion and
i s impac on socie y. Gi en he in ended audience o his pape and he emphasis on he eal-wo ld applica ion o
i s indings, he need o cla i y and e icacy in p esen ing he mos aluable in o ma ion o p ac i ione s supe seded
any conce ns, albei alid, o e he blu y dis inc ion be ween heo e ical and empi ical e idence.
Also, he eliance on e idence om mainly wo-pa y poli ical sys ems migh be seen as a limi a ion, because his
pape is ocused on Eu opean p ac i ione s who ope a e in mul i-pa y poli ical sys ems. Howe e , much o he li -
e a u e on he phenomena o disin o ma ion is cen ed a ound he US o he UK— wo dis inc i ely unique poli ical
sys ems ha a e no wholly gene alisable o a Eu opean con ex . This is likely due o he ecen high-p o ile bipa isan
poli ical and cons i u ional e en s ha we e co ne s ones in mani es ing global a en ion and esea ch on disin o ma-
ion and i s e ec s, namely he poli ical ise o Donald T ump and he B exi e e endum. Any bias owa ds US and UK
sou ces, esea ch and case s udies is somewha inhe en o disin o ma ion esea ch because hese e en s ga ne ed
such in e na ional a en ion and p o ided such e ile g ound o analysis. Fu he mo e, compa a i e esea ch on
disin o ma ion in di e en poli ical sys ems has ended o ocus on democ a ic e sus non-democ a ic egimes a he
han di e ences wi hin democ acies, such as wo-pa y o mul i-pa y poli ical sys ems. As such, his is an ob ious
issue o which u he s udy is equi ed o unde s and be e how disin o ma ion mani es s, sp eads and akes hold
in a ying ypes o poli ical sys ems. Ne e heless, his pape endea ou ed o p o ide a mo e Eu opean ou look,
u ilising a case s udy om Ca alonia a he main case o exempli y he use o he C5 In e ac ion Model, while also
using esea ch om o he pa s o he EU, such as Po ugal, Ge many, he Ne he lands and I aly.
5 Conclusion
The main con ibu ion o his a icle is he C5 In e ac ion Model, which ep esen s one o he i s conce ed e o s
o b ing mul idisciplina y insigh s on disin o ma ion oge he in o one comp ehensi e in eg a i e amewo k. The
model, consis ing o i e key in e ela ed elemen s o disin o ma ion (Con ex , Causes, Con en , Consequences, and
Cycle o Ampli ica ion), can inc ease unde s anding on he dynamics and consequences o he disin o ma ion li ecycle
by p o iding a high-le el o e iew o his complex p ocess. Based on a syn hesis o academic heo y and li e a u e,
he C5 In e ac ion Model also p o ides accessible and p ac icable guidance o p ac i ione s asked wi h handling
he eal-wo ld consequences o disin o ma ion.
Au ho con ibu ions K.K., NB.F, B.C and S. d.M. (all au ho s) w o e he main manusc ip ex . K.K., NB.F. and B.C. designed he igu es. All
au ho s e iewed he manusc ip .
Funding The ini ial esea ch leading o hese esul s ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch and inno a ion
p og amme unde G an Ag eemen No: 101073921.
Da a a ailabili y The da ase s gene a ed du ing and/o analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho on
easonable eques .
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Resea ch
Decla a ions
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e The E hics wo k package om he VIGILANT p ojec , led by he Uni e si y o F eibu g, has app o ed
he in e iews wi h PAs. Consen o Pa icipa e and Consen o Publish we e ob ained om all pa icipan s in he s udy.
Compe ing in e es s The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es 4.0 In e na ional License, which
pe mi s any non-comme cial use, sha ing, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o
he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons licence, and indica e i you modi ied he licensed ma e ial. You
do no ha e pe mission unde his licence o sha e adap ed ma e ial de i ed om his a icle o pa s o i . The images o o he hi d pa y
ma e ial in his a icle a e included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I
ma e ial is no included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended use is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds
he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p:// c ea i eco
mmons. o g/ licen ses/ by- nc- nd/4. 0/.
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