The Linguistic Image of Fish in Spanish, Arabic, and Japanese. A Comparative Study

© 2025 Lege artis. Language yesterday, today, tomorrow Research article 107 ISSN 2453-8035 LEGE ARTIS Language yesterday, today, tomorrow Vol. X. No 2 2025 THE LINGUISTIC IMAGE OF FISH IN SPANISH, ARABIC, AND JAPANESE. A COMPARATIVE STUDY1 Judyta Mężyk* University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Katarzyna Dziekan University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Silesian University of Technology, Poland Paweł Golda University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Joanna Ryszka University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Anissa Zrigue University of Kairouan, Tunisia *Corresponding author Received: 18.12.2024. Reviewed: 23.05.25 and 9.07.2025 Similarity Index: 2% Bibliographic description: Mężyk, J., Dziekan, K., Golda, P., Ryszka, J. & Zrigue, A. (2025). The linguistic image of fish in Spanish, Arabic, and Japanese: A comparative study. In Lege artis. Language yesterday, today, tomorrow. Trnava: University of SS Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, X (2), p. 107-130. ISSN 2453-8035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.34135/lartis.25.10.2.07 Abstract: This paper explores the linguistic and cultural significance of the term 'fish' across three languages: Spanish, Arabic, and Japanese. By analysing phraseological units (PhUs), including collocations and proverbs, the study integrates cultural linguistics and phraseology to show how fish-related PhUs reflect broader cultural values and beliefs, as well as the historical, religious, and social contexts. The research draws from a variety of dictionaries and linguistic sources to examine these representations, revealing how the symbolism of fish permeates worldviews in maritime cultures. Keywords: fish; linguistic image of the world; phraseological unit; collocation; comparative linguistics. 1 The authors would like to thank Professor Iwona Loewe for her encouragement, support, and guidance throughout this research, as well as the Institute of Linguistics at the University of Silesia in Katowice for funding this publication. 108 ISSN 2453-8035 1. Introduction Fish, as common vertebrate species, have been present and significant in human lives for as long as humanity has existed, leading to their symbolic importance in many areas. Historically, the concept of fish has occupied a central role in the world's dominant religions, many of which originated in regions with direct access to the sea. This geographic proximity may explain many societies' profound understanding of these aquatic creatures. In Christianity, the fish symbolises Christ, while in Judaism (and all Abrahamic religions), it is associated with the story of Jonah and the Whale. In ancient times, fish were also central to Babylonian (the fish god Oánes) and Egyptian (the legend of Osiris and Isis) mythology (Ogiso 2021: 161). In daily life, the fish is often seen as a symbol of fertility due to its association with the abundance of marine life (ibid). Among animals that serve as symbols, many of which are frequent subjects of linguistic research and are explored through various methodologies and perspectives (e.g., Borkowska et al. [eds.] 2018 [studies of the cat]; Kochman-Haładyj 2024 [study of the dog]; Rychło et al. 2024), fish stand out in particular. As Ogiso (ibid., 162) notes, "fish have a very familiar and especially physical relationship to humankind in the sense that they become our blood and meat," and they appear to be the only symbol "edible in its entirety," unlike other animal symbols such as the lion, cow, or snake. Furthermore, the distinctiveness of fish as a symbol is amplified by the fact that some people do not consider it to be meat, as in Catholicism, where fish is exempt from the no-meat Friday fast. Given that cultural linguistics greatly benefits from semantics, this study examines the denotations and connotations of the words for 'fish' as documented in multiple dictionaries across three languages: Spanish (the European variety), Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic and the Tunisian dialect), and Japanese. These languages were chosen because they belong to different language families, making them significantly distinct from one another. At the same time, they are spoken in countries with direct access to the sea, prompting the hypothesis that in all three languages, the term 'fish' will be found not only in reference to sea creatures but also in various phraseological units (PhUs), reflecting the cultural beliefs of the societies under study. 