Co esponding au ho : God ey H. Kagezi
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Fa me s’ ag onomic p ac ices in ela ion o he p oduc i i y o cacao, Theob oma
cacao L. in he majo g owing egions o Uganda
God ey H. Kagezi 1, *, God ey Sse emba 1, Judi h Kobusinge 1, Pe e Cha les Apunyo 2, Ve onica Twesigye 1,
Ge ald Kyalo 3 and Geo ey A inai we 1
1 Na ional Co ee Resea ch Ins i u e (NaCORI)/Na ional Ag icul u al Resea ch O ganisa ion (NARO), P.O. Box 185 Mukono,
Uganda.
2 Depa men o C op P oduc ion and Managemen , Facul y o Ag icul u e and Animal Sciences, Busi ema Uni e si y. P.O
Box 236 To o o..
3 Co ee Depa men , Minis y o Ag icul u e, Animal Indus y and Fishe ies (MAAIF), P.O Box 102, En ebbe, Uganda.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 25 June 2025; e ised on 30 July 2025; accep ed on 02 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.2369
Abs ac
Despi e being he 3 d mos impo an o eign ea ne c op in Uganda, p oduc ion o cacao is only 550 kg/ha o d y beans,
compa ed o Cô e d'I oi e (800 kg/ha) and Malaysia (1,700 kg/ha), p obably due o poo ag onomic and managemen
p ac ices, among o he s. We he e o e isi ed 116 cacao g owing households loca ed in he h ee majo cacao g owing
egions o Uganda o assess ag onomic and managemen p ac ices ca ied ou by a me s. A 50 x 50 m plo was
dema ca ed in each household ga den and 12 cacao ees we e sys ema ically sampled along wo c oss diagonal
ansec s. We es ablished he age, numbe o pods, le el o plan and ield managemen as well as spacing o cacao ees.
Resul s showed ha >50% o cacao ees we e >20 yea s old, wi h an a e age o 13.1 pods pe ee. Cacao ees we e
gene ally poo ly managed and spaced a an a e age o 4.0 x 4.1m. Ga dens we e highly in e c opped (94%) and unde
ag o o es y (99.9%), wi h (89.7%) and co ee (51.7%), and, Maesopsis eminii (32.1%), being mos p e alen ,
espec i ely. Mo e han hal o he ga dens we e mode a ely o highly weeded o mulched bu , only 2.6 and 12.9% o
he ga dens had co e c ops and enches, espec i ely. Fu he mo e, he numbe o pods inc eased signi ican ly
(p≤0.05) wi h p uning and s umping bu , dec eased wi h age and plan densi y, hough no signi ican ly (p≥0.05). This
in o ma ion o ms a baseline o de eloping echnologies and inno a ions o managing hese ag onomic and
managemen s esses as well as he Na ional Cacao Resea ch Agenda and S a egic Plan o Uganda.
Keywo ds: Age; Ag o o es y; In e c opping; Maesopsis-Eminii; Mulching; Numbe -O -Pods; P uning; Spacing;
S umping; Weeding
1. In oduc ion
Cacao (Theob oma cacao L) is a opical c op ha belongs o he Mal aceae amily and he genus Theob oma [1] and is
commonly known as cacao in case o plan o cocoa when e e ing o p oduc s [2, 3]. The c op is na i e o he opical
and humid o es s o he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica [4, 5]. Cacao is ex ensi ely cul i a ed o i s beans, which a e he
p ima y aw ma e ial o a ious cocoa p oduc s pa icula ly, chocola e, cocoa powde , and cocoa bu e [6]. Cacao is
one o he majo ag icul u al commodi ies ha a e aded and consumed a ound he wo ld because i p o ides
economic bene i s o p oducing coun ies, smallholde a me s cul i a ing he c op, and he con ec ione y indus y by
p o iding key aw ma e ials [7]. App oxima ely, 5 o 6 million a me s g ow he c op wo ldwide [8] and i is es ima ed
ha a ound 40 o 50 million people ely on i s p oduc ion o hei li elihood [9]. Annually abo e 5 million ons o cocoa
beans a e p oduced wo ldwide, a ound 75% in A ica, mainly in I o y Coas and Ghana [10].