2. Theoretical framework 2.1 Linguistic units Analysing the linguistic representation of fish across various languages requires us to consider all types of linguistic units within these language systems. This involves not only examining the simple words for 'fish' but also exploring PhUs that incorporate this lexical unit, given that the specific 109 ISSN 2453-8035 linguistic worldview of each nation is shaped in part by its phraseology (Szerszunowicz et al. 2017: 30)1. The analysis encompasses various types of PhUs, especially collocations and proverbs. These units convey specific ways of thinking, valuing, and formulating judgments, which in turn shape our identity and cultural uniqueness (ibid., 24). According to Amvela and Jackson (2007: 50), a word is "an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes, and which typically occurs in the structure of phrases." Words carry meanings that are studied by semantics, which builds upon two pivotal concepts introduced by Hjelmslev in the mid-20th century: denotation, which refers to a word's basic, literal meaning, and connotation, which encompasses the additional meanings and values a word acquires in specific contexts (Perusset 2020). Connotation, representing a secondary meaning, is less conventional than denotation and never supplants it. Instead, connotation adds an extra layer of meaning to a linguistic sign without diminishing its denotative, inherent significance (Eco & Pezzini 1982). Trask (1995) states that words do not exist in isolation with fixed meanings, but rather, that they are intricately connected to the meanings of other words. Trask's statement enables us to move forward and define a PhU, which is a broad term that includes different types of structures. The PhU, holding a central place in the terminological framework of phraseological research, is a lexically established, multi-word linguistic unit that exhibits semantic and syntactic stability and is largely characterised by idiomaticity and opacity. Due to its optional connotative features, it can serve various pragmatic functions in discourse (Fiedler 2007). PhUs of all languages are considered one of the fundamental bases of information for constructing the linguistic image of the world. Multi-word units serve as significant means for expressing evaluations, enabling language users to convey subjective evaluative attitudes toward objects and phenomena. These units effectively encode an understanding of reality through images (Lagodenko 2013). Some of them are typical of certain languages, highlighting elements unique to those languages, while others are shared by several languages and are referred to as phraseological internationalisms (Golda et al. 2023). The phraseological meaning of fixed units is deeply connected to cultural and cognitive perspectives, highlighting the evolution of linguistic frameworks in different societies (Zykova 2016). Two types of PhUs need to be defined here: collocations and proverbs. The first type represents combinations of two or more linguistic units that must stay together. They are the least prototypical type of PhU, composed of only two words, but they reflect cultural differences between countries and nations (Golda 2024a; 2024b; Golda & Roemer 2023; Golda & Zrigue 2023). As a binary structure, 110 ISSN 2453-8035 a collocation consists of a main word, the base, and its co-occurrent, the collocate. This implies that one lexical element of a collocation is chosen freely, while the other is not. The boundary between collocations and more fixed PhUs is as blurry as the one between collocations and freely lexical associations. Collocational combinations are naturally chosen and preferred over free structures that carry similar meaning and are stored in the mental lexicon (Pęzik 2018: 27). When discussing proverbs, Ouerhani and Lajmi (2023) suggest that they be considered autonomous PhUs, arising from the collective wisdom of a linguistic community. Proverbs are minimal texts characterised by complete fixedness. They often possess an artistic form expressed through rhymes and syntactic and lexical archaism (Szerszunowicz 2011; Zrigue 2018a; 2018b). Collocations and proverbs are worth examining due to their status as primary conveyors of worldview and because they illustrate cultural differences between nations (Golda et al. 2022; Golda & Zrigue 2023: 140; Szerszunowicz et al. 2017; Uberman 2023). The topic of cultural linguistics is elaborated on in the next subsection. 2.2 Cultural linguistics In the 1970s and 1980s, linguists recognised that studying language in isolation was inadequate; it needed to be examined within the broader contexts of culture, society, and reality, considering their interdependencies. This realisation gave rise to cultural linguistics, also known as anthropological linguistics or ethnolinguistics. This field explores the intricate relationships between language and culture, viewing language not merely as a tool for expression and communication but as a vessel of a community's cultural heritage, which reflects social practices and the accumulated experiences of generations. Language stands as a pivotal cultural creation and a foundational element of culture. It is considered to be the richest and most universal repository of cultural knowledge, serving as a means to perpetuate, preserve, and transmit cultural content (Cholewa 2008: 72). A fundamental analytical category within cultural linguistics is the linguistic image of the world, which refers to the perception of reality articulated through language. This concept is integrated into language as a set of judgments about the world (Bartmiński 2006: 12). These manifest in linguistic structures such as grammar (e.g., through various moods), vocabulary, and stereotyped expressions such as proverbs. The judgments can also be implicit, embedded in linguistic forms and rooted in social knowledge, beliefs, myths, and rituals. 111 ISSN 2453-8035 When discussing the cultural image of the world, the concept of frame may also come to mind. A frame refers to a schematisation of experience, representing a knowledge structure at the conceptual level which is held in long-term memory. Frames relate elements and entities associated with particular culturally embedded scenes, situations, or events from human experience. They encompass various types of knowledge, including attributes and the relations between them, thereby providing a structured method to understand how language encodes cultural meanings (Evans 2007: 85-86). The concepts of frame, cognitive domains and cognitive idealised models are applied as synonymous by some scholars. However, they are not exactly equivalent (Dziekan 2024: 126-127). Langacker (2013: 46-47) clarifies that: "Domain has the greatest generality since neither frame nor ICM applies very well to basic domains (e.g. time or colour space). A frame may be roughly comparable to a nonbasic domain. If the words idealized and model are taken seriously, idealized cognitive model has the narrowest range of application". Another analytical category is profiling, a subjective linguistic and conceptual process that shapes how an object is perceived by describing it through specific aspects, within a particular field of knowledge and from a chosen point of view. Through profiling, a profile, i.e., a variant of how the object is perceived, is constructed (Bartmiński & Niebrzegowska 1998). Profiling, as defined by Evans (2007: 172), involves the conceptual 'highlighting' of some aspect of a domain. It is the process by which an aspect of a larger conceptual structure, or base, is selected and brought into focus. The last term crucial for the methodology of cultural linguistics is the point of view, defined as a subjective and cultural factor that influences how an object is discussed. This includes its categorisation, the choice of the onomasiological base when naming it, the selection of the object's features emphasised in statements, and those embedded in its meaning (Bartmiński 2004: 103-105). The point of view serves as a lens through which language shapes and reflects cultural perceptions. 3. Method The analysis focuses on cultural implications revealed through collocations involving the word for 'fish.' It must be noted that this analysis centres on the Spanish, Japanese, and Arabic equivalents of the word for 'fish' and their PhUs, rather than specific species names. However, an exception applies: if the lexical entries for 'fish' in these languages include PhUs containing names of specific fish species, they are integrated into the research. When it comes to Arabic, the data consists of proverbs and PhUs in both Modern Standard Arabic and Tunisian dialects. In Spanish, most of the dictionaries used in the analysis were published in Spain; therefore, the results concentrate on the peninsular 112 ISSN 2453-8035 variant of Spanish. We acknowledge the fact that there might be different results if variants of Spanish used in Latin America were analysed, and we encourage such a future study. The data for this study were sourced from a variety of dictionaries, including monolingual, bilingual, collocation, and phraseological dictionaries, both in print and online. The resourcefulness of the dictionaries is recognised by various scholars who utilise them as the source material (e.g., Mężyk 2021; Ryszka et al. 2024). Moreover, dictionaries are one of the sources used in linguistic worldview analyses (cf. Bartmiński 2006) employed by various scholars (e.g., Golda et al. 2022; Jedziniak & Ryszka 2024). In Spanish, the analysis draws from four general monolingual dictionaries, two phraseological dictionaries, and one dictionary of Spanish proverbs. For Japanese, two collocation dictionaries and two monolingual dictionaries were consulted. The occurrences in Arabic are primarily sourced from two monolingual dictionaries specialised in paremiology and phraseology. The collected data, along with the full list of sources used to collect them, are available online: https://zenodo.org/records/17700396. 