In Uganda, cacao p oduc ion has been apidly inc easing in he pas 20 yea s [11], as shown by expo s g owing om
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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2,130 me ic ons (MT) o comme cial cocoa in he yea 2001, o 35,000 MT in he yea 2020 [12]. This end is expec ed
o con inue due o he coun y’s sui able clima ic condi ions o cacao cul i a ion [13] and inc easing go e nmen al
p omo ion e o s [14]. Due o i s con ibu ion o expo ea nings, cacao is one o he 10 commodi ies selec ed by he
Fou h Na ional De elopmen Plan (NDPIV) o os e a sus ainable ag o-indus ializa ion agenda in Uganda [15]. The
c op is g own by 15,000-20,000 households on an es ima ed 20,000 ha o land wi h majo p oduc ion a eas being in
mid-wes e n, cen al and mid-eas e n egions [14, 16]. Cacao success ully g ows in Uganda due o good soil and clima ic
condi ions o cacao [17]. Fu he mo e, being a pe ennial ee c op, cacao plays many o he ecological oles including
a mosphe ic ca bon seques a ion and conse a ion o use ul auna such as pollina o s and decompose s [18]. I is,
he e o e, a key c op in e adica ing ex eme po e y as well as ensu ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y [19].
Despi e i s immense economic po en ial, cacao yields a a m le el in Uganda a e only 550 kg/ha o d y beans [20],
compa ed o wha is p oduced in coun ies like Cô e d'I oi e (800 kg/ha) and Malaysia (1700 kg/ha) [21]. These
ela i ely low yields a e due o a combina ion o ac o s including poo ag onomic and managemen p ac ices o he
abio ic and bio ic s esses [22]. In addi ion, mos a me s a e managing hese s esses wi hou being guided by esea ch
indings [23]. Mo eso, he coun y lacks he socioeconomic amewo ks o he cocoa sub-sec o such as Cocoa Policy,
Na ional Cocoa S a egic Plan and Na ional Cocoa Resea ch Agenda [24].
Basing on his backd op, we he e o e hypo hesized ha he low cacao p oduc i i y in Uganda is a ibu able o sub-
op imal ag onomic p ac ices. As such, we conduc ed a ield assessmen wi h an aim o desc ibing he ag onomic
cha ac e is ics o he cacao in he h ee (3) majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda. Speci ically, we asce ained he
ag onomic p ac ices: (i) a plan -le el; (ii) a plo -le el; and, (iii) in ela ion o cacao p oduc i i y. This in o ma ion
se es as a baseline o de eloping inno a ions and echnologies o managing hese s esses. I will also in o m he
necessa y socio-economic amewo ks o guiding he cocoa sub-sec o in Uganda.
2. Ma e ial and me hods
2.1. S udy a ea
The s udy was conduc ed in Uganda, loca ed in Eas A ica and lies as ide he Equa o , be ween la i udes 4o12’N and
1o29’S and longi udes 29o34’W and 35o0’E. Tempe a u es a e in he ange o 15–30oC. A o al o 11 dis ic s we e
su eyed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda [25, 26], including: cen al (Mpigi, Kayunga, Mukono and
Buikwe dis ic s), mid-eas e n egion (Jinja, Kamuli, Luuka and Mayuge dis ic s) and mid-wes e n egion (Bundibugyo,
Kibale and Hoima dis ic ) (Fig. 1).
Figu e 1 Map showing he su ey dis ic s in he majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
2.2. Da a collec ion
Two (2) sub-coun ies we e andomly selec ed in each o he abo e-men ioned dis ic s and 116 cacao ga dens (36 in
cen al, 35 in mid-eas e n and 45 in mid-wes e n egions) selec ed. In each selec ed cacao ga den, a plo measu ing 50
x 50m was dema ca ed. A plan le el, 12 cacao ees we e sys ema ically sampled along wo c oss diagonal ansec s
unning he ull leng h o he dema ca ed plo (one unning om le o igh and he o he one om igh o le ). In
each diagonal, 6 cacao ees we e selec ed e e y a e 14 m o da a collec ion. The age o each o he sampled cacao ee
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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was es ima ed and all he pods coun ed and eco ded. The sampled cacao ee was u he sco ed o he le el o
p uning, de-sucke ing and s umping [27] a a scale o 0-3, whe e: 0= no p ac icing, 1=low, 2=mode a e, and, 3=high.
A plo le el, he spacing o he 12 sampled cacao plan s was es ablished by measu ing he dis ance be ween he sampled
cacao ee o he ees neighbo ing i – in on , behind, le and igh , and hen aking he a e age [28]. In addi ion, o he
c ops in he cacao ga dens we e es ablished. Then, he numbe o ees and sh ubs (a leas 1.5 m all) apa om cacao
was es ablished and iden i ied o species le els (whe e possible) in ei he English o scien i ic name [29]. Fu he mo e,
he le el o weeding, mulching, use o co e c ops and enches was also sco ed as: no p ac iced, low, medium o high.