4. Lexical-semantic analysis of the collected data 4.1 Spanish Spanish has two equivalents of 'fish': pez and pescado. The former refers to an aquatic vertebrate, and the latter to an edible kind of fish or fish meat (Sánchez 2001). Two other monolingual dictionaries used in the analysis (RAE and Moliner 1994) confirm this distinction, providing a different number of attributes in their descriptions of pez. Seventeen nominal phrases referring to names of fish species that contain the word pez 'fish' have been identified. Moliner (1994) lists many fish species under the pez entry; however, these were not included in the analysis in the present paper as they are not indicated as forming any PhU. The names of fish that include the word pez are based mostly on the physical features of different fish that cause them to resemble different animals (e.g., pez zorro lit. 'fox fish', pez mujer lit. 'woman fish') or objects (pez ballesta lit. 'crossbow fish', pez martillo lit. 'hammer fish', pez luna lit. 'moon fish', pez sierra lit. 'saw fish', pez espada lit. 'sword fish', pez globo lit. 'balloon fish'), or refer to their abilities or properties (e.g., pez volador lit. 'flying fish', pez de pega lit. 'fish that sticks'). In some cases, the names simply describe the physical properties of certain types of fish (e.g., pez de colores lit. 'colourful fish', pescado blanco lit. 'white fish', pescado azul lit. 'blue fish'). We have also identified two names of fish that derive from the Christian tradition (pez de San Pedro lit. 'St Peter's fish', pez 113 ISSN 2453-8035 del diablo lit. 'devil's fish'). The etymology of pez emperador is uncertain. Pez emperador and its English equivalent emperor fish appear to have the same root as they are literal equivalents. The DECEL etymological dictionary points to the culinary appreciation of the fish, as well as to the fact that 'owning something as military and powerful as a sword might have contributed to the name of emperor fish'. The last fish name is pez reverso (lit. 'reverse fish'): this fish is able to attach itself to other marine species, such as whales or sharks. It has a dorsal fin that works like a suction cup and enables it to stick to other, bigger fish and ride along with them. While it is attached in this way, the underside of the fish is visible, and such an image might be the origin of its name. Six other nominal phrases with pez or pescado have been identified. Three of them are based on the physical properties of fish and resemblance in other domains, e.g., espina de pescado and espina de pez (lit. 'fishbone') are based on the resemblance of the shape of a fishbone to a decorative pattern, ojo de pescado (lit. 'fish's eye') uses the resemblance of a fish´s eye and a wart (which is the meaning of this unit). The expressions comida de pescado (lit. 'fish food') and día de pescado (lit. 'fish day') are rooted in the Christian tradition. They function as metonymy, as fish is associated with fasting, and both these terms have come to denote 'fast' itself. The last of the retrieved nominal phrases, cola de pescado (lit. 'fish glue'), uses pescado to indicate the origin of the substance that the phrase names. The analysis has also singled out 18 PhUs and 12 proverbs with pez or pescado. The majority of the identified PhUs are based on the correlation between the fish's physical condition and its metaphorical extension3 to other domains, as presented in Table 1. Table 1. Spanish PhUs with 'fish' and their meaning. Source: Own processing PhU English literal translation Metaphorical meaning Explanation2 como (el) pez en el agua like a fish in the water to feel comfortable, at ease in a place correlates the physical condition of fish to other life situations (fish in the water = comfort) pez gordo fat fish an important or influential person correlates the physical condition of fish to other life situations (a big, fat fish eating a smaller one is similar to an important person having power over a less important one. Bigger = more powerful) picar el pez to bite (fish) to be fooled correlates the physical condition of fish to other life situations (taking the bait = being deceived) 114 ISSN 2453-8035 un pez que nada contra corriente fish that swims against the current sb that behaves in a way that is different to how the majority of people behave correlates the physical condition of fish to other life situations (to act unlike others is like swimming against the current) ahumársele a alguien el pescado to get smoked (one's fish) to get upset, angry correlates the experience of cooking a fish to other life situations. Fish getting smoked = rage caused by something como (el) pez fuera del agua like a fish out of the water to feel uncomfortable in a place correlates the physical condition of fish to other life situations (fish out of water = discomfort) reírse de los peces de colores to laugh at the colourful fish not to treat sth seriously or consider it important, to laugh at sth that does not have importance uncertain origin, probably based on the idea of colourful aquarium fishes being small and therefore 'unimportant' and the same qualities attributed to other situations or things. The experience of observing a fish tank and laughing at it = considering something unimportant and unthreatening ver menos que un pez frito to see less than a fried fish to see very little humorous meaning, based on the image of a fried fish that is no longer able to see anything and the correlation of this condition and others in which somebody is unable to see luego/aún dicen que el pescado es caro later / still they say that fish is expensive sth has taken a lot of work and effort despite the fact that it might not appear to be this way and that the effort might not get due credit correlates the effort and hard work of fishermen not being appreciated and efforts in other fields vender todo el pescado to sell out all the fish to be finished or solved correlates fish trading with other kinds of business Four other PhUs are based on the idea that fish have little mental capacity: estar alguien pez en alguna materia (to lack experience or knowledge, lit. 'be a fish in a certain matter'), memoria de pez (bad memory, lit. 'fish's memory'), ser un besugo (to be stupid, lit. 'to be a bream'), diálogo de besugos (lit. 'breams' dialogue'). One of the PhUs (Ni carne ni pescado, lit. 'neither meat nor fish') is based on the opposition between meat and fish as basic alimentary products and alludes to the Christian tradition of fasting. Two other identified PhUs have uncertain etymology and are considered both humorous and vulgar: Anda y que te folle un pez (bug off) and its alternative que le folle un pez are used to manifest 115 ISSN 2453-8035 contempt. Their literal meaning is absurd ('go and get fucked by a fish') or, as Buitrago Jiménez (2007) puts it, 'surreal', and that is probably the justification for this idiom. Lastly, the PhU canguingos y patas de peces also has an uncertain etymology and humorous overtone; however, its meaning can also be ascribed to the absurdity of the literal meaning. Canguingos seems to be a madeup word; nobody knows what it means (Buitrago Jiménez 2007), while patas de peces means 'fish paws'. Since fish do not have paws, the whole PhU refers to non-existent food, which might have been the motivation for this PhU as it is used when we want to keep a menu a secret and somebody asks about the meal. As for the identified proverbs, some of them use the correlation between the physical properties of fish and their metaphorical extension to other domains, e.g., fish stinks after three days, and so do unwanted guests (El huésped y el pece a los tres días hiede), fish is best when fresh and so is love (El enamorado y el pez, frescos han de ser). The proverb Por la boca muere el pez (lit. 'a fish dies through its mouth') is based on the image of a dying fish that moves its mouth and the image of talking people. It means that a person who speaks too much or says inappropriate things ends up suffering the consequences. Other proverbs are based on the experience of fishing and a metaphorical extension to other domains, e.g., El pez que busca el anzuelo, busca su duelo compares a fish being caught on bait and a person being deceived. Salga pez o salga rana a la capacha (lit. 'be it fish or be it frog, into the basket') compares collecting fish and other aquatic creatures to sourcing other things; the proverb reprimands the avarice and thirst of people who collect everything they find, even if it is not worth much. Finally, Pescador que pesca un pez, pescador es (lit. 'a fisherman that catches a fish is a fisherman') is based on the idea of effort and hard work of fishermen and extends it to other areas. The proverb consoles a person whose effort achieves a part of what was sought. Fish in the retrieved proverbs is also depicted as a reward for hard work (El pece para quien lo merece, lit. 'a fish for him who deserves it'), a potential danger (Mala boca, peces coma, lit. 'a bad mouth should eat fish'), or a kind of food inferior to meat (Carne, carne cría; y peces agua fría, lit. 'meat rears meat and cold water rears fish'). The last group of proverbs reflects culinary traditions. In Castellano viejo, ajo con pescado abadejo (lit. 'an old Castillian eats garlic with pollock'), pollock fish is perceived as a very basic, unsophisticated food for the Castillian people. De los pescados, el mero; de las carnes, el carnero (lit. 'among fish, the grouper, among meats, mutton') sees the grouper fish as the best kind of fish, which might be conditioned by the rhyme of the proverb. Finally, El arroz, el pez y el pepino nacen en agua y mueren en vino (lit. 'rice, fish and cucumber are born in water and die in wine') presents wine as the best beverage to go with food to facilitate digestion. 122 ISSN 2453-8035 understanding of environmental realities, where symbols of power in one region can become metaphors of weakness in another. 