2.3. Da a analysis
Desc ip i e and summa y s a is ics such as means, equencies, a iances and anges we e used o analyze he da a. In
addi ion, co ela ion and eg ession analyses we e pe o med o es ablish he ela ionship be ween he numbe o pods
and he le el o applica ion o he di e en ag onomic p ac ices (p uning, s umping, de-sucke ing, age and plan densi y)
on cacao in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda. S a is ical Analysis Sys em (SAS) so wa e [30] was used
o pe o m all he analyses.
3. Resul s and discussion
3.1. Plan le el p ac ices
3.1.1. Age o he cacao ees
Ha ing knowledge o he age o cacao ees is i al as i has been epo ed o be one o he main ac o s ha in luence
he yield [31]. Resul s o his s udy showed ha on a e age, mo e han hal o he cacao ees we su eyed we e mo e
han 20 yea s o age, pa icula ly in mid-wes e n Uganda whe e 85.6% o he cacao ees we e in his ca ego y (Table
1), implying ha mos o he cacao ees in Uganda a e ela i ely old. This could be a ibu ed o he ac ha his o ically,
Bundibugyo a ea is one o he pionee a eas whe e cacao was es ablished because o i s ele a ion, slope and ain all
ha a o ed g ow h o he c op [26, 32]. Simila esul s ha e been epo ed in Uganda [12] and in o he coun ies such
as I o y Coas [33], Came oon [34], and, Eas Ja a [35]. The old age o he cacao plan s and ga dens is one o he majo
causes o low yields in mos o he cacao g owing coun ies in A ica [22, 31, 36, 37, 38]. This is due o he biological lags
inhe en in pe ennial c ops [39].
Gene ally, a cacao ee begins p oducing pods a abou h ee yea s a e plan ing, eaching ull bea ing capaci y a ound
he age o 10-20 yea s, and hei ou pu s a s o diminish g adually he ea e due o loss o lowe cushions and
nu ien mining [40, 41, 42, 43]. In addi ion, old age o cacao ees has been associa ed wi h inc ease in incidence and
damage o pes s and diseases [44], such as he wi ches’ b oom [45, 46].
The e o e, he exis ing old ees in a me s’ ga dens, pa icula ly in mid-wes e n Uganda need o be eju ena ed and
ehabili a ed [47] o he cacao ga dens need o be eplan ed [31, 48] so as o eco e he yield pe o mance [39, 49].
Howe e , esea ch shows ha some a me s may be eluc an o ehabili a e hei cacao ees o eplan hei cacao
ga dens i he ees can s ill bea some cacao pods and he e o e p o ide some income [38].
Table 1 Age anges o cacao ees su eyed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
Region
Mean age (yea s)
<5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20
Cen al
25.0
25.0
8.1
2.8
39.1
Mid-eas e n
0.2
26.2
28.3
21.0
24.3
Mid-wes e n
2.8
8.0
3.7
0.0
85.6
O e all mean
8.9
18.8
12.5
7.2
52.7
3.1.2. Numbe o pods pe cacao ee
De e mining he numbe o pods on a ee is one o he me hods ha is usually used o o ecas cacao yields [50, 51].
Ou esul s showed ha he o e all mean numbe o cacao pods eco ded was 13.1, wi h he highes (23.1 pods) being
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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eco ded in cen al and lowes (6.8 pods) in he mid-wes e n egion (Fig. 2). This could in pa due o ac ha cacao
ees in he mid-wes e n we e gene ally olde han in o he egions [38, 39]. Simila o ou inding, [25] obse ed ha
78-92% o he local cacao a ie ies we e p oducing less han 20 pods pe ee in Damba Island, Mukono dis ic , Uganda.
Low numbe s o cacao pods pe plan ha e also been epo ed elsewhe e [52, 53].
Howe e , ou o e all mean numbe o pods is a less han he ecommended good yield o 20 o mo e pods pe ee
[54]. The numbe o pods p oduced on a cacao ee depends on a numbe o in e playing ac o s such as age o he ee,
gene ics, en i onmen al, pes s and diseases, as well as he ag onomic p ac ices [e.g. 51, 55, 56, 57]. Ne e heless, pod
coun pe ee is conside ed as one o he me hods o de e mining when o enew cacao ees and [49] ecommends
ha a ee ha ing 14 o less pods should be enewed. This implies ha he cacao ees in he mid-wes e n and mid-
eas e n egions need o be enewed so as o eju ena e hei p oduc i i y [49, 58].