4.3 Japanese Because neither of the consulted Japanese collocation dictionaries, i.e., Nihongo korokēshon jiten (Kindaichi 2007) and Kenkyūsha Nihongo korokēshon jiten (Himeno & Kashiwazaki 2012), provided us with any results while searching for 魚 sakana 'fish', we decided to focus on the definitions and proverbs provided by two regular Japanese monolingual dictionaries, Kōjien (Shinmura 2008; KO) and Sūpā Daijirin (Matsumura 2006; SUDA). Both SUDA and KO as the first definition of the word 魚 sakana 'fish' provide 酒を飲む時に添え て食べる物 sake o nomu tokini soete taberu mono 'food served while drinking alcohol.' The strong association with alcohol preserved in these definitions, stems from sakana's etymology. In the past, fish was frequently served during celebrations accompanied by alcohol (Ogiso 2021), Jap. 酒 sake 'alcohol.' At that time, the character 魚 was also read as na (GaDa), i.e. the same as the character 菜 na/sai, which denotes both vegetables and side dishes; thus, fish served with alcohol was called 酒の な sake no na (lit. 'alcohol side dish'), which ultimately turned into the modern reading of the character 魚, i.e. sakana (KB). Unfortunately, neither SUDA nor KO provides any fish species as a prototypical example. The dictionary user is merely provided with the synonymous reading of the 魚 character, うお uo. Nowadays, this reading is perceived as archaic and is mostly found in Japanese proverbs. Usually, these proverbs convey valuable lessons referring to the close relationship between fish and water e.g., 魚と水 sakana to mizu (lit. 'fish and water') and 水魚の交わり suigyo no majiwari (lit. 'a relation of water and fish', i.e. 'close friendship'), focusing on the fish's dependence on water, e.g., 魚の水に離 れたよう sakana no mizu ni hanareta yō (lit. 'like a fish out of water') which expresses helplessness. This close association of fish with water is also present in the compound 水魚 suigyo, which simply denotes 'water and fish', and is also frequently used in phrases that express relationships, affection, or emotional bonds, e.g., 水魚の思い (lit. 'the thought of water and fish'). In our corpus, the compound 水魚 appears four times. We can also find several proverbs that are deeply rooted in Japanese (or Chinese) culture and 123 ISSN 2453-8035 literature, and cannot be easily understood based solely on knowledge of the physical world (see Table 3). More precisely, the proverbs and expressions listed below rely on Confucian, Daoist, or Japanese poetic and philosophical traditions, requiring more than basic biological knowledge to interpret. Table 3. Japanese proverbs and expressions with 'fish' rooted in culture. Source: Own processing PhU English literal translation Metaphorical meaning Explanation 手池の魚 a fish in a pond a woman who has been redeemed (bought out) and taken as one's wife or concubine metaphor for possession; originates from the idea of a fish raised and kept in one's own pond by one's own hand 魚氷に上る fish rise to the surface of the ice the arrival of spring this poetic phrase describes the time of year when the ice begins to thaw, and fish beneath it become visible or start to move upward again, signalling the very first signs of spring’s arrival 木に縁りて魚 を求む to fish by climbing a tree if your method is wrong, you will never reach your goal from Mencius (Chinese classic); it compares the absurdity of trying to catch fish by climbing a tree to the futility of using an illsuited approach to accomplish something. 魚は江湖に相 忘る fish mutually forget [everything] in the rivers and lakes carefree existence in harmony with nature from Zhuangzi (Chinese classic); it expresses the ideal of carefree existence in harmony with nature, free from worldly troubles. 魚を得て筌を 忘る having caught the fish, one forgets the trap forgetting about the means of people who helped you reach the goal from Zhuangzi (Chinese classic); it serves as a metaphor for ungratefulness or neglecting the contributions of others after accomplishing something 呑舟の魚 a fish that swallows boats great person from Zhuangzi (Chinese classic); a fish so large that it can swallow an entire boat whole. By extension, it refers to a great person, a big figure, or an important individual. 魚は鯛 fish is sea bream the best or most excellent thing within a certain category or group relies on Japanese culinary/cultural context (e.g., sea bream as celebratory fish); derived from the idea that the sea bream is the finest among fish species. 124 ISSN 2453-8035 However, further analysis of the proverbs reveals some traits associated with certain fish species. For instance, the above 魚は鯛 uo wa tai (lit. 'fish is sea bream'), denoting being the best of one's kind, points to the superiority of the sea bream over other species. According to KO, sea bream, especially the red sea bream, is associated with good fortune, and as the proverb 腐っても鯛 kusatte mo tai (lit. 'it is still sea bream even if it is rotten') suggests, it also connotes something valuable. This fish is also put in opposition to sardines as in 鯛の尾より鰯の頭 tai no o yori iwashi no atama (lit. 'a sardine head is better than a sea bream's tail'), where 鯛 tai 'sea bream', denotes something better and bigger. In contrast, 鰯 iwashi 'sardine' denotes something inferior and smaller. The association of sardines with something irrelevant is also visible in other proverbs: 鰯で精進落ち iwashi de shōjin'ochi (lit. 'celebrate shōjin'ochi with a sardine') and 鰯の頭も信心から iwashi no atama mo shinjin kara (lit. 'the head of a sardine is also a symbol of faith'). However, according to SUDA, despite being a small fish, the sardine is still significantly important for fisheries. To sum up, we retrieved: twenty-four phrases using the word '魚' (including one mentioning sea bream); four phrases with 水魚 suigyo 'water and fish;' two proverbs solely about sea bream, one about both sea bream and sardines; and three just about sardines. That gives us thirty-four proverbs in total. Notably, there are many other Japanese proverbs that are about other species of fish, e.g., the eel as in 鰻の寝床 unagi no nedoko (lit. 'eel's bed') and the carp as in 鯉の滝登り koi no taki nobori (lit. 'carp waterfall climbing'). However, other species were not mentioned in searches for 魚 sakana, and later for 鰯 iwashi and 鯛 tai. Moreover, it should also be noted that many Japanese proverbs were borrowed from the Chinese, e.g., 魚の釜中に遊ぶが如し uo no kamachū ni asobu ga gotoshi (lit. 'as a fish playing in a pot'), who, like the Japanese, are attentive to the environment and base many sayings on natural phenomena. 5. Discussion and conclusions The above analysis of 53 Spanish, 22 Arabic, and 34 Japanese PhUs gives insight into the significance of fish among Spanish-, Arabic-, and Japanese-speaking cultures. From the analysis, a few conclusions can be made. As for Spanish, fish is deeply rooted in Spanish culture, and its manifestation is found in Spanish phraseology. Fish and its physical conditions and properties, as well as fishing, are used as source domains that correlate with many other domains to explain different situations metaphorically, e.g., feelings of comfort or discomfort, human relations, business relations, and emotional states. Fish is 125 ISSN 2453-8035 also an important part of Spanish cuisine, which is reflected in Spanish phraseology. Fish is depicted as a reward for hard work, a potential danger, or a basic kind of food. Several PhUs refer to Christian traditions. Fish is used in colloquial language, sometimes in insulting expressions or with a humorous undertone. It may additionally symbolise lack of mental capacity, that is, stupidity. All things considered, fish appears to be an important aspect of reality reflected in the Spanish language, used to symbolise many different qualities and explain various experiences. In Arabic, the role of the fish in PhUs also reveals a cultural symbolism that goes beyond mere representation. The fish, ﻚﻤﺴﻟا / تﻮﺤﻟا al-ḥūt / a-samak is much more than just an aquatic animal: it is deeply embedded in both the symbolic and practical aspects of life across Arab cultures. Its significance spans generations and transcends its biological existence. It is a symbol that carries multiple meanings that touch upon spiritual, social, and material life, intertwining with beliefs about fertility, prosperity, and protection from misfortune. The prominent presence of the fish in proverbs and PhUs underscores its ongoing importance in the collective consciousness, illustrating how cultural symbols can influence language and daily practices. In contrast, while fish plays a vital role in Japanese culture as an element of various ceremonies, e.g., Naorai and Okuizome, and as an animal present in various important historical books, e.g., Kôjiki and Nihon Shoki, and legends, e.g., Muô-no-Rigyo (Ogiso 2021), the extracted material shows a very general picture of a fish, without any associated specific traits or characteristics. This picture is understandable if we consider the geographical position of Japan, which is surrounded by water. Most likely, due to the natural abundance of fish in their environment, the Japanese tend to associate specific traits with specific types of fish rather than with fish in general. Based on the analysis, among the specific fish that carry symbolic meaning, we may note the sea bream (鯛 tai) and the sardine (鰯 iwashi). The sea bream, commonly served during various Japanese celebrations, is associated with wealth and longevity (Ogiso 2021: 167). The sardine, a widely consumed fish, symbolises weakness, humility, and something "fishy"; however, it is also praised for its taste and can connote nobility (Ogiso 2021: 168). However, it should be noted, that many associated Japan with the carp, which is regarded there as noble and associated with femininity and motherhood (Ogiso 2021: 170). The significance of the sea bream and sardine is evident in the analysis, while the carp, despite appearing in many proverbs, presumably due to its noble status, does not appear in any of the analysed linguistic units or definitions of the word fish, and was therefore excluded from the analysis. 