Figu e 2 Mean numbe o pods eco ded on cacao ees su eyed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
3.1.3. Le el o p uning o he cacao ees
P uning is he emo al o unwan ed b anches om a cacao ee [59]. This modi ies he lea a ea and he e o e a ec he
ege a i e, ep oduc i e, and p oduc ion a iables [60]. O e all, mos (37.7%) o he cacao plan s we e no p uned
ac oss all he h ee s udy a eas, wi h he mid-wes e n egion ha ing he highes (70%) numbe o unp uned cacao ees
(Table 2). This inding is in ag eemen wi h [19] who obse ed ha 80% o he cacao plan s in Hoima dis ic which is
loca ed in mid-wes e n Uganda, we e no p uned. Simila ly, a baseline s udy conduc ed in Cô e d’I oi e and Nige ia
showed ha only 1.8 and 16.6% o he cacao p oduce s, espec i ely, epo ed ha hey had p uned hei cacao ees
[61]. Low le els o p uning o cacao plan s in he mid-wes e n egion could in pa be a ibu ed o he ac ha in his
egion, majo i y o he cacao ees we e gene ally old (Table 1), implying ha a me s migh be expe iencing challenges
in accessing he ee canopies in o de o p une o he old o excess b anches [62]. In addi ion, a me s migh be ha ing
limi ed echnical knowledge and capaci y o execu e his p ac ice [63], hough, some o hem migh p e e o lea e some
chupons on he main b anches hinking ha hey will p oduce mo e pods [64, 65, 66]. Bu also, ame s in Ecuado do
no usually p une all and old cacao ees because he p ac ice is cos ly (US$1 pe ee) and he yield gain is ma ginal,
making i uneconomical [67].
Howe e , ou esul s showed ha mo e han 70% o he cacao ees sampled in cen al Uganda we e highly p uned
(Table 2). This inding is suppo ed by obse a ions made elsewhe e [68, 69]. This could be in pa be due o ac ha
cacao in cen al Uganda is gene ally younge han in he mid-wes e n egion (Table 1) and he e o e easie o p une
[70]. Ne e heless, p uning, which is he emo al o unwan ed b anches (chupons o wa e h ea s/shoo s) om a cacao
ee [71, 72, 73, 74], educes c owding in cacao plan a ions [75] by main aining he p ope shape o he cacao ee, hus,
acili a ing he c op managemen asks [68]. P uning also allows sunligh o pene a e h ough he cacao canopy,
c ea ing a wa m condi ion which induces lowe ing and pods p oduc ion [76. 77, 78], hus, enhancing yields [60]. I is
also conside ed an impo an p ac ice o managing cacao pes s and diseases [79] such as os y pod o , Monilioph ho
a o e i [68] and black pod, Phy op o a palmi o a [80]. P uning should he e o e be conside ed as one o he componen s
o a cos -e ec i e, locally ealizable pes and disease managemen s a egy ha holds po en ial o educe he amoun o
pes icides and he associa ed nega i e e ec s on human heal h and he en i onmen [81].
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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Table 2 P uning le els o he cacao plan s as obse ed in he h ee majo cocoa g owing egions o Uganda
Region
No p uned
Low
Mode a e
High
Cen al
8.8
4.6
9.0
77.5
Mid-eas e n
23.3
53.8
21.2
1.7
Mid-wes e n
72.0
7.0
4.3
16.7
O e all mean
37.7
20.4
10.8
31.0
3.1.4. Le el o de-sucke ing o he cacao ees
De-sucke ing is he emo al o excess sucke s o chupons om he cacao plan [70] because hey ake away nu ien s
om p oduc i e b anches [82]. Ou esul s showed ha all he cacao plan s we e ei he lowly de-sucke ed o no de-
sucke ed a all. O e all, 54.8 and 45.2% o he sampled cacao ees we e lowly de-sucke ed o no de-sucke ed,
espec i ely, wi h he highes pe cen age (78.3%) o he ees which we e no de-sucke ed being egis e ed in he mid-
wes e n egion (Table 3). Low le el o sucke emo al by a me s has also been epo ed in Hoima dis ic , mid-wes e n
Uganda [19] and o he cacao g owing coun ies in A ica such as Nige ia [83]. This could in pa be due o he ac ha
a me s migh be ha ing limi ed knowledge on he ad an ages as well as applica ion and capaci y o execu e his
ag onomic p ac ice [63]. Bu also, his p ac ice migh be ime consuming and cos ly o he a me s, hus, making i
uneconomical, hough, i is commonly done in o he cacao g owing coun ies in La in Ame ica, pa icula ly, Ecuado
and B azil [67]. A cacao ee is usually main ained as a single s em by con inuously emo ing all he o he sucke s
(chupons) o p e en de elopmen o subsequen jo que es and es ic ing u he e ical g ow h [84]. In addi ion,
his p ac ice is one o he mos commonly used cul u al me hod o managing pes s and diseases in cacao sys ems [85].
Resea ch and ex ension should he e o e encou age a me s o con inuously emo e hese sucke s o chupons om
hei cacao ees [86, 87].
Table 3 De-sucke ing le els o he cacao plan s as obse ed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
Region
No de-sucke ed
Low
Cen al
13.9
86.1
Mid-eas e n
34.8
65.2
Mid-wes e n
78.3
21.7
O e all mean
45.2
54.8
3.1.5. Le el o s umping o coppicing he cacao ees
S umping o coppicing is he comple e emo al o he majo i y o he main s em o a cacao ee o encou age he
egene a ion o he canopy by chupon g ow h as well as egula ing he c own shape and ee size [34, 51, 88, 89, 90].
Resul s o ou s udy showed ha none o he cacao plan s sampled in he mid-eas e n and only 3.6% o hose sampled
in mid-wes e n had been s umped (Fig. 3). Ou inding is in line wi h ea lie s udy conduc ed by [91] in Ondo S a e,
Nige ia which showed ha only 1% o he a me s hey in e iewed has ully in eg a ed coppicing in hei cacao
ehabili a ion p og ams. Simila ly, low le els o adop ion by a me s o he coppicing as a echnique o ehabili a ing
cacao has been epo ed elsewhe e [e.g. 90, 92, 93, 94]. This low le el o s umping obse ed in he mid-wes e n and
mid-eas e n egions could in pa be due o he ac ha a me s migh be ha ing limi ed knowledge on he ad an ages
as well as he applica ion and capaci y o execu e his ag onomic p ac ice [63]. In addi ion, s umping o coppicing migh
be ime consuming and cos ly, and, he e o e, he a me s do no ealize he economic gain in e ms o yield [67].
Con a y, 87% o he cacao ees we sampled in he cen al egion had been s umped (Fig. 3). Simila ly, [95] epo ed
ha 70.1% o he a me s hey in e iewed in Boki Local Go e nmen A ea, C oss Ri e S a e, Nige ia had knowledge
o coppicing as a echnique o ehabili a ing old cacao ees. The high le el o s umping obse ed in he cen al egion
could in pa due o he ac ha cacao ees in his egion a e gene ally young (Table 1) and he e o e easie o be
s umped [96]. Ne e heless, s umping o coppicing imp o es ligh pene a ion, s imula es he de elopmen o new
buds, emo es undesi able b anches ha compe e o nu ien s wi h p oduc i e b anches, educes pes s and diseases,
and enhances nu ien a ailabili y, ul ima ely boos ing lowe ing and pod p oduc ion [e.g. 56, 60, 76, 77, 97, 98]. This
enhance yields and p oduc i i y o cacao [e.g. 99, 100, 101, 102]. The e is he e o e a need o sensi ize he cacao a me s
on eju ena ion and ehabili a ion o hei a ms o inc ease been yield which will imp o e hei s anda d o li ing and
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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po e y educ ion [63, 102].
Figu e 3 The pe cen age o ees s umped as obse ed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
3.2. Plo le el p ac ices
3.2.1. Spacing o he cacao ees
In cacao, spacing con igu a ions is impo an in maximizing yield and bean cha ac e is ics [103]. The op imum spacing
be ween ees is he plan ing densi y which will gi e he g ea es economic e u n pe uni a ea o land [83]. Gene ally,
he o e all spacing be ween he sampled cacao ees (4.0 x 4.1 m) (Table 4) was bigge han he ecommended spacing
o 3 x 3 m in mos o he cacao g owing coun ies including Uganda [e.g. 17, 45, 83, 103, 104, 105]. This could in pa be
due o he ac ha a me s may be lacking he echnical guidance on he op imal spacing egime o maximizing p o i s
[28], bu also some o he cacao ees migh ha e been los due o pes s and diseases [106].
Li e a u e shows ha i egula spacing and densi y o cacao ees a e some o he main causes o low p oduc i i y o
cacao in A ica [106] and in cacao, spacing con igu a ions is impo an in maximizing yield and bean cha ac e is ics
[103]. Howe e , s udies conduc ed in o he coun ies ha e demons a ed supe io i y o high densi y popula ion o e
he adi ional low densi y plan ings in he ea ly yea s o p oduc ion [45, 83. 107, 108]. Resea ch in Uganda should
he e o e explo e his possibili y o a high plan ing densi y sys em du ing he i s ew yea s o es ablishmen while he
ees su pluses be elimina ed once he plan s’ canopy sp ead a e becoming oo in e wo en [83].