126 ISSN 2453-8035 In conclusion, the analysis identified substantial correlations between the words for 'fish' and the investigated cultures, thereby validating the hypothesis presented in the introduction. The findings demonstrate that in societies with direct access to the sea, fish occupies a central position in both language and belief systems. It would be worthwhile exploring whether the opposite is true for societies lacking access to the sea. Consequently, a dedicated study examining this aspect is encouraged. Notes and abbreviations 1. It has to be noted that linguistics has not yet adopted an operational theory of phraseology, and no rigorous definition of what constitutes a PhU has been universally accepted by the linguistic community (Mel'čuk 2013: 129). According to Pęzik (2018: 24), the variety of definitions of PhUs arises from multiple factors inherent to the phenomenon of idiomaticity, and, furthermore, these "tend to be complementary at best and largely incompatible at worst." 2. The basis for the metaphor, that is to say, what the correlation is between the two domains involved. 3. The data includes proverbs and PhUs in both Modern Standard Arabic and Tunisian dialect. Several Tunisian artists have addressed this issue in their work, as is the case with the paintings of Leila Allagui (a Tunisian painter), many of which have been portrayed on stamps. DECEL – Anders, V. et.al. (n.d.) Diccionario Etimológico Castellano en Línea. Available at https://etimologias.dechile.net/?emperador/ GaDa – monolingual Japanese dictionary: Tōdō, A. (ed.). (2001). 学研漢和大字典 (Gakken hanwa daijiten). Tokyo. KB – monolingual Japanese dictionary: 改訂新版 世界大百科事典 「魚」の意味・わかりや すい解説 (kaitei shinpan sekaidaihyakkajiten 'sakana' no imi wakari yasui kaisetsu). Available at https://kotobank.jp/word/%E9%AD%9A-430759#w-1168566 KO – monolingual Japanese dictionary: Shinmura, I. (ed.). (2008). 広辞苑 (Kōjien). Tokyo. PhU(s) – phraseological unit(s) RAE – monolingual Spanish dictionary: REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (s.a). Diccionario de la lengua española, 23.ª ed., [version 23.7 online]. Available at: https://dle.rae.es SUDA – monolingual Japanese dictionary: Matsumura, A. (ed.). 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In Estudos linguísticos e literários, 60, p. 216-228. 43. Zrigue, A. (2018b). Le fonctionnement des locutions proverbiales dans le discours. In Phraséologie et discours. Soutet, O., Sfar, I. & Mejri, S. (eds.). Paris: Honoré Champion. p. 357-368. 129 ISSN 2453-8035 44. Zykova, I. (2016). The phraseological meaning construal in the traditional vs. cognitive culture-oriented perspectives. In Lege artis. Language yesterday, today, and tomorrow, Trnava: University of SS Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, I (2), p. 253-286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/lart-2016-0015 Contact data: Author # 1 name: academic title: department: institution: e-mail: fields of interest: Judyta Mężyk PhD in linguistics Institute of Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities University of Silesia in Katowice ul. Grota-Roweckiego 5, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected] Phraseology, translation, interpreting, corpus linguistics. Author # 2 name: academic title: department: institution: department: institution: e-mail: fields of interest: Katarzyna Dziekan M.A. / PhD student (linguistics) Institute of Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities University of Silesia in Katowice ul. Grota-Roweckiego 5, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland Department of Applied Linguistics and Law Faculty of Organization and Management Silesian University of Technology ul. Roosevelta 26-28, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland [email protected] [email protected] Non-standard language, translation. Author # 3 name: academic title: department: institution: e-mail: fields of interest: Paweł Golda PhD in linguistics Institute of Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities University of Silesia in Katowice ul. Grota-Roweckiego 5, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected]du.pl Phraseology, translation. Author # 4 name: academic title: department: institution: e-mail: fields of interest: Joanna Ryszka PhD in linguistics Institute of Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities University of Silesia in Katowice, ul. Grota-Roweckiego 5, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected] Borrowings, language contact. 130 ISSN 2453-8035 Author # 5 name: academic title: department: institution: e-mail: fields of interest: Anissa Zrigue PhD in linguistics Department of French, Faculty of Arts and Humanities of Kairouan, Tunisia University of Kairouan, Route périphérique Dar El Amen 3100, Tunisia [email protected] Phraseology, phraseodidactics, translation.