Table 4 Cacao ee spacing obse ed in he h ee majo cocoa g owing egions o Uganda
Region
A e age spacing (m)
Cen al
3.5x3.8
Mid-eas e n
4.2x4.4
Mid-wes e n
4.2x4.0
O e all mean
4.0x4.1
3.2.2. In e c opping in cacao ga dens
Cacao in e c opping is he p ac ice o g owing o he c ops and ees in he same a ea as cacao ees [109]. Ou esul s
showed ha majo i y (94%) o he cacao ga dens sampled in he h ee cacao g owing egions o Uganda we e
in e c opped (Table 5). This inding ag ees wi h [110] who obse ed ha o e 90% o he a me s in e iewed in
Tanzania had in e c opped hei cacao wi h o he plan species. Simila ly, [111] obse ed ha almos all he a me s he
in e iewed in Nige ia had in e c opped hei cacao wi h o he c ops wi h only less 1% o he a ms ha ing i as a
monoc op. This emphasizes he impo ance a me s a ach o in e c opping hei cacao wi h ood and cash c ops o
mee bo h ood secu i y and income needs [67, 112].
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
1835
Table 5 Pe cen age o cacao ga dens ha had in e c ops in he majo cocoa g owing egions o Uganda
Region
No in e c opped
Lowly
Mode a ely
Highly
Cen al
2.8
27.8
41.7
27.8
Mid-eas e n
5.7
48.6
45.7
0.0
Mid-wes e n
8.9
42.2
20.0
28.9
O e all mean
6.0
39.7
34.5
19.8
Resul s o his s udy u he showed ha o e all, he main in e c ops in cacao ga dens we e: bananas (89.7%) and
co ee (51.7%) (Table 6). This inding is in ag eemen wi h ea lie s udies which epo ed ha 92.3% o he a me s in
Bendel, Ogun and Ondo s a es [111] and 71.1% in Oyo S a e o Nige ia [113], 95.1% in Mexico [113] and >85% in
Tanzania [110] had in e c opped hei cacao wi h bananas. In addi ion, 41.0% o he a me s sampled in Bendel, Ogun,
Ondo and Oyo S a es o Nige ia had also in e c opped hei cacao wi h co ee [111]. Howe e , in e c opping cacao and
co ee migh p esen a challenge because hey sha e some pes s, pa icula ly, he no o ious black co ee wig bo e
(BCTB), Xylosand us compac us (Eichho ) (Coleop e a: Cu culionidae: Scoly inae) [19, 114. 115, 116, 117].
Fu he mo e, cassa a was p ominen ly obse ed as an in e c op in he cen al egion (66.7%) (Table 6), ag eeing wi h
s udies in Bendel, Ogun, Ondo and Oyo S a es as well as Osun S a e, Nige ia which showed ha 51.3 and 39.2% o he
a me s espec i ely, had in e c opped hei cacao wi h cassa a [111, 118]. Fa me s p ac ice in e c opping in o de o
maximize he a ailable space o p oduce cacao o cash and o he c ops such as cassa a, yams, beans o ood secu i y
in hei households [67, 112]. In e c opping can he e o e gi e ise o subs an ial inc eases in yields because he
componen c ops complemen each o he and make be e use o en i onmen al esou ces han when g own sepa a ely
[119, 120]. In addi ion o being sou ces o ood and cash o he households, bananas and cassa a also p o ide shade
o young cacao ees du ing plan a ion es ablishmen [17, 113, 121, 122]. This is an e ec i e s a egy o maximize
a mland u iliza ion [121]. All in all, in e c opping in cacao should be p ope ly designed o ake maximum ad an age o
he po en ial o complemen a i y in o de o a oid o educe comple ion o nu ien s, ligh , mois u e, space as well as
p omo ion o pes s and disease [123].
Table 6 Pe cen age o he main in e c ops obse ed in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
Region
Bananas
Co ee
Cassa a
Coco yams
Vanilla
Cen al
97.2
27.8
66.7
47.2
16.7
Mid-eas e n
100.0
82.9
11.4
28.6
17.1
Mid-wes e n
75.6
46.7
11.1
2.2
20.0
O e all mean
89.7
51.7
28.4
24.1
18.1
3.2.3. Cacao ag o o es y sys ems
Cacao (Theob oma cacao) is an unde s o y plan [124, 125], cul i a ed unde di e en c opping sys ems, om ull-sun
monocul u es o mul i-s a a ag o o es y sys ems [126]. Ou esul s showed ha 99.9% o he cacao ga dens we
sampled in he h ee majo cacao g owing egion o Uganda had been in e -plan ed wi h o he ee and sh ub species
(Table 7). Simila ly, s udies conduc ed in he wes e n and cen al cacao g owing egions o Uganda showed ha
ag o o es y was widely adop ed in e e y dis ic sampled by [12] and almos all su eyed a me s we e awa e o he
concep s o ag o o es y. Also, 86% o he a ms su eyed in sou hwes e n Co e d’I oi e epo ed ha hey had
emb aced cacao ag o o es y [127].
Table 7 u he shows ha majo i y (52%) o cacao ga dens had mode a e o high le els o canopy co e , ag eeing wi h
[19[ who epo ed ha 40% o he cacao ga dens sampled in Bundibugyo and Hoima dis ic s o wes e n Uganda had
mode a e le el o canopy co e . Op imum cacao ag o o es y has been epo ed o imp o e soil e ili y and s uc u e,
enhance clima e esilience, seques e ca bon, educe pes s, weeds and diseases, modi ied ligh in il a ion, enhance
mois u e a ailabili y, conse e biodi e si y, enhance household incomes and li elihood as well as ood and nu i ion
needs [e.g. 128, 129 130, 131, 132, 133]. In addi ion, ag o o es y sys ems ha e been epo ed o inc ease yield o cacao
[29, 134]. Go e nmen should he e o e c ea e economic incen i es in o de o a me s o e ain shade ees on hei
cacao a ms [135].
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
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Table 7 Pe cen age o cocoa ga dens p ac icing ag o o es y in he h ee majo cacao g owing egions o Uganda
Region
No p ac icing
Lowly
Mode a ely
Highly
Cen al
0.0
47.2
38.9
13.9
Mid-eas e n
0.0
47.1
47.1
5.9
Mid-wes e n
2.2
46.7
20.0
31.1
O e all mean
0.9
47.0
33.9
18.3
Fu he mo e, a o al o 46 di e en ees and sh ub species belonging o 26 amilies we e eco ded in he cacao-based
ag o o es y sys ems (Table 8), ag eeing wi h a numbe o ea lie s udies [136, 137, 139, 139]. The mos p ominen
amilies we e: Mo aceae (9 species), Eupho biaceae (4 species), and, Mimosaceae, My aceae and Ru aceae (3 species
each), ag eeing wi h o he esea ch s udies by [136, 140, 141]. The umb ella ee, Maesopsis eminii was he mos
equen ly (32.1%) eco ded shade ee species in he cacao sys ems o Uganda. This has also been obse ed in o he
cacao ag o o es y sys ems o Uganda [12, 17, 19, 46] and elsewhe e [142, 143]. The popula i y o his ee species is
a ibu ed o i s as g ow h, eadily a ailable plan ing ma e ials and ease o p opaga ion [19]. In addi ion, he lea es o
M. eminii decompose easily and i is compa ible wi h mos o he ag icul u al p ac ices [144]. M. eminii also p o ides
addi ional p oduc s such as imbe and i ewood [145]. Howe e , his ee species has been epo ed o be one o he
good al e na e hos plan species o he Black Co ee Twig Bo e (BCTB), Xylosand us compac us (Eichho ) [146, 147].
X. compac us is cu en ly one o he majo insec pes s in es ing cacao in Uganda [146, 147, 148] and elsewhe e [114,
115, 149]. This implies ha he p esence o X. compac us on M. eminii in e -plan ed in cacao p esen s a dilemma in
managing his pes [147].
I should be no ed ha h ee (3) o he i e (5) mos common ee species eco ded in he h ee majo cacao g owing
egions o Uganda we e edible ui ees, in pa icula , jack ui (10.8%), a ocado (9.9%) and mango (7.2%) (Table 8).
This inding suppo s o he s udies ha ha e epo ed ha edible ui ees o m a la ge p opo ion o ee species
eco ded in cacao-based ag o o es y sys ems [136, 138, 150, 151]. This implies ha a me s plan and/o e ain and
main ain ee species in hei cacao ga dens o ecological, economic, and social easons [152, 153, 154] as well as o
ood and nu i ion [136, 138]. Since he cacao ag o o es y sys ems a e popula in all he cacao g owing egions o
Uganda, esea ch should he e o e be gea ed owa ds iden i ying he mos app op ia e ag o o es y ee species
(including ui ees) and spacing egimes which will no comp omise cacao yields [134, 155].
Table 8 Di e si y o non-cocoa ee and sh ub species in he 50 x 50 m ansec o cacao ag o o es y in he h ee majo
cacao g owing egions o Uganda
English name
Bo anical name
Family
Region
Cen al
Eas e n
Wes e n
To al
Umb ella ee
Maesopsis eminii
Rhamnaceae
41.3
24.8
32.5
32.1
Jack ui
A oca pus he e ophyllus
Mo aceae
5.4
12.9
13.3
10.8
A ocado
Pe sea Ame icana
Lau aceae
9.5
11.9
7.8
9.9
Ma kamia
Ma khamia lu ea
Bignoniaceae
5.7
8.8
11.0
8.6
Mango
Mangi e a indica
Anaca diaceae
6.8
7.6
7.0
7.2
Fig ee
Ficus na alensis
Mo aceae
6.3
3.1
4.3
4.4
Paw paw
Ca ica papaya
Ca icaceae
4.6
0.0
4.5
3.9
A ican eak:
Milicia excels
Mo aceae
1.9
5.7
1.5
3.3
Ba bados nu
Ja opha cu cas
Eupbo biaceae
0.3
2.9
1.8
1.8
Gua a
Psidium guaja a
My aceae
3.0
1.8
0.3
1.7
A ican elemi,
Cana ium schwein u hii
Bu se aceae
1.4
2.1
0.3
1.3
Silk ee
Albizia chinensis
Mimosaceae
4.3
0.0
0.0
1.3
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1829-1850
1837
O ange
Ci us sinensis
Ru aceae
1.1
2.5
0.0
1.3
Ligh wood
Albizia co ia ia
Mimosaceae
1.9
1.0
0.5
1.1
A ican ulip ee
Spa hodea campanula a
Bignoniaceae
0.5
0.6
1.3
0.8
Golden wonde ee
Senna spec abilis
Caesalpiniaceae
0.5
0.2
1.8
0.8
Indian ubbe ee
Ficus elas ic
Mo aceae
0.8
0.0
0.3
0.7
Lemon
Ci us limon
Ru aceae
0.0
1.8
0.0
0.7
Bi e lea
Ve nonia amygdalina
Composi ae
0.3
0.6
1.0
0.6
La ge-lea ed Albizia
Albizia g andib ac ea a
Mimosaceae
0.0
0.0
2.0
0.6
Upas ee
An ia is oxica ia
Mo aceae
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.6
Ca ibbean pine
Pinus ca ibaea
Pinaceae
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.6
Ho se adish ee
Mo inga olei e a
Mo ingaceae
0.0
0.6
0.8
0.5
Cas o bean.
Ricinus communis
Eupbo biaceae
0.3
0.0
1.0
0.4
Pheasan -be y
Ma ga i a ia discoideus
Eupbo biaceae
0.0
0.2
1.0
0.4
Whi e mulbe y
Mo us alba
Mo aceae
1.4
0.0
0.0
0.4
Ja a plum
Syzygium cuminii
My aceae
0.5
0.6
0.0
0.4
Sandpape ee,
Ficus exaspe a e
Mo aceae
0.5
0.0
0.5
0.3
Mucus Fig
Ficus mucuso
Mo aceae
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.3
Oil palm
Elaeis guineensis
Palmae
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.3
Silky oak
G e illea obus a
P o eaceae
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.3
Manda in o ange
Ci us e icula e
Ru aceae
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.3
A ican g ape.
Pseudospondias mic oca pa
Anaca diaceae
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.2
Cheese wood
Als onia boonei
Apocynaceae
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.2
Eucalyp us
Eucalyp us g andis
My aceae
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.2
Red-ho poke ee
E y h ina abyssinica
Papilionaceae
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.2
A ican che y
P unus A icana
Rosaceae
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.2
Sou sop
Annona mu ica a
Annonaceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Pa asol ee
Polyscias ul a
A aliaceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Te minalia
Te minalia glaucescens
Comb e aceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Bi e lea
Ve nonia au iculi e a
Composi ae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Bush nigh igh e
D acaena s eudne i
D acaenaceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Candlenu ee
Aleu i es moluccana
Eupbo biaceae
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.1
D agon's blood ee
Ha ungana madagasca iensis
Gu i e ae
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.1
Neem
Azadi ach a indica
Meliaceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
Punjab ee
Ficus o a e
Mo aceae
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
3.2.4. Weeding
Regula weeding is an impo an a m ac i i y o he main enance o cacao [156] and i imp o es he g ow h o c op
[157, 158]. The majo i y o cacao ga dens (79%) sampled in ou s udy had been mode a ely o highly weeded (Table
9), implying ha a me s gene ally weed hei cacao ga dens. This inding is in line wi h obse a ions in a s udy
conduc ed in he wes e n egion o Uganda ha showed ha 93.3% o he cacao ga dens sampled had been mode a ely
o highly weeded [19]. Simila ly, 95 and 91% o he a me s in Ghana and I o y Coas , espec i ely, epo ed ha